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Zhang N, Wei F, Ning S, Hu J, Shi H, Yao Z, Tang M, Zhang Y, Gong J, Ge J, Cui Z. PPARγ Agonist Rosiglitazone and Antagonist GW9662: Antihypertensive Effects on Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia-Induced Hypertension in Rats. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2024; 17:803-815. [PMID: 38411834 DOI: 10.1007/s12265-024-10499-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
The increased incidence of hypertension associated with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) presents significant physical, psychological, and economic challenges. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) plays a role in both OSA and hypertension, yet the therapeutic potential of PPARγ agonists and antagonists for OSA-related hypertension remains unexplored. Therefore, we constructed a chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH)-induced hypertension rat model that mimics the pathogenesis of OSA-related hypertension in humans. The model involved administering PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone (RSG), PPARγ antagonist GW9662, or normal saline, followed by regular monitoring of blood pressure and thoracic aorta analysis using staining and electron microscopy. Intriguingly, our results indicated that both RSG and GW9662 appeared to potently counteract CIH-induced hypertension. In silico study suggested that GW9662's antihypertensive effect might mediated through angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AGTR1). Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms of OSA-related hypertension and propose novel therapeutic targets.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- PPAR gamma/agonists
- PPAR gamma/metabolism
- Hypertension/physiopathology
- Hypertension/drug therapy
- Hypertension/metabolism
- Rosiglitazone/pharmacology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Antihypertensive Agents/pharmacology
- Antihypertensive Agents/therapeutic use
- Male
- Hypoxia/complications
- Hypoxia/drug therapy
- Anilides/pharmacology
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Blood Pressure/drug effects
- Aorta, Thoracic/drug effects
- Aorta, Thoracic/metabolism
- Aorta, Thoracic/physiopathology
- Aorta, Thoracic/pathology
- Receptor, Angiotensin, Type 1/metabolism
- Receptor, Angiotensin, Type 1/drug effects
- Chronic Disease
- Signal Transduction
- Sleep Apnea, Obstructive/drug therapy
- Sleep Apnea, Obstructive/physiopathology
- Sleep Apnea, Obstructive/complications
- Sleep Apnea, Obstructive/metabolism
- Molecular Docking Simulation
- Vascular Remodeling/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Ningzhi Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Wei
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Sisi Ning
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Changning Tianshan Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Jialu Hu
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongtao Shi
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhifeng Yao
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Minna Tang
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongqiao Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaxin Gong
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Junbo Ge
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhaoqiang Cui
- Department of Cardiology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Shanghai, China.
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2
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Wątroba M, Szewczyk G, Szukiewicz D. The Role of Sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) in the Physiology and Pathophysiology of the Human Placenta. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16210. [PMID: 38003402 PMCID: PMC10671790 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins, especially SIRT1, play a significant role in regulating inflammatory response, autophagy, and cell response to oxidative stress. Since their discovery, sirtuins have been regarded as anti-ageing and longevity-promoting enzymes. Sirtuin-regulated processes seem to participate in the most prevalent placental pathologies, such as pre-eclampsia. Furthermore, more and more research studies indicate that SIRT1 may prevent pre-eclampsia development or at least alleviate its manifestations. Having considered this, we reviewed recent studies on the role of sirtuins, especially SIRT1, in processes determining normal or abnormal development and functioning of the placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dariusz Szukiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology & Pathophysiology, Medical University of Warsaw, Chałubinskiego 5, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland; (M.W.); (G.S.)
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3
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Qin Y, Bily D, Aguirre M, Zhang K, Xie L. Understanding PPARγ and Its Agonists on Trophoblast Differentiation and Invasion: Potential Therapeutic Targets for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Preeclampsia. Nutrients 2023; 15:2459. [PMID: 37299422 PMCID: PMC10255128 DOI: 10.3390/nu15112459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing incidence of pregnancy complications, particularly gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and preeclampsia (PE), is a cause for concern, as they can result in serious health consequences for both mothers and infants. The pathogenesis of these complications is still not fully understood, although it is known that the pathologic placenta plays a crucial role. Studies have shown that PPARγ, a transcription factor involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, may have a critical role in the etiology of these complications. While PPARγ agonists are FDA-approved drugs for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, their safety during pregnancy is not yet established. Nevertheless, there is growing evidence for the therapeutic potential of PPARγ in the treatment of PE using mouse models and in cell cultures. This review aims to summarize the current understanding of the mechanism of PPARγ in placental pathophysiology and to explore the possibility of using PPARγ ligands as a treatment option for pregnancy complications. Overall, this topic is of great significance for improving maternal and fetal health outcomes and warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushu Qin
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (Y.Q.); (D.B.); (M.A.); (K.Z.)
| | - Donalyn Bily
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (Y.Q.); (D.B.); (M.A.); (K.Z.)
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Makayla Aguirre
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (Y.Q.); (D.B.); (M.A.); (K.Z.)
| | - Ke Zhang
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (Y.Q.); (D.B.); (M.A.); (K.Z.)
- Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Linglin Xie
- Department of Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (Y.Q.); (D.B.); (M.A.); (K.Z.)
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4
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Psilopatis I, Vrettou K, Fleckenstein FN, Theocharis S. The Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors in Preeclampsia. Cells 2023; 12:cells12040647. [PMID: 36831316 PMCID: PMC9954398 DOI: 10.3390/cells12040647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Preeclampsia is a common pregnancy-related hypertensive disorder. Often presenting as preexisting or new-onset hypertension complicated by proteinuria and/or end-organ dysfunction, preeclampsia significantly correlates with maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptor proteins that regulate gene expression. In order to investigate the role of PPARs in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia, we conducted a literature review using the MEDLINE and LIVIVO databases. The search terms "peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor", "PPAR", and "preeclampsia" were employed and we were able to identify 35 relevant studies published between 2002 and 2022. Different study groups reached contradictory conclusions in terms of PPAR expression in preeclamptic placentae. Interestingly, PPARγ agonists alone, or in combination with well-established pharmaceutical agents, were determined to represent novel, potent anti-preeclamptic treatment alternatives. In conclusion, PPARs seem to play a significant role in preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iason Psilopatis
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt—Universität zu Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, Bld 10, Goudi, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Kleio Vrettou
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, Bld 10, Goudi, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Florian Nima Fleckenstein
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt—Universität zu Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
- BIH Charité Clinician Scientist Program, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, BIH Biomedical Innovation Academy, 10117 Berlin, Germany
- Correspondence: (F.N.F.); (S.T.)
| | - Stamatios Theocharis
- First Department of Pathology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 Mikras Asias Street, Bld 10, Goudi, 11527 Athens, Greece
- Correspondence: (F.N.F.); (S.T.)
