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Bourgeois JS, Hu LT. Hitchhiker's Guide to Borrelia burgdorferi. J Bacteriol 2024; 206:e0011624. [PMID: 39140751 PMCID: PMC11411949 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00116-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Don't Panic. In the nearly 50 years since the discovery of Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi has emerged as an unlikely workhorse of microbiology. Interest in studying host-pathogen interactions fueled significant progress in making the fastidious microbe approachable in laboratory settings, including the development of culture methods, animal models, and genetic tools. By developing these systems, insight has been gained into how the microbe is able to survive its enzootic cycle and cause human disease. Here, we discuss the discovery of B. burgdorferi and its development as a model organism before diving into the critical lessons we have learned about B. burgdorferi biology at pivotal stages of its lifecycle: gene expression changes during the tick blood meal, colonization of a new vertebrate host, and developing a long-lasting infection in that vertebrate until a new tick feeds. Our goal is to highlight the advancements that have facilitated B. burgdorferi research and identify gaps in our current understanding of the microbe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Bourgeois
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University Lyme Disease Initiative, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Linden T Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University Lyme Disease Initiative, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Bourgeois JS, McCarthy JE, Turk SP, Bernard Q, Clendenen LH, Wormser GP, Marcos LA, Dardick K, Telford SR, Marques AR, Hu LT. Peromyscus leucopus , Mus musculus , and humans have distinct transcriptomic responses to larval Ixodes scapularis bites. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.02.592193. [PMID: 38746284 PMCID: PMC11092580 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.02.592193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Ixodes scapularis ticks are an important vector for at least six tick-borne human pathogens, including the predominant North American Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi . The ability for these ticks to survive in nature is credited, in part, to their ability to feed on a variety of hosts without excessive activation of the proinflammatory branch of the vertebrate immune system. While the ability for nymphal ticks to feed on a variety of hosts has been well-documented, the host-parasite interactions between larval I. scapularis and different vertebrate hosts is relatively unexplored. Here we report on the changes in the vertebrate transcriptome present at the larval tick bite site using the natural I. scapularis host Peromyscus leucopus deermouse, a non-natural rodent host Mus musculus (BALB/c), and humans. We note substantially less evidence of activation of canonical proinflammatory pathways in P. leucopus compared to BALB/c mice and pronounced evidence of inflammation in humans. Pathway enrichment analyses revealed a particularly strong signature of interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin 1 signaling at the BALB/c and human tick bite site. We also note that bite sites on BALB/c mice and humans, but not deermice, show activation of wound-healing pathways. These data provide molecular evidence of the coevolution between larval I. scapularis and P. leucopus as well as expand our overall understanding of I. scapularis feeding. Significance Ixodes scapularis tick bites expose humans to numerous diseases in North America. While larval tick feeding enables pathogens to enter the tick population and eventually spread to humans, how larval ticks interact with mammals has been understudied compared to other tick stages. Here we examined the transcriptomic response of a natural I. scapularis rodent host ( Peromyscus leucopus ), a non-native I. scapularis rodent host ( Mus musculus ), and an incidental host (humans). We find that there are differences in how all three species respond to larval I. scapularis , with the natural host producing the smallest transcriptomic signature of a canonical proinflammatory immune response and the incidental human host producing the most robust signature of inflammation in response to the larval tick. These data expand our understanding of the pressures on ticks in the wild and inform our ability to model these interactions in laboratory settings.
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Hils M, Hoffard N, Iuliano C, Kreft L, Chakrapani N, Swiontek K, Fischer K, Eberlein B, Köberle M, Fischer J, Hilger C, Ohnmacht C, Kaesler S, Wölbing F, Biedermann T. IgE and anaphylaxis specific to the carbohydrate alpha-gal depend on IL-4. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2024; 153:1050-1062.e6. [PMID: 38135009 PMCID: PMC10997276 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2023.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alpha-gal (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc) is a carbohydrate with the potential to elicit fatal allergic reactions to mammalian meat and drugs of mammalian origin. This type of allergy is induced by tick bites, and therapeutic options for this skin-driven food allergy are limited to the avoidance of the allergen and treatment of symptoms. Thus, a better understanding of the immune mechanisms resulting in sensitization through the skin is crucial, especially in the case of a carbohydrate allergen for which underlying immune responses are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE We aimed to establish a mouse model of alpha-gal allergy for in-depth immunologic analyses. METHODS Alpha-galactosyltransferase 1-deficient mice devoid of alpha-gal glycosylations were sensitized with the alpha-gal-carrying self-protein mouse serum albumin by repetitive intracutaneous injections in combination with the adjuvant aluminum hydroxide. The role of basophils and IL-4 in sensitization was investigated by antibody-mediated depletion. RESULTS Alpha-gal-sensitized mice displayed increased levels of alpha-gal-specific IgE and IgG1 and developed systemic anaphylaxis on challenge with both alpha-gal-containing glycoproteins and glycolipids. In accordance with alpha-gal-allergic patients, we detected elevated numbers of basophils at the site of sensitization as well as increased numbers of alpha-gal-specific B cells, germinal center B cells, and B cells of IgE and IgG1 isotypes in skin-draining lymph nodes. By depleting IL-4 during sensitization, we demonstrated for the first time that sensitization and elicitation of allergy to alpha-gal and correspondingly to a carbohydrate allergen is dependent on IL-4. CONCLUSION These findings establish IL-4 as a potential target to interfere with alpha-gal allergy elicited by tick bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Hils
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Nils Hoffard
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Caterina Iuliano
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Luisa Kreft
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM) and Institute of Allergy Research, Technical University of Munich, School of Medicine, and Helmholtz Center Munich, Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Neera Chakrapani
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; Faculty of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Kyra Swiontek
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Konrad Fischer
- Department of Livestock Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Bernadette Eberlein
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Köberle
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jörg Fischer
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University Hospital Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany
| | - Christiane Hilger
- Department of Infection and Immunity, Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Caspar Ohnmacht
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM) and Institute of Allergy Research, Technical University of Munich, School of Medicine, and Helmholtz Center Munich, Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Susanne Kaesler
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Wölbing
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tilo Biedermann
- Department of Dermatology and Allergy Biederstein, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
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Perusko M, Grundström J, Eldh M, Hamsten C, Apostolovic D, van Hage M. The α-Gal epitope - the cause of a global allergic disease. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1335911. [PMID: 38318181 PMCID: PMC10838981 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1335911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
The galactose-α-1,3-galactose (α-Gal) epitope is the cause of a global allergic disease, the α-Gal syndrome (AGS). It is a severe form of allergy to food and products of mammalian origin where IgE against the mammalian carbohydrate, α-Gal, is the cause of the allergic reactions. Allergic reactions triggered by parenterally administered α-Gal sources appear immediately, but those triggered via the oral route appear with a latency of several hours. The α-Gal epitope is highly immunogenic to humans, apes and old-world monkeys, all of which produce anti-α-Gal antibodies of the IgM, IgA and IgG subclasses. Strong evidence suggests that in susceptible individuals, class switch to IgE occurs after several tick bites. In this review, we discuss the strong immunogenic role of the α-Gal epitope and its structural resemblance to the blood type B antigen. We emphasize the broad abundance of α-Gal in different foods and pharmaceuticals and the allergenicity of various α-Gal containing molecules. We give an overview of the association of tick bites with the development of AGS and describe innate and adaptive immune response to tick saliva that possibly leads to sensitization to α-Gal. We further discuss a currently favored hypothesis explaining the mechanisms of the delayed effector phase of the allergic reaction to α-Gal. We highlight AGS from a clinical point of view. We review the different clinical manifestations of the disease and the prevalence of sensitization to α-Gal and AGS. The usefulness of various diagnostic tests is discussed. Finally, we provide different aspects of the management of AGS. With climate change and global warming, the tick density is increasing, and their geographic range is expanding. Thus, more people will be affected by AGS which requires more knowledge of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Perusko