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5
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Zhou H, Zhao C, Wang P, Yang W, Zhu H, Zhang S. Regulators involved in trophoblast syncytialization in the placenta of intrauterine growth restriction. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1107182. [PMID: 36798658 PMCID: PMC9927020 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1107182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Placental dysfunction refers to the insufficiency of placental perfusion and chronic hypoxia during early pregnancy, which impairs placental function and causes inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, affecting fetal development and health. Fetal intrauterine growth restriction, one of the most common outcomes of pregnancy-induced hypertensions, can be caused by placental dysfunction, resulting from deficient trophoblast syncytialization, inadequate trophoblast invasion and impaired vascular remodeling. During placental development, cytotrophoblasts fuse to form a multinucleated syncytia barrier, which supplies oxygen and nutrients to meet the metabolic demands for fetal growth. A reduction in the cell fusion index and the number of nuclei in the syncytiotrophoblast are found in the placentas of pregnancies complicated by IUGR, suggesting that the occurrence of IUGR may be related to inadequate trophoblast syncytialization. During the multiple processes of trophoblasts syncytialization, specific proteins and several signaling pathways are involved in coordinating these events and regulating placental function. In addition, epigenetic modifications, cell metabolism, senescence, and autophagy are also involved. Study findings have indicated several abnormally expressed syncytialization-related proteins and signaling pathways in the placentas of pregnancies complicated by IUGR, suggesting that these elements may play a crucial role in the occurrence of IUGR. In this review, we discuss the regulators of trophoblast syncytialization and their abnormal expression in the placentas of pregnancies complicated by IUGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanjing Zhou
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chenqiong Zhao
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peixin Wang
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weijie Yang
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Haiyan Zhu
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Songying Zhang, ; Haiyan Zhu,
| | - Songying Zhang
- Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Dysfunction Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Songying Zhang, ; Haiyan Zhu,
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6
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Hong K, Muralimanoharan S, Kwak YT, Mendelson CR. NRF2 Serves a Critical Role in Regulation of Immune Checkpoint Proteins (ICPs) During Trophoblast Differentiation. Endocrinology 2022; 163:bqac070. [PMID: 35596653 PMCID: PMC9197021 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqac070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Using cultured human trophoblast stem cells (hTSCs), mid-gestation human trophoblasts in primary culture, and gene-targeted mice, we tested the hypothesis that the multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast (SynT) serves a critical role in pregnancy maintenance through production of key immune modulators/checkpoint proteins (ICPs) under control of the O2-regulated transcription factor, NRF2/NFE2L2. These ICPs potentially act at the maternal-fetal interface to protect the hemiallogeneic fetus from rejection by the maternal immune system. Using cultured hTSCs, we observed that several ICPs involved in the induction and maintenance of immune tolerance were markedly upregulated during differentiation of cytotrophoblasts (CytTs) to SynT. These included HMOX1, kynurenine receptor, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, PD-L1, and GDF15. Intriguingly, NRF2, C/EBPβ, and PPARγ were markedly induced when CytTs fused to form SynT in a 20% O2 environment. Notably, when hTSCs were cultured in a hypoxic (2% O2) environment, SynT fusion and the differentiation-associated induction of NRF2, C/EBPβ, aromatase (CYP19A1; SynT differentiation marker), and ICPs were blocked. NRF2 knockdown also prevented induction of aromatase, C/EBPβ and the previously mentioned ICPs. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-quantitative PCR revealed that temporal induction of the ICPs in hTSCs and mid-gestation human trophoblasts cultured in 20% O2 was associated with increased binding of endogenous NRF2 to putative response elements within their promoters. Moreover, placentas of 12.5 days postcoitum mice with a global Nrf2 knockout manifested decreased mRNA expression of C/ebpβ, Pparγ, Hmox1, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, and Nqo1, another direct downstream target of Nrf2, compared with wild-type mice. Collectively, these compelling findings suggest that O2-regulated NRF2 serves as a key regulator of ICP expression during SynT differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyunghee Hong
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
| | | | - Youn-Tae Kwak
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
| | - Carole R Mendelson
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9032, USA
- Cecil H. and Ida Green Center for Reproductive Biology Sciences, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-8511, USA
- North Texas March of Dimes Birth Defects Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
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S ingh S, Dhar R, Karmakar S. Fenofibrate mediated activation of PPARα negatively regulates trophoblast invasion. Placenta 2022; 126:140-149. [DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2022.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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8
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Hahn L, Meister S, Mannewitz M, Beyer S, Corradini S, Hasbargen U, Mahner S, Jeschke U, Kolben T, Burges A. Gal-2 Increases H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in Trophoblasts and Preeclampsia. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12050707. [PMID: 35625634 PMCID: PMC9139023 DOI: 10.3390/biom12050707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) is a severe pregnancy disorder with a pathophysiology not yet completely understood and without curative therapy. The histone modifications H3K4me3 and H3K9ac, as well as galectin-2 (Gal-2), are known to be decreased in PE. To gain a better understanding of the development of PE, the influence of Gal-2 on histone modification in trophoblasts and in syncytialisation was investigated. Immunohistochemical stains of 13 PE and 13 control placentas were correlated, followed by cell culture experiments. An analysis of H3K4me3 and H3K9ac was conducted, as well as cell fusion staining with E-cadherin and β-catenin—both after incubation with Gal-2. The expression of H3K4me3 and H3K9ac correlated significantly with the expression of Gal-2. Furthermore, we detected an increase in H3K4me3 and H3K9ac after the addition of Gal-2 to BeWo/HVT cells. Moreover, there was increased fusion of HVT cells after incubation with Gal-2. Gal-2 is associated with the histone modifications H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in trophoblasts. Furthermore, syncytialisation increased after incubation with Gal-2. Therefore, we postulate that Gal-2 stimulates syncytialisation, possibly mediated by H3K4me3 and H3K9ac. Since Gal-2, as well as H3K4me3 and H3K9ac, are decreased in PE, the induction of Gal-2 might be a promising therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hahn
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-89-440073800
| | - Sarah Meister
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Mareike Mannewitz
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Susanne Beyer
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Stefanie Corradini
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany;
| | - Uwe Hasbargen
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Sven Mahner
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Udo Jeschke
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
- Department of Gynecology and Obsterics, University Hospital Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Kolben
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
| | - Alexander Burges
- Department of Obsterics and Gynecology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81337 Munich, Germany; (S.M.); (M.M.); (S.B.); (U.H.); (S.M.); (U.J.); (T.K.); (A.B.)
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Esomeprazole inhibits hypoxia/endothelial dysfunction–induced autophagy in preeclampsia. Cell Tissue Res 2022; 388:181-194. [PMID: 35091806 PMCID: PMC8976802 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-022-03587-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) affects 3 to 5% of pregnant women worldwide and is associated with fetal and maternal morbidity and mortality. Although a complete understanding of PE remains elusive, it has been widely accepted that a dysfunction of the placenta plays a key role in the pathogenesis of PE. In this study, we investigated the role of excessive placental autophagy during PE pathogenesis and explored whether esomeprazole ameliorates PE by inhibiting the autophagy in the placenta. The PE cellular model was established by treating the cells’ L-NAME and hypoxia. The PE mice model was established by L-NAME administration and was confirmed by the increased systolic blood pressure (SBP) and urinary protein detected. The autophagy and key proteins were detected in human placental tissue, in cells, and in the mice model by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Results showed that excessive autophagy could be detected in human PE placental tissue, in the PE cellular model, and in the PE mice model. Hypoxia induces autophagy by activating AMPKα and inhibiting mTOR in vivo and in vitro. Esomeprazole inhibits L‐NAME-induced autophagy in mice by inhibiting AMPKα and activating mTOR. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the excessive autophagy induced by the SIRT1/AMPKα-mTOR pathway plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of PE. However, esomeprazole treatment inhibits AMPKα but activates mTOR, resulting in the inhibition of autophagy in the placenta and, therefore, mitigates PE symptoms.