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Innovative Centre of the Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jeanette Grundström
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria Eldh
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Carl Hamsten
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Danijela Apostolovic
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marianne van Hage
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institutet, and Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Kumar A, Kabra A, Igarashi I, Krause PJ. Animal models of the immunology and pathogenesis of human babesiosis. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:38-52. [PMID: 36470781 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of human babesiosis have provided a basic understanding of the immunological mechanisms that clear, or occasionally exacerbate, Babesia infection and those pathological processes that cause disease complications. Human Babesia infection can cause asymptomatic infection, mild to moderate disease, or severe disease resulting in organ dysfunction and death. More than 100 Babesia species infect a wide array of wild and domestic animals, and many of the immunologic and pathologic responses to Babesia infection are similar in animals and humans. In this review, we summarize the knowledge gained from animal studies, their limitations, and how animal models or alternative approaches can be further leveraged to improve our understanding of human babesiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinav Kumar
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Aditya Kabra
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Ikuo Igarashi
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Peter J Krause
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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Strobl J, Mündler V, Müller S, Gindl A, Berent S, Schötta AM, Kleissl L, Staud C, Redl A, Unterluggauer L, Aguilar González AE, Weninger ST, Atzmüller D, Klasinc R, Stanek G, Markowicz M, Stockinger H, Stary G. Tick feeding modulates the human skin immune landscape to facilitate tick-borne pathogen transmission. J Clin Invest 2022; 132:e161188. [PMID: 36166299 PMCID: PMC9621130 DOI: 10.1172/jci161188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
During cutaneous tick attachment, the feeding cavity becomes a site of transmission for tick salivary compounds and tick-borne pathogens. However, the immunological consequences of tick feeding for human skin remain unclear. Here, we assessed human skin and blood samples upon tick bite and developed a human skin explant model mimicking Ixodes ricinus bites and tick-borne pathogen infection. Following tick attachment, we observed rapidly occurring patterns of immunomodulation, including increases in neutrophils and cutaneous B and T cells. T cells upregulated tissue residency markers, while lymphocytic cytokine production was impaired. In early stages of Borrelia burgdorferi model infections, we detected strain-specific immune responses and close spatial relationships between macrophages and spirochetes. Preincubation of spirochetes with tick salivary gland extracts hampered accumulation of immune cells and increased spirochete loads. Collectively, we showed that tick feeding exerts profound changes on the skin immune network that interfere with the primary response against tick-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Strobl
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Verena Mündler
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sophie Müller
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna Gindl
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sara Berent
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna-Margarita Schötta
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lisa Kleissl
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria
| | - Clement Staud
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anna Redl
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Sophie T. Weninger
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Denise Atzmüller
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria
| | - Romana Klasinc
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerold Stanek
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mateusz Markowicz
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Stockinger
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg Stary
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rare and Undiagnosed Diseases, Vienna, Austria
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7
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Schön MP. The tick and I: Parasite-host interactions between ticks and humans. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2022; 20:818-853. [PMID: 35674196 DOI: 10.1111/ddg.14821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ticks, particularly hard ticks (Ixodidae), which are among the most important vectors of dangerous infectious agents, feed on their hosts for extended periods of time. With this lifestyle, numerous adaptations have evolved in ticks and their hosts, the pharmacological importance of which is increasingly being recognized. Many bioactive substances in tick saliva are being considered as the basis of new drugs. For example, components of tick cement can be developed into tissue adhesives or wound closures. Analgesic and antipruritic salivary components inhibit histamine or bradykinin, while other tick-derived molecules bind opioid or cannabinoid receptors. Tick saliva inhibits the extrinsic, intrinsic, or common pathway of blood coagulation with implications for the treatment of thromboembolic diseases. It contains vasodilating substances and affects wound healing. The broad spectrum of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive effects of tick saliva, such as inhibition of chemokines or cellular immune responses, allows development of drugs against inflammation in autoimmune diseases and/or infections. Finally, modern vaccines against ticks can curb the spread of serious infections. The medical importance of the complex tick-host interactions is increasingly being recognized and translated into first clinical applications. Using selected examples, an overview of the mutual adaptations of ticks and hosts is given here, focusing on their significance to medical advance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Schön
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Germany
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8
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Schön MP. Die Zecke und ich: Parasiten-Wirt-Interaktionen zwischen Zecken und Menschen. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2022; 20:818-855. [PMID: 35711058 DOI: 10.1111/ddg.14821_g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Schön
- Klinik für Dermatologie, Venerologie und Allergologie, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen
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9
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Fasae KD, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Alterations in arthropod and neuronal exosomes reduce virus transmission and replication in recipient cells. EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES AND CIRCULATING NUCLEIC ACIDS 2022; 3:247-279. [PMID: 36939419 PMCID: PMC10018778 DOI: 10.20517/evcna.2022.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Aim Targeting the modes of pathogen shedding/transmission via exosomes or extracellular vesicles has been envisioned as the best approach to control vector-borne diseases. This study is focused on altering exosomes stability to affect the pathogen transmission from infected to naïve recipient cells. Methods In this study, neuronal or arthropod exosomes were treated at different temperatures or with different salts or pH conditions to analyze their ability and efficiency in the transmission of tick-borne Langat virus (LGTV) from infected to naïve recipient cells. Results Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunoblotting analyses revealed that treatment of neuronal or tick exosomes at warmer temperatures of 37 °C or 23 °C, respectively, or with sulfate salts such as Magnesium or Ammonium sulfates or with highly alkaline pH of 9 or 11.5, dramatically reduced transmission of LGTV via infectious exosomes (human or tick cells-derived) to human neuronal (SH-SY5Y) cells or skin keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), respectively. Conclusion Overall, this study suggests that exosome-mediated viral transmission of vector-borne pathogens to the vertebrate host or the viral dissemination and replication within or between the mammalian host can be reduced by altering the ability of exosomes with basic changes in temperatures, salts or pH conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehinde Damilare Fasae
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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10
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Rice S, Clark M, Robinson-Bostom L. Localized Medium-Vessel Vasculitis From a Tick Bite. Am J Dermatopathol 2021; 43:932-934. [PMID: 34797789 DOI: 10.1097/dad.0000000000002035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Tick bites are known to induce a variety of inflammatory reaction patterns. Here, we present a novel case of medium-vessel vasculitis as a localized response to a known tick bite. It is important to recognize the histology associated with a tick bite response to prevent misdiagnosis and potential overtreatment of a vasculitic condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna Rice
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA
| | - Mary Clark
- Department of Pathology, Roger Williams Medical Center/Boston University School of Medicine, Providence, RI; and
| | - Leslie Robinson-Bostom
- Department of Dermatology, Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI
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11
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Sajid A, Matias J, Arora G, Kurokawa C, DePonte K, Tang X, Lynn G, Wu MJ, Pal U, Strank NO, Pardi N, Narasimhan S, Weissman D, Fikrig E. mRNA vaccination induces tick resistance and prevents transmission of the Lyme disease agent. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabj9827. [PMID: 34788080 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abj9827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Ixodes scapularis ticks transmit many pathogens that cause human disease, including Borrelia burgdorferi. Acquired resistance to I. scapularis due to repeated tick exposure has the potential to prevent tick-borne infectious diseases, and salivary proteins have been postulated to contribute to this process. We examined the ability of lipid nanoparticle–containing nucleoside-modified mRNAs encoding 19 I. scapularis salivary proteins (19ISP) to enhance the recognition of a tick bite and diminish I. scapularis engorgement on a host and thereby prevent B. burgdorferi infection. Guinea pigs were immunized with a 19ISP mRNA vaccine and subsequently challenged with I. scapularis. Animals administered 19ISP developed erythema at the bite site shortly after ticks began to attach, and these ticks fed poorly, marked by early detachment and decreased engorgement weights. 19ISP immunization also impeded B. burgdorferi transmission in the guinea pigs. The effective induction of local redness early after I. scapularis attachment and the inability of the ticks to take a normal blood meal suggest that 19ISP may be used either alone or in conjunction with traditional pathogen-based vaccines for the prevention of Lyme disease, and potentially other tick-borne infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andaleeb Sajid