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Liu Z, Wang C, Pei J, Li M, Gu W. SIRT1: A Novel Protective Molecule in Pre-eclampsia. Int J Med Sci 2022; 19:993-1002. [PMID: 35813294 PMCID: PMC9254375 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.73012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Pre-eclampsia is a severe pregnant complication, mainly characterized by insufficient trophoblast invasion, impaired uterine spiral artery remodeling, placental hypoxia and ischemia, and endothelial dysfunction. However, the potential mechanisms of pre-eclampsia remain unclear. SIRT1 is a NAD+-dependent deacetylase, involving in multiple biological processes, including energy metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and cellular autophagy. Several studies showed that SIRT1 might play a vital role in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. In this review, we aim to integrate the latest research on SIRT1 and pre-eclampsia to explore the comprehensive mechanisms of SIRT1 in pre-eclampsia. More specifically, SIRT1 might affect placental development and trophoblast invasion through autophagy and senescence in pre-eclampsia, and SIRT1 protects vascular endothelial cells from oxidative stress, inflammatory response, autophagy, and senescence. Furthermore, SIRT1 deficiency mice showed typical pre-eclampsia-like performances, which can be reversed via direct SIRT1 supplement or SIRT1 agonist treatment. Additionally, resveratrol, a SIRT1 agonist, attenuates vascular endothelial injury and placental dysfunction, and exerts protective effect on decreasing blood pressure. In this review, we provide new insights into the development of pre-eclampsia, which can establish a theoretical basis for prevention and treatment for pre-eclampsia. Besides, we also propose questions that still need to be further addressed in order to elucidate the comprehensive molecular mechanisms of pre-eclampsia in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Chengjie Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Jiangnan Pei
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Mingqing Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Weirong Gu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Shanghai 200011, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200011, China
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11
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Meister S, Hahn L, Beyer S, Paul C, Mitter S, Kuhn C, von Schönfeldt V, Corradini S, Sudan K, Schulz C, Kolben TM, Mahner S, Jeschke U, Kolben T. Regulation of Epigenetic Modifications in the Placenta during Preeclampsia: PPARγ Influences H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in Extravillous Trophoblast Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212469. [PMID: 34830351 PMCID: PMC8622744 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analyze the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and retinoid X receptor α (RxRα), a binding heterodimer playing a pivotal role in the successful trophoblast invasion, in the placental tissue of preeclamptic patients. Furthermore, we aimed to characterize a possible interaction between PPARγ and H3K4me3 (trimethylated lysine 4 of the histone H3), respectively H3K9ac (acetylated lysine 9 of the histone H3), to illuminate the role of histone modifications in a defective trophoblast invasion in preeclampsia (PE). Therefore, the expression of PPARγ and RxRα was analyzed in 26 PE and 25 control placentas by immunohistochemical peroxidase staining, as well as the co-expression with H3K4me3 and H3K9ac by double immunofluorescence staining. Further, the effect of a specific PPARγ-agonist (Ciglitazone) and PPARγ-antagonist (T0070907) on the histone modifications H3K9ac and H3K4me3 was analyzed in vitro. In PE placentas, we found a reduced expression of PPARγ and RxRα and a reduced co-expression with H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in the extravillous trophoblast (EVT). Furthermore, with the PPARγ-antagonist treated human villous trophoblast (HVT) cells and primary isolated EVT cells showed higher levels of the histone modification proteins whereas treatment with the PPARγ-agonist reduced respective histone modifications. Our results show that the stimulation of PPARγ-activity leads to a reduction of H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in trophoblast cells, but paradoxically decreases the nuclear PPARγ expression. As the importance of PPARγ, being involved in a successful trophoblast invasion has already been investigated, our results reveal a pathophysiologic connection between PPARγ and the epigenetic modulation via H3K4me3 and H3K9ac in PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Meister
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
- Correspondence: (S.M.); (U.J.); Tel.: +49-89-4400-54266 (S.M.); Fax: +49-89-4400-54916 (S.M.)
| | - Laura Hahn
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Susanne Beyer
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Corinna Paul
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Sophie Mitter
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Christina Kuhn
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany;
| | - Viktoria von Schönfeldt
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Stefanie Corradini
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany;
| | - Kritika Sudan
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität München LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (K.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Christian Schulz
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Klinikum der Universität München LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (K.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Theresa Maria Kolben
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Sven Mahner
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Udo Jeschke
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany;
- Correspondence: (S.M.); (U.J.); Tel.: +49-89-4400-54266 (S.M.); Fax: +49-89-4400-54916 (S.M.)
| | - Thomas Kolben
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377 Munich, Germany; (L.H.); (S.B.); (C.P.); (S.M.); (V.v.S.); (T.M.K.); (S.M.); (T.K.)
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12
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Armistead B, Kadam L, Siegwald E, McCarthy FP, Kingdom JC, Kohan-Ghadr HR, Drewlo S. Induction of the PPARγ (Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor γ)-GCM1 (Glial Cell Missing 1) Syncytialization Axis Reduces sFLT1 (Soluble fms-Like Tyrosine Kinase 1) in the Preeclamptic Placenta. Hypertension 2021; 78:230-240. [PMID: 34024123 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.121.17267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Armistead
- From the Michigan State University, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, College of Human Medicine, Grand Rapids (B.A., H.-R.K.-G., S.D.)
| | - Leena Kadam
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland (L.K.)
| | - Emily Siegwald
- Spectrum Health SHARE Biorepository and Office of Research and Education, Spectrum Health, Grand Rapids, MI (E.S.)
| | - Fergus P McCarthy
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Infant Research Centre, University College Cork, Ireland (F.P.M.)
| | - John C Kingdom
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Toronto, ON, Canada (J.C.K.).,Department of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada (J.C.K.)
| | - Hamid-Reza Kohan-Ghadr
- From the Michigan State University, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, College of Human Medicine, Grand Rapids (B.A., H.-R.K.-G., S.D.)
| | - Sascha Drewlo
- From the Michigan State University, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, College of Human Medicine, Grand Rapids (B.A., H.-R.K.-G., S.D.)