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Jaqueline Matias
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Gunjan Arora
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Cheyne Kurokawa
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Kathleen DePonte
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Xiaotian Tang
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Geoffrey Lynn
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Ming-Jie Wu
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Utpal Pal
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20472, USA
- Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, College Park, MD 20472, USA
| | - Norma Olivares Strank
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Norbert Pardi
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sukanya Narasimhan
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Drew Weissman
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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12
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Bhattacharya S, Nuttall PA. Phylogenetic Analysis Indicates That Evasin-Like Proteins of Ixodid Ticks Fall Into Three Distinct Classes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:769542. [PMID: 34746035 PMCID: PMC8569228 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.769542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are structurally related proteins that activate leucocyte migration in response to injury or infection. Tick saliva contains chemokine-binding proteins or evasins which likely neutralize host chemokine function and inflammation. Biochemical characterisation of 50 evasins from Ixodes, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus shows that they fall into two functional classes, A and B, with exclusive binding to either CC- or CXC- chemokines, respectively. Class A evasins, EVA1 and EVA4 have a four-disulfide-bonded core, whereas the class B evasin EVA3 has a three-disulfide-bonded “knottin” structure. All 29 class B evasins have six cysteine residues conserved with EVA3, arrangement of which defines a Cys6-motif. Nineteen of 21 class A evasins have eight cysteine residues conserved with EVA1/EVA4, the arrangement of which defines a Cys8-motif. Two class A evasins from Ixodes (IRI01, IHO01) have less than eight cysteines. Many evasin-like proteins have been identified in tick salivary transcriptomes, but their phylogenetic relationship with respect to biochemically characterized evasins is not clear. Here, using BLAST searches of tick transcriptomes with biochemically characterized evasins, we identify 292 class A and 157 class B evasins and evasin-like proteins from Prostriate (Ixodes), and Metastriate (Amblyomma, Dermacentor, Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus) ticks. Phylogenetic analysis shows that class A evasins/evasin-like proteins segregate into two classes, A1 and A2. Class A1 members are exclusive to Metastriate ticks and typically have a Cys8-motif and include EVA1 and EVA4. Class A2 members are exclusive to Prostriate ticks, lack the Cys8-motif, and include IHO01 and IRI01. Class B evasins/evasin-like proteins are present in both Prostriate and Metastriate lineages, typically have a Cys6-motif, and include EVA3. Most evasins/evasin-like proteins in Metastriate ticks belong to class A1, whereas in Prostriate species they are predominantly class B. In keeping with this, the majority of biochemically characterized Metastriate evasins bind CC-chemokines, whereas the majority of Prostriate evasins bind CXC-chemokines. While the origin of the structurally dissimilar classes A1 and A2 is yet unresolved, these results suggest that class B evasin-like proteins arose before the divergence of Prostriate and Metastriate lineages and likely functioned to neutralize CXC-chemokines and support blood feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoumo Bhattacharya
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust, Oxford, United Kingdom
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13
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Trentelman JJA, Tomás-Cortázar J, Knorr S, Barriales D, Hajdusek O, Sima R, Ersoz JI, Narasimhan S, Fikrig E, Nijhof AM, Anguita J, Hovius JW. Probing an Ixodes ricinus salivary gland yeast surface display with tick-exposed human sera to identify novel candidates for an anti-tick vaccine. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15745. [PMID: 34344917 PMCID: PMC8333314 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92538-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