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13
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Fang S, Livergood MC, Nakagawa P, Wu J, Sigmund CD. Role of the Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptors in Hypertension. Circ Res 2021; 128:1021-1039. [PMID: 33793338 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.120.318062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear receptors represent a large family of ligand-activated transcription factors which sense the physiological environment and make long-term adaptations by mediating changes in gene expression. In this review, we will first discuss the fundamental mechanisms by which nuclear receptors mediate their transcriptional responses. We will focus on the PPAR (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor) family of adopted orphan receptors paying special attention to PPARγ, the isoform with the most compelling evidence as an important regulator of arterial blood pressure. We will review genetic data showing that rare mutations in PPARγ cause severe hypertension and clinical trial data which show that PPARγ activators have beneficial effects on blood pressure. We will detail the tissue- and cell-specific molecular mechanisms by which PPARs in the brain, kidney, vasculature, and immune system modulate blood pressure and related phenotypes, such as endothelial function. Finally, we will discuss the role of placental PPARs in preeclampsia, a life threatening form of hypertension during pregnancy. We will close with a viewpoint on future research directions and implications for developing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Fang
- Department of Physiology, Cardiovascular Center (S.F., P.N., J.W., C.D.S.), Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.,Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa (S.F.)
| | - M Christine Livergood
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology (M.C.L.), Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
| | - Pablo Nakagawa
- Department of Physiology, Cardiovascular Center (S.F., P.N., J.W., C.D.S.), Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Physiology, Cardiovascular Center (S.F., P.N., J.W., C.D.S.), Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
| | - Curt D Sigmund
- Department of Physiology, Cardiovascular Center (S.F., P.N., J.W., C.D.S.), Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
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14
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Role of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPARs) in Trophoblast Functions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22010433. [PMID: 33406768 PMCID: PMC7795665 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα, PPARβ/δ, and PPARγ) belong to the transcription factor family, and they are highly expressed in all types of trophoblast during pregnancy. The present review discusses currently published papers that are related to the regulation of PPARs via lipid metabolism, glucose metabolism, and amino acid metabolism to affect trophoblast physiological conditions, including differentiation, maturation, secretion, fusion, proliferation, migration, and invasion. Recent pieces of evidence have proven that the dysfunctions of PPARs in trophoblast lead to several related pregnancy diseases such as recurrent miscarriage, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, and gestational diabetes mellitus. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms of PPARs in the control of these processes have been discussed as well. Finally, this review's purposes are to provide more knowledge about the role of PPARs in normal and disturbed pregnancy with trophoblast, so as to find PPAR ligands as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment and prevention of adverse pregnancy outcomes.
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15
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Pan M, Guan Z, Reinach PS, Kang L, Cao Y, Zhou D, Srinivasalu N, Zhao F, Qu J, Zhou X. PPARγ modulates refractive development and form deprivation myopia in Guinea pigs. Exp Eye Res 2020; 202:108332. [PMID: 33152389 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.108332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Form deprivation myopia (FDM) is characterized by loss of choroidal thickness (ChT), reduced choroidal blood perfusion (ChBP), and consequently scleral hypoxia. In some tissues, changes in levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) expression modulate hypoxia-induced pathological responses. We determined if PPARγ modulates FDM through changes in ChT, ChBP, scleral hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF-1α) that in turn regulate scleral collagen type 1 (COL1) expression levels in guinea pigs. Myopia was induced by occluding one eye, while the fellow eye served as control. They received daily peribulbar injections of either the PPARγ antagonist GW9662, or the GW1929 agonist, with or without ocular occlusion for 4 weeks. Ocular refraction and biometric parameters were estimated at baseline, 2 and 4 weeks post-treatment. ChT and ChBP were measured at the 2- and 4-week time points. Western blot analysis determined the expression levels of scleral HIF-1α and COL1. GW9662 induced a myopic shift in unoccluded eyes. Conversely, GW1929 inhibited FDM progression without affecting the refraction in unoccluded eyes. GW9662 reduced both ChT and ChBP in unoccluded eyes, while GW1929 inhibited their declines in occluded eyes. Scleral HIF-1α expression rose in GW9662-treated unoccluded eyes whereas GW1929 reduced HIF-1α upregulation in occluded eyes. GW9662 downregulated scleral COL1 expression in unoccluded eyes, while GW1929 reduced their decreases in occluded eyes. Therefore, PPARγ modulates collagen expression levels and FDM through an inverse relationship between changes in PPARγ and HIF-1α expression levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaozhen Pan
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhenqi Guan
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Peter S Reinach
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lin Kang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuqing Cao
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dengke Zhou
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Nethrajeith Srinivasalu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fei Zhao
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jia Qu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Xiangtian Zhou
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Optometry, Ophthalmology, and Vision Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; Research Unit of Myopia Basic Research and Clinical Prevention and Control, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2019RU025), China.
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16
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Decidual Vasculopathy and Spiral Artery Remodeling Revisited III: Hypoxia and Re-oxygenation Sequence with Vascular Regeneration. REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/reprodmed1020006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Spiral artery remodeling at early pregnancy is characterized by two distinct mechanisms with two morphologic features, namely, trophoblastic-dependent vascular invasion with “plugging”, and trophoblastic-independent mural muscular hypertrophy/hyperplasia, both of which lead to the blocking or narrowing of the arterial lumen with the consequence of reduced maternal blood flow to the developing embryo. Methods: Review of historic literature in light of the new discovery of CD56 (NCAM) expression on endovascular trophoblasts at late gestation, in relation to placental lateral growth with vascular regeneration. Results: Reduced maternal blood flow to the embryo results in a hypoxic condition critical for trophectoderm differentiation and proliferation. Hypoxia is also important for the development of hemangioblasts of vasculogenesis, and hematopoiesis of the placental villi. Up to 13 weeks, both uteroplacental and fetoplacental circulations are established and hypoxic condition relieved for normal fetal/placenta development by ultrasonography. The persistence of trophoblastic plugging and/or mural muscular hypertrophy/hyperplasia leads to persistent reduced maternal blood flow to the placenta, resulting in persistent hypoxia and increased angiogenesis, with a constellation of pathologic features of maternal vascular malperfusion atlate gestation. Wilm’s tumor gene (WT1) expression appears to be central to steroid and peptide hormonal actions in early pregnancy, and vascular regeneration/restoration after pregnancy. Conclusions: Spiral artery remodeling at early pregnancy leads to hypoxia with vascular transformation, and the establishment of uteroplacental circulation results in relief of hypoxia. The hypoxia–re-oxygenation sequence may provide insights into the mechanism of normal fetal/placental development and associated pregnancy complications, such as preeclampsia.
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17
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Lane SL, Doyle AS, Bales ES, Houck JA, Lorca RA, Moore LG, Julian CG. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma blunts endothelin-1-mediated contraction of the uterine artery in a murine model of high-altitude pregnancy. FASEB J 2020; 34:4283-4292. [PMID: 31970838 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201902264rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The environmental hypoxia of high altitude (HA) increases the incidence of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) approximately threefold. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ), a ligand-activated nuclear receptor that promotes vasorelaxation by increasing nitric oxide and downregulating endothelin-1 (ET-1) production, has been implicated in IUGR. Based on our prior work indicating that pharmacologic activation of the PPARγ pathway protects against hypoxia-associated IUGR, we used an experimental murine model to determine whether such effects may be attributed to vasodilatory effects in the uteroplacental circulation. Using wire myography, ex vivo vasoreactivity studies were conducted in uterine arteries (UtA) isolated from pregnant mice exposed to hypoxia or normoxia from gestational day 14.5 to 18.5. Exposure to troglitazone, a high-affinity PPARγ agonist-induced vasorelaxation in UtA preconstricted with phenylephrine, with HA-UtA showing increased sensitivity. Troglitazone blunted ET-1-induced contraction of UtA in hypoxic and normoxic dams equivalently. Immunohistological analysis revealed enhanced staining for ET-1 receptors in the placental labyrinthine zone in hypoxic compared to normoxic dams. Our results suggest that pharmacologic PPAR-γ activation, via its vasoactive properties, may protect the fetal growth under hypoxic conditions by improving uteroplacental perfusion and thereby justify further investigation into PPARγ as a therapeutic target for IUGR in pregnancies complicated by hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney L Lane
- Integrated Physiology Program, University of Colorado Graduate School, Aurora, CO, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Alexandrea S Doyle
- Department of Biochemistry, Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, CO, USA
| | - Elise S Bales
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Julie A Houck
- Department of Biochemistry, Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, CO, USA
| | - Ramón A Lorca
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Lorna G Moore
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Colleen G Julian
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
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18
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Lei D, Deng N, Wang S, Huang J, Fan C. Upregulated ARRDC3 limits trophoblast cell invasion and tube formation and is associated with preeclampsia. Placenta 2019; 89:10-19. [PMID: 31665660 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2019.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bioinformatics analysis indicated that the arrestin ARRDC3 was upregulated in placental tissue from patients with preeclampsia (PE). The study aimed to confirm the finding by examining placenta samples from women with and without early-onset PE and to investigate ARRDC3 roles in trophoblast function. METHODS ARRDC3 expression level and localization in placental tissue were determined by Western blot, real-time quantitative PCR and immunohistochemistry. An in vitro hypoxia and an in vitro ischemia (hypoxia/reoxygenation) cell models were used to determine the hypoxic and ischemic effects on ARRDC3 expression in extravillous trophoblast-derived HTR/8SVneo cells and trophoblast cell activity. The role of ARRDC3 in HTR8/SVneo cell proliferation, invasion and tube formation in vitro was investigated by testing the effects of ARRDC3 gene overexpression or siRNA-based gene silencing. RESULTS ARRDC3 expression was significantly elevated in placental tissue from women with early-onset PE compared to preterm birth pregnancies. ARRDC3 protein was localized in human placental trophoblasts. Hypoxia and ischemia both enhanced ARRDC3 protein expression in HTR8/SVneo cells. Hypoxia altered trophoblast cell activities. Overexpression of ARRDC3 in HTR8/SVneo cells suppressed cell invasion and tube formation. ARRDC3 gene silencing, by contrast, promoted invasion and tube formation under hypoxic conditions. CONCLUSION ARRDC3 was highly expressed in placental tissues of PE patients and directly affected biological activities of trophoblasts under hypoxic conditions. In regulation of ARRDC3- protein expression, ischemia (hypoxia/reoxygenation) are also important. These findings suggest that ARRDC3 may play a clinically significant role in the pathogenesis of PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Lei
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Hubei, PR China
| | - Na Deng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Hubei, PR China
| | - Suqing Wang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Health Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Jinfa Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Hubei, PR China
| | - Cuifang Fan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, Hubei, PR China.
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19
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Lane SL, Dodson RB, Doyle AS, Park H, Rathi H, Matarrazo CJ, Moore LG, Lorca RA, Wolfson GH, Julian CG. Pharmacological activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) protects against hypoxia-associated fetal growth restriction. FASEB J 2019; 33:8999-9007. [PMID: 31039323 PMCID: PMC6662983 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201900214r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The hypoxia of high-altitude (HA) residence increases the risk of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and preeclampsia 3-fold, augmenting perinatal morbidity and mortality and the risk for childhood and adult disease. Currently, no effective therapies exist to prevent these vascular disorders of pregnancy. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) is an important regulator of uteroplacental vascular development and function and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of IUGR and preeclampsia. Here, we used a model of HA pregnancy in mice to determine whether hypoxia-induced fetal growth restriction reduces placental PPAR-γ protein expression and placental vascularization and, if so, to evaluate the effectiveness of the selective PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone (PIO) for preventing hypoxia-induced IUGR. Hypoxia resulted in asymmetric IUGR, placental insufficiency, and reduced placental PPAR-γ expression; PIO prevented approximately half of the fetal growth restriction and attenuated placental insufficiency. PIO did not affect fetal growth under normoxia. Although PIO was beneficial for fetal growth, PIO treatment reduced placental vascular density of the labrynthine zone in normoxic and hypoxic (Hx) conditions, and mean vascular area was reduced in the Hx group. Our results suggest that pharmacological PPAR-γ activation is a potential strategy for preventing IUGR in pregnancies complicated by hypoxia, although further studies are needed to identify its likely metabolic or vascular mechanisms.-Lane, S. L., Dodson, R. B., Doyle, A. S., Park, H., Rathi, H., Matarrazo, C. J., Moore, L. G., Lorca, R. A., Wolfson, G. H., Julian, C. G. Pharmacological activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) protects against hypoxia-associated fetal growth restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney L. Lane
- Integrated Physiology Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - R. Blair Dodson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Alexandrea S. Doyle
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Haemin Park
- Colorado Undergraduate Research in Environmental Health Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Hinal Rathi
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Lorna G. Moore
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Ramón A. Lorca
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Gabriel H. Wolfson
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and
| | - Colleen G. Julian
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and
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20
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Zhao L, Zheng X, Liu J, Zheng R, Yang R, Wang Y, Sun L. PPAR signaling pathway in the first trimester placenta from in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 118:109251. [PMID: 31351426 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Placenta is a temporary critical organ related to fetal development and pregnancy outcomes. And epidemiologic data demonstrate an increased risk of placental abnormality after in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET). This study aims to explore the molecular mechanism for PPAR signaling pathway in placenta subjected to IVF-ET in the first trimester. Four first trimester placenta samples from double chorionic twins to single reduction in IVF-ET only because of oviducts factors. The other four control placenta samples from double chorionic twin were derived from those unplanned spontaneously conceived pregnancy after the legal termination. Affymetrix HG-U133 Plus 2.0 Array was performed to evaluate the global gene expressions. We confirmed microarray results from 10 significant differential genes using RT-qPCR. And 10 deregulated gene products were stained in the first trimester placenta by immunohistochemistry. These differentially expressed genes in IVF-ET placentas were submitted to functional annotation of clustering tools of bioinformatics resources and gene ontology enrichment analysis. Schematic representation of placental PPAR signaling pathway was labelled by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Analysis results of early placental PPAR signaling pathway gene expression from 8 women demonstrated 34 genes with a significant change in expression between IVF-ET and control group, 25 up-regulated; 9 down-regulated. KEGG pathway analysis indicated that IVF-ET manipulation extensively over-activated PPAR signaling pathway. Immune tolerance, trophoblast invasion, syncytia formation, lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammatory response and other complex biological functions were disturbed. RT-qPCR results and proteins staining intensity were consisted with microarray. Placental gene expressions and functions in PPAR signaling pathway were affected by IVF-ET treatment in the first trimester, which may offer a potential mechanism for the pathogenesis of various adverse outcomes during the perinatal period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, No. 31, Xinjiekou East Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100035, China
| | - Xiuli Zheng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, No. 31, Xinjiekou East Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100035, China
| | - Jingfang Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, No. 31, Xinjiekou East Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100035, China
| | - Rong Zheng
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, No. 31, Xinjiekou East Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100035, China
| | - Rui Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, No. 49, Huayuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, No. 49, Huayuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Lifang Sun
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital, No. 31, Xinjiekou East Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100035, China.