In Europe, Ixodes ricinus is the most important vector of human infectious diseases, most notably Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis virus. Multiple non-natural hosts of I. ricinus have shown to develop immunity after repeated tick bites. Tick immunity has also been shown to impair B. burgdorferi transmission. Most interestingly, multiple tick bites reduced the likelihood of contracting Lyme borreliosis in humans. A vaccine that mimics tick immunity could therefore potentially prevent Lyme borreliosis in humans. A yeast surface display library (YSD) of nymphal I. ricinus salivary gland genes expressed at 24, 48 and 72 h into tick feeding was constructed and probed with antibodies from humans repeatedly bitten by ticks, identifying twelve immunoreactive tick salivary gland proteins (TSGPs). From these, three proteins were selected for vaccination studies. An exploratory vaccination study in cattle showed an anti-tick effect when all three antigens were combined. However, immunization of rabbits did not provide equivalent levels of protection. Our results show that YSD is a powerful tool to identify immunodominant antigens in humans exposed to tick bites, yet vaccination with the three selected TSGPs did not provide protection in the present form. Future efforts will focus on exploring the biological functions of these proteins, consider alternative systems for recombinant protein generation and vaccination platforms and assess the potential of the other identified immunogenic TSGPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jos J A Trentelman
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam Multidisciplinary Lyme Borreliosis Center, Amsterdam UMC, Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Julen Tomás-Cortázar
- CIC bioGUNE-Basque Research and Technology Alliance, 48160, Derio, Spain.,UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Sarah Knorr
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Diego Barriales
- CIC bioGUNE-Basque Research and Technology Alliance, 48160, Derio, Spain
| | - Ondrej Hajdusek
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Sima
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jasmin I Ersoz
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam Multidisciplinary Lyme Borreliosis Center, Amsterdam UMC, Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sukanya Narasimhan
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ard M Nijhof
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Juan Anguita
- CIC bioGUNE-Basque Research and Technology Alliance, 48160, Derio, Spain.,Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48012, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Joppe W Hovius
- Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam Multidisciplinary Lyme Borreliosis Center, Amsterdam UMC, Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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van Oosterwijk JG, Wikel SK. Resistance to Ticks and the Path to Anti-Tick and Transmission Blocking Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:725. [PMID: 34358142 PMCID: PMC8310300 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9070725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The medical and veterinary public health importance of ticks and tick-borne pathogens is increasing due to the expansion of the geographic ranges of both ticks and pathogens, increasing tick populations, growing incidence of tick-borne diseases, emerging tick transmitted pathogens, and continued challenges of achieving effective and sustained tick control. The past decades show an increasing interest in the immune-mediated control of tick infestations and pathogen transmission through the use of vaccines. Bovine tick resistance induced by repeated infestations was reported over a century ago. This review addresses the phenomena and immunological underpinning of resistance to tick infestation by livestock and laboratory animals; the scope of tick countermeasures to host immune defenses; and the impact of genomics, functional genomics, and proteomics on dissecting complex tick-host-pathogen interactions. From early studies utilizing tick tissue extracts to salivary gland derived molecules and components of physiologically important pathways in tick gut and other tissues, an increased understanding of these relationships, over time, impacted the evolution of anti-tick vaccine antigen selection. Novel antigens continue to emerge, including increased interest in the tick microbiome. Anti-tick and transmission blocking vaccines targeting pathogen reservoirs have the potential to disrupt enzootic cycles and reduce human, companion, domestic animal, and wildlife exposure to infected ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen K. Wikel
- US Biologic Inc., 20 Dudley Street, Memphis, TN 38103, USA;
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518, USA
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15
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Kitsou C, Fikrig E, Pal U. Tick host immunity: vector immunomodulation and acquired tick resistance. Trends Immunol 2021; 42:554-574. [PMID: 34074602 PMCID: PMC10089699 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2021.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ticks have an unparalleled ability to parasitize diverse land vertebrates. Their natural persistence and vector competence are supported by the evolution of sophisticated hematophagy and remarkable host immune-evasion activities. We analyze the immunomodulatory roles of tick saliva which facilitates their acquisition of a blood meal from natural hosts and allows pathogen transmission. We also discuss the contrasting immunological events of tick-host associations in non-reservoir or incidental hosts, in which the development of acquired tick resistance can deter tick attachment. A critical appraisal of the intricate immunobiology of tick-host associations can plant new seeds of innovative research and contribute to the development of novel preventive strategies against ticks and tick-transmitted infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Kitsou
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Utpal Pal
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA; Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, College Park, MD, USA.