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21
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He C, Shan N, Xu P, Ge H, Yuan Y, Liu Y, Zhang P, Wen L, Zhang F, Xiong L, Peng C, Qi H, Tong C, Baker PN. Hypoxia-induced Downregulation of SRC-3 Suppresses Trophoblastic Invasion and Migration Through Inhibition of the AKT/mTOR Pathway: Implications for the Pathogenesis of Preeclampsia. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10349. [PMID: 31316078 PMCID: PMC6637123 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-46699-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) is characterized by poor placentation, consequent on aberrant extravillous trophoblast (EVT) cell function during placental development. The SRC family of proteins is important during pregnancy, especially SRC-3, which regulates placental morphogenesis and embryo survival. Although SRC-3 expression in mouse trophoblast giant cells has been documented, its role in the functional regulation of extravillous trophoblasts and the development of PE remains unknown. This study found that SRC-3 expression was significantly lower in placentas from PE pregnancies as compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. Additionally, both CoCl2-mimicked hypoxia and suppression of endogenous SRC-3 expression by lentivirus short hairpin RNA attenuated the migration and invasion abilities of HTR-8/SVneo cells. Moreover, we demonstrated that SRC-3 physically interacts with AKT to regulate the migration and invasion of HTR-8 cells, via the AKT/mTOR pathway. We also found that the inhibition of HTR-8 cell migration and invasion by CoCl2-mimicked hypoxia was through the SRC-3/AKT/mTOR axis. Our findings indicate that, in early gestation, accumulation of HIF-1α inhibits the expression of SRC-3, which impairs extravillous trophoblastic invasion and migration by directly interacting with AKT. This potentially leads to insufficient uterine spiral artery remodeling and placental hypoperfusion, and thus the development of PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengjin He
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Nan Shan
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Ping Xu
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Huisheng Ge
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yu Yuan
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Yangming Liu
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Pu Zhang
- College of Pharmacy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Li Wen
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Fumei Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Liling Xiong
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Chuan Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Hongbo Qi
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China. .,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
| | - Chao Tong
- Department of Obstetrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China. .,International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Maternal and Fetal Medicine of Chongqing Municipality, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
| | - Philip N Baker
- International Collaborative Joint Laboratory of Reproduction and Development, Ministry of Education of China, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.,Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand.,College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
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22
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Natale BV, Mehta P, Vu P, Schweitzer C, Gustin K, Kotadia R, Natale DRC. Reduced Uteroplacental Perfusion Pressure (RUPP) causes altered trophoblast differentiation and pericyte reduction in the mouse placenta labyrinth. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17162. [PMID: 30464252 PMCID: PMC6249310 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35606-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study characterized the effect of the reduced utero-placental perfusion pressure (RUPP) model of placental insufficiency on placental morphology and trophoblast differentiation at mid-late gestation (E14.5). Altered trophoblast proliferation, reduced syncytiotrophoblast gene expression, increased numbers of sinusoidal trophoblast giant cells, decreased Vegfa and decreased pericyte presence in the labyrinth were observed in addition to changes in maternal blood spaces, the fetal capillary network and reduced fetal weight. Further, the junctional zone was characterized by reduced spongiotrophoblast and glycogen trophoblast with increased trophoblast giant cells. Increased Hif-1α and TGF-β-3 in vivo with supporting hypoxia studies in trophoblast stem (TS) cells in vitro, support hypoxia as a contributing factor to the RUPP placenta phenotype. Together, this study identifies altered cell populations within the placenta that may contribute to the phenotype, and thus support the use of RUPP in the mouse as a model of placenta insufficiency. As such, this model in the mouse provides a valuable tool for understanding the phenotypes resulting from genetic manipulation of isolated cell populations to further understand the etiology of placenta insufficiency and fetal growth restriction. Further this study identifies a novel relationship between placental insufficiency and pericyte depletion in the labyrinth layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryony V Natale
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Prutha Mehta
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Priscilla Vu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Christina Schweitzer
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N4N1, Canada
| | - Katarina Gustin
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Ramie Kotadia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - David R C Natale
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N4N1, Canada.
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in Reproductive Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
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23
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Soares MJ, Iqbal K, Kozai K. Hypoxia and Placental Development. Birth Defects Res 2018; 109:1309-1329. [PMID: 29105383 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Hemochorial placentation is orchestrated through highly regulated temporal and spatial decisions governing the fate of trophoblast stem/progenitor cells. Trophoblast cell acquisition of specializations facilitating invasion and uterine spiral artery remodeling is a labile process, sensitive to the environment, and represents a process that is vulnerable to dysmorphogenesis in pathologic states. Hypoxia is a signal guiding placental development, and molecular mechanisms directing cellular adaptations to low oxygen tension are integral to trophoblast cell differentiation and placentation. Hypoxia can also be used as an experimental tool to investigate regulatory processes controlling hemochorial placentation. These developmental processes are conserved in mouse, rat, and human placentation. Consequently, elements of these developmental events can be modeled and hypotheses tested in trophoblast stem cells and in genetically manipulated rodents. Hypoxia is also a consequence of a failed placenta, yielding pathologies that can adversely affect maternal adjustments to pregnancy, fetal health, and susceptibility to adult disease. The capacity of the placenta for adaptation to environmental challenges highlights the importance of its plasticity in safeguarding a healthy pregnancy. Birth Defects Research 109:1309-1329, 2017.© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Soares
- Institute for Reproduction and Perinatal Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas.,Fetal Health Research, Children's Research Institute, Children's Mercy, Kansas City, Missouri
| | - Khursheed Iqbal
- Institute for Reproduction and Perinatal Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Keisuke Kozai
- Institute for Reproduction and Perinatal Research, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
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24
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Pham J, Arul Nambi Rajan K, Li P, Parast MM. The role of Sirtuin1-PPARγ axis in placental development and function. J Mol Endocrinol 2018; 60:R201-R212. [PMID: 29467141 PMCID: PMC8584848 DOI: 10.1530/jme-17-0315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Placental development is important for proper in utero growth and development of the fetus, as well as maternal well-being during pregnancy. Abnormal differentiation of placental epithelial cells, called trophoblast, is at the root of multiple pregnancy complications, including miscarriage, the maternal hypertensive disorder preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. The ligand-activated nuclear receptor, PPARγ, and nutrient sensor, Sirtuin-1, both play a role in numerous pathways important to cell survival and differentiation, metabolism and inflammation. However, each has also been identified as a key player in trophoblast differentiation and placental development. This review details these studies, and also describes how various stressors, including hypoxia and inflammation, alter the expression or activity of PPARγ and Sirtuin-1, thereby contributing to placenta-based pregnancy complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Pham
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Kanaga Arul Nambi Rajan
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Ping Li
- Department of PathologyMedical School of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mana M Parast
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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25
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Chang CW, Wakeland AK, Parast MM. Trophoblast lineage specification, differentiation and their regulation by oxygen tension. J Endocrinol 2018; 236:R43-R56. [PMID: 29259074 PMCID: PMC5741095 DOI: 10.1530/joe-17-0402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Development of the early embryo takes place under low oxygen tension. Under such conditions, the embryo implants and the trophectoderm, the outer layer of blastocyst, proliferate, forming the cytotrophoblastic shell, the early placenta. The cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) are the so-called epithelial 'stem cells' of the placenta, which, depending on the signals they receive, can differentiate into either extravillous trophoblast (EVT) or syncytiotrophoblast (STB). EVTs anchor the placenta to the uterine wall and remodel maternal spiral arterioles in order to provide ample blood supply to the growing fetus. STBs arise through CTB fusion, secrete hormones necessary for pregnancy maintenance and form a barrier across which nutrient and gas exchange can take place. The bulk of EVT differentiation occurs during the first trimester, before the onset of maternal arterial blood flow into the intervillous space of the placenta, and thus under low oxygen tension. These conditions affect numerous signaling pathways, including those acting through hypoxia-inducible factor, the nutrient sensor mTOR and the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced unfolded protein response pathway. These pathways are known to be involved in placental development and disease, and specific components have even been identified as directly involved in lineage-specific trophoblast differentiation. Nevertheless, much controversy surrounds the role of hypoxia in trophoblast differentiation, particularly with EVT. This review summarizes previous studies on this topic, with the intent of integrating these results and synthesizing conclusions that resolve some of the controversy, but then also pointing to remaining areas, which require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Wen Chang
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Anna K Wakeland
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Mana M Parast
- Department of PathologyUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative MedicineUniversity of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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26
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Zhang J, Peng X, Yuan A, Xie Y, Yang Q, Xue L. Peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor γ mediates porcine placental angiogenesis through hypoxia inducible factor‑, vascular endothelial growth factor‑ and angiopoietin‑mediated signaling. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:2636-2644. [PMID: 28677792 PMCID: PMC5548051 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ has been reported to be implicated in placentation in mice. Previous studies have demonstrated that PPARγ is also expressed in porcine placenta, primarily localized in vascular endothelial cells (VECs). The present study aimed to investigate the roles of PPARγ during porcine placental angiogenesis and examine the molecular mechanisms involved in its actions. VECs were incubated with the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone and the antagonist T0070907, and their angiogenic potential was evaluated using cellular impedance, wound healing and tube formation assays. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to assess the mRNA expression levels of angiogenic factors, including hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) isoforms, VEGF receptors (VEGFRs) and angiopoietins (Angs). The results demonstrated that the adhesive, proliferative and migratory capabilities of VECs were potentiated by rosiglitazone and suppressed by T0070907. Notably, tube formation was invariably promoted during PPARγ activation and blockade. The mRNA expression levels of HIF1α, HIF2α, VEGFR2, VEGF188 and Ang-1 were revealed to be upregulated following treatment of VECs with rosiglitazone, whereas they were downregulated following treatment with T0070907. However, the mRNA expression levels of placental growth factor and VEGF120 were consistently downregulated following PPARγ activation and blockade, whereas VEGF164 mRNA levels remained unaltered. The results of the present study suggested that PPARγ may mediate porcine placental angiogenesis, by interfering with HIF-, VEGF- and angiopoietin-mediated signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juzuo Zhang
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
| | - Xuan Peng
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
| | - Anwen Yuan
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
| | - Yang Xie
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
| | - Qing Yang
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
| | - Liqun Xue
- Department of Clinic Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan 410128, P.R. China
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27
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Lin Y, Bircsak KM, Gorczyca L, Wen X, Aleksunes LM. Regulation of the placental BCRP transporter by PPAR gamma. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2016; 31. [PMID: 27879033 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.21880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Identifying regulators of placental breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) expression is critical as downregulation of this transporter may increase exposure of the fetus to xenobiotics. Here, we sought to test whether the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) regulates BCRP expression in the placenta. To test this, human BeWo placental choriocarcinoma cells were cultured with the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone or the PPARγ antagonist T0070907 for 24 h. Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of syncytialization markers, GCM1 and hCGβ, as well as BCRP increased with PPARγ agonist treatment. Conversely, BCRP mRNA and protein expression decreased 30%-50% with PPARγ antagonist treatment. Rosiglitazone enhanced BCRP protein expression and transport activity, resulting in a 20% greater efflux of the substrate Hoechst 33342 compared with control cells. These results suggest that PPARγ can upregulate BCRP expression in the placenta, which may be important in understanding mechanisms that protect the fetus from xenobiotic exposure during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Lin
- Rutgers University Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Kristin M Bircsak
- Rutgers University Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Ludwik Gorczyca
- Rutgers University Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Xia Wen
- Rutgers University Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Lauren M Aleksunes
- Rutgers University Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.,Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
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28