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16
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Ng YQ, Gupte TP, Krause PJ. Tick hypersensitivity and human tick-borne diseases. Parasite Immunol 2021; 43:e12819. [PMID: 33428244 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Immune-mediated hypersensitivity reactions to ticks and other arthropods are well documented. Hypersensitivity to ixodid (hard bodied) ticks is especially important because they transmit infection to humans throughout the world and are responsible for most vector-borne diseases in the United States. The causative pathogens of these diseases are transmitted in tick saliva that is secreted into the host while taking a blood meal. Tick salivary proteins inhibit blood coagulation, block the local itch response and impair host anti-tick immune responses, which allows completion of the blood meal. Anti-tick host immune responses are heightened upon repeated tick exposure and have the potential to abrogate tick salivary protein function, interfere with the blood meal and prevent pathogen transmission. Although there have been relatively few tick bite hypersensitivity studies in humans compared with those in domestic animals and laboratory animal models, areas of human investigation have included local hypersensitivity reactions at the site of tick attachment and generalized hypersensitivity reactions. Progress in the development of anti-tick vaccines for humans has been slow due to the complexities of such vaccines but has recently accelerated. This approach holds great promise for future prevention of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Quan Ng
- Yale School of Public Health and Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Trisha P Gupte
- Yale School of Public Health and Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Peter J Krause
- Yale School of Public Health and Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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17
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Bockenstedt LK, Wooten RM, Baumgarth N. Immune Response to Borrelia: Lessons from Lyme Disease Spirochetes. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2020; 42:145-190. [PMID: 33289684 PMCID: PMC10842262 DOI: 10.21775/cimb.042.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian host responds to infection with Borrelia spirochetes through a highly orchestrated immune defense involving innate and adaptive effector functions aimed toward limiting pathogen burdens, minimizing tissue injury, and preventing subsequent reinfection. The evolutionary adaptation of Borrelia spirochetes to their reservoir mammalian hosts may allow for its persistence despite this immune defense. This review summarizes our current understanding of the host immune response to B. burgdorferi sensu lato, the most widely studied Borrelia spp. and etiologic agent of Lyme borreliosis. Pertinent literature will be reviewed with emphasis on in vitro, ex vivo and animal studies that influenced our understanding of both the earliest responses to B. burgdorferi as it enters the mammalian host and those that evolve as spirochetes disseminate and establish infection in multiple tissues. Our focus is on the immune response of inbred mice, the most commonly studied animal model of B. burgdorferi infection and surrogate for one of this pathogen's principle natural reservoir hosts, the white-footed deer mouse. Comparison will be made to the immune responses of humans with Lyme borreliosis. Our goal is to provide an understanding of the dynamics of the mammalian immune response during infection with B. burgdorferi and its relation to the outcomes in reservoir (mouse) and non-reservoir (human) hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda K. Bockenstedt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8031, USA
| | - R. Mark Wooten
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Toledo Health Science Campus, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Nicole Baumgarth
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases and Dept. Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis CA 95616, USA
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18
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Aounallah H, Bensaoud C, M'ghirbi Y, Faria F, Chmelar JI, Kotsyfakis M. Tick Salivary Compounds for Targeted Immunomodulatory Therapy. Front Immunol 2020; 11:583845. [PMID: 33072132 PMCID: PMC7538779 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.583845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunodeficiency disorders and autoimmune diseases are common, but a lack of effective targeted drugs and the side-effects of existing drugs have stimulated interest in finding therapeutic alternatives. Naturally derived substances are a recognized source of novel drugs, and tick saliva is increasingly recognized as a rich source of bioactive molecules with specific functions. Ticks use their saliva to overcome the innate and adaptive host immune systems. Their saliva is a rich cocktail of molecules including proteins, peptides, lipid derivatives, and recently discovered non-coding RNAs that inhibit or modulate vertebrate immune reactions. A number of tick saliva and/or salivary gland molecules have been characterized and shown to be promising candidates for drug development for vertebrate immune diseases. However, further validation of these molecules at the molecular, cellular, and organism levels is now required to progress lead candidates to clinical testing. In this paper, we review the data on the immuno-pharmacological aspects of tick salivary compounds characterized in vitro and/or in vivo and present recent findings on non-coding RNAs that might be exploitable as immunomodulatory therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajer Aounallah
- Institut Pasteur de Tunis, LR19IPTX, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia.,Innovation and Development Laboratory, Innovation and Development Center, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Chaima Bensaoud
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Youmna M'ghirbi
- Institut Pasteur de Tunis, LR19IPTX, Service d'Entomologie Médicale, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Fernanda Faria
- Innovation and Development Laboratory, Innovation and Development Center, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jindr Ich Chmelar
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Michail Kotsyfakis
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia.,Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czechia
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19
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Bernard Q, Grillon A, Lenormand C, Ehret-Sabatier L, Boulanger N. Skin Interface, a Key Player for Borrelia Multiplication and Persistence in Lyme Borreliosis. Trends Parasitol 2020; 36:304-314. [PMID: 32007396 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2019.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The skin plays a key role in vector-borne diseases because it is the site where the arthropod coinoculates pathogens and its saliva. Lyme borreliosis, particularly well investigated in this context, is a multisystemic infectious disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and transmitted by the hard tick Ixodes. Numerous in vitro studies were conducted to better understand the role of specific skin cells and tick saliva in host defense, vector feeding, and pathogen transmission. The skin was also evidenced in various animal models as the site of bacterial multiplication and persistence. We present the achievements in this field as well as the gaps that impede comprehensive knowledge of the disease pathophysiology and the development of efficient diagnostic tools and vaccines in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Antoine Grillon
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Cédric Lenormand
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France; Clinique Dermatologique, Hôpital Universitaire de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laurence Ehret-Sabatier
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse BioOrganique, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut de Bactériologie, Université de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, F-67000 Strasbourg, France; French National Reference Center on Lyme Borreliosis, CHRU, F-67000 Strasbourg, France.
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20
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Bakshi M, Kim TK, Porter L, Mwangi W, Mulenga A. Amblyomma americanum ticks utilizes countervailing pro and anti-inflammatory proteins to evade host defense. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008128. [PMID: 31756216 PMCID: PMC6897422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Feeding and transmission of tick-borne disease (TBD) agents by ticks are facilitated by tick saliva proteins (TSP). Thus, defining functional roles of TSPs in tick evasion is expected to reveal potential targets in tick-antigen based vaccines to prevent TBD infections. This study describes two types of Amblyomma americanum TSPs: those that are similar to LPS activate macrophage (MΦ) to express pro-inflammation (PI) markers and another set that suppresses PI marker expression by activated MΦ. We show that similar to LPS, three recombinant (r) A. americanum insulin-like growth factor binding-related proteins (rAamIGFBP-rP1, rAamIGFBP-rP6S, and rAamIGFBP-rP6L), hereafter designated as PI-rTSPs, stimulated both PBMC -derived MΦ and mice RAW 267.4 MΦ to express PI co-stimulatory markers, CD40, CD80, and CD86 and cytokines, TNFα, IL-1, and IL-6. In contrast, two A. americanum tick saliva serine protease inhibitors (serpins), AAS27 and AAS41, hereafter designated as anti-inflammatory (AI) rTSPs, on their own did not affect MΦ function or suppress expression of PI markers, but enhanced expression of AI cytokines (IL-10 and TGFβ) in MΦ that were pre-activated by LPS or PI-rTSPs. Mice paw edema test demonstrated that in vitro validated PI- and AI-rTSPs are functional in vivo since injection of HEK293-expressed PI-rTSPs (individually or as a cocktail) induced edema comparable to carrageenan-induced edema and was characterized by upregulation of CD40, CD80, CD86, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and chemokines: CXCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, and CCL11, whereas the AI-rTSPs (individually and cocktail) were suppressive. We propose that the tick may utilize countervailing PI and AI TSPs to regulate evasion of host immune defenses whereby TSPs such as rAamIGFBP-rPs activate host immune cells and proteins such as AAS27 and AAS41 suppress the activated immune cells. Several studies have documented immuno-suppressive activities in whole tick saliva and salivary gland protein extracts. We have made contribution toward understanding the molecular basis of tick feeding, as we have described functions of defined tick saliva immuno-modulatory proteins. We have shown that A. americanum injects two groups of functionally opposed tick saliva proteins: those that could counter-intuitively be characterized as pro-host defense, and those that are expected to have anti-host immune defense functions. Based on our data, we propose that the tick evades host defense using countervailing pro- and anti- inflammatory proteins in which the pro-host defense tick saliva proteins stimulate host immune cells such as macrophages, and the anti-host defense tick saliva proteins suppress functions of the activated immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Bakshi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Tae Kwon Kim
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lindsay Porter
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Waithaka Mwangi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Albert Mulenga
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, TAMU