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Mogami H, Yura S, Kondoh E, Masutani H, Yodoi J, Konishi I. Differential expression of thioredoxin binding protein-2/Txnip in human placenta: Possible involvement of hypoxia in its suppression during early pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2016; 43:50-56. [PMID: 27762463 DOI: 10.1111/jog.13149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM Thioredoxin binding protein-2 (TBP-2), which is identical to thioredoxin interacting protein (Txnip), controls cellular proliferation and differentiation. The aim of the present study was to compare TBP-2 protein and mRNA expression in human placenta during the three trimesters of pregnancy and to investigate the role of hypoxia in the change of these expressions in placental tissue. A secondary objective was to determine the gene expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in TBP-2 deficient placenta using TBP-2 gene disrupted mice (TBP-2-/- ). METHODS Protein and mRNA expression of TBP-2 in human placenta from each trimester were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, Western blots, and by quantitative reverse-transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. The effect of hypoxia on TBP-2 expression was tested using an explant culture of human placenta. In TBP-2-/- mouse placenta, we detected PPAR mRNA expression. RESULTS TBP-2 was located in syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts, and also in the endothelium in human placenta. Its expression in the placenta was low in the first trimester, and increased in the second and third trimesters. Hypoxia decreased TBP-2 mRNA and protein expression in human placental explant culture. In TBP-2-/- mice, placental mRNA levels of PPARα and γ were significantly suppressed compared with those in wild-type mice. CONCLUSION Hypoxia suppresses TBP-2 gene expression, which may ultimately alter placental development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruta Mogami
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shigeo Yura
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan.,Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eiji Kondoh
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Masutani
- Department of Biological Responses, Laboratory of Infection and Prevention, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Junji Yodoi
- Department of Biological Responses, Laboratory of Infection and Prevention, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ikuo Konishi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
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29
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Spradley FT, Palei AC, Granger JP. Increased risk for the development of preeclampsia in obese pregnancies: weighing in on the mechanisms. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 309:R1326-43. [PMID: 26447211 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00178.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy-specific disorder typically presenting as new-onset hypertension and proteinuria. While numerous epidemiological studies have demonstrated that obesity increases the risk of PE, the mechanisms have yet to be fully elucidated. Growing evidence from animal and human studies implicate placental ischemia in the etiology of this maternal syndrome. It is thought that placental ischemia is brought about by dysfunctional cytotrophoblast migration and invasion into the uterus and subsequent lack of spiral arteriole widening and placental perfusion. Placental ischemia/hypoxia stimulates the release of soluble placental factors into the maternal circulation where they cause endothelial dysfunction, particularly in the kidney, to elicit the clinical manifestations of PE. The most recognized of these factors are the anti-angiogenic sFlt-1 and pro-inflammatory TNF-α and AT1-AA, which promote endothelial dysfunction by reducing levels of the provasodilator nitric oxide and stimulating production of the potent vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 and reactive oxygen species. We hypothesize that obesity-related metabolic factors increase the risk for developing PE by impacting various stages in the pathogenesis of PE, namely, 1) cytotrophoblast migration and placental ischemia; 2) release of soluble placental factors into the maternal circulation; and 3) maternal endothelial and vascular dysfunction. This review will summarize the current experimental evidence supporting the concept that obesity and metabolic factors like lipids, insulin, glucose, and leptin affect placental function and increase the risk for developing hypertension in pregnancy by reducing placental perfusion; enhancing placental release of soluble factors; and by increasing the sensitivity of the maternal vasculature to placental ischemia-induced soluble factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank T Spradley
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Cardiovascular-Renal Research Center, Women's Health Research Center, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Ana C Palei
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Cardiovascular-Renal Research Center, Women's Health Research Center, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
| | - Joey P Granger
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Cardiovascular-Renal Research Center, Women's Health Research Center, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi
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Soares MJ, Chakraborty D, Kubota K, Renaud SJ, Rumi MAK. Adaptive mechanisms controlling uterine spiral artery remodeling during the establishment of pregnancy. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 58:247-59. [PMID: 25023691 DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.140083ms] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Implantation of the embryo into the uterus triggers the initiation of hemochorial placentation. The hemochorial placenta facilitates the acquisition of maternal resources required for embryo/fetal growth. Uterine spiral arteries form the nutrient supply line for the placenta and fetus. This vascular conduit undergoes gestation stage-specific remodeling directed by maternal natural killer cells and embryo-derived invasive trophoblast lineages. The placentation site, including remodeling of the uterine spiral arteries, is shaped by environmental challenges. In this review, we discuss the cellular participants controlling pregnancy-dependent uterine spiral artery remodeling and mechanisms responsible for their development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Soares
- Institute for Reproductive Health and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA.
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Li Y, Parast MM. BMP4 regulation of human trophoblast development. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 58:239-46. [PMID: 25023690 DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.130341mp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Since the derivation of human embryonic stem cells, and the subsequent generation of induced pluripotent stem cells, there has been much excitement about the ability to model and evaluate human organ development in vitro. The finding that these cells, when treated with BMP4, are able to generate the extraembryonic cell type, trophoblast, which is the predominant functional epithelium in the placenta, has not been widely accepted. This review evaluates this model, providing comparison to early known events during placentation in both human and mouse and addresses specific challenges. Keeping in mind the ultimate goal of understanding human placental development and pregnancy disorders, our aim here is two-fold: to distinguish gaps in our knowledge arising from mis- or over-interpretation of data, and to recognize the limitations of both mouse and human models, but to work within those limitations towards the ultimate goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingchun Li
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Soncin F, Natale D, Parast MM. Signaling pathways in mouse and human trophoblast differentiation: a comparative review. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 72:1291-302. [PMID: 25430479 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1794-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 10/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The mouse is often used as a model for understanding human placentation and offers multiple advantages, including the ability to manipulate gene expression in specific compartments and to derive trophoblast stem cells, which can be maintained or differentiated in vitro. Nevertheless, there are numerous differences between the mouse and human placentas, only the least of which are structural. This review aims to compare mouse and human placentation, with a focus on signaling pathways involved in trophoblast lineage-specific differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Soncin
- Department of Pathology, Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0695, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA,
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Hypoxic stress induces, but cannot sustain trophoblast stem cell differentiation to labyrinthine placenta due to mitochondrial insufficiency. Stem Cell Res 2014; 13:478-91. [PMID: 25239494 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2014.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysfunctional stem cell differentiation into placental lineages is associated with gestational diseases. Of the differentiated lineages available to trophoblast stem cells (TSC), elevated O2 and mitochondrial function are necessary to placental lineages at the maternal-placental surface and important in the etiology of preeclampsia. TSC lineage imbalance leads to embryonic failure during uterine implantation. Stress at implantation exacerbates stem cell depletion by decreasing proliferation and increasing differentiation. In an implantation site O2 is normally ~2%. In culture, exposure to 2% O2 and fibroblast growth factor 4 (FGF4) enabled the highest mouse TSC multipotency and proliferation. In contrast, hypoxic stress (0.5% O2) initiated the most TSC differentiation after 24h despite exposure to FGF4. However, hypoxic stress supported differentiation poorly after 4-7 days, despite FGF4 removal. At all tested O2 levels, FGF4 maintained Warburg metabolism; mitochondrial inactivity and aerobic glycolysis. However, hypoxic stress suppressed mitochondrial membrane potential and maintained low mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (oxidative phosphorylation/OxPhos), and high pyruvate kinase M2 (glycolysis) despite FGF4 removal. Inhibiting OxPhos inhibited optimum differentiation at 20% O2. Moreover, adding differentiation-inducing hyperosmolar stress failed to induce differentiation during hypoxia. Thus, differentiation depended on OxPhos at 20% O2; hypoxic and hyperosmolar stresses did not induce differentiation at 0.5% O2. Hypoxia-limited differentiation and mitochondrial inhibition and activation suggest that differentiation into two lineages of the labyrinthine placenta requires O2>0.5-2% and mitochondrial function. Stress-activated protein kinase increases an early lineage and suppresses later lineages in proportion to the deviation from optimal O2 for multipotency, thus it is the first enzyme reported to prioritize differentiation.
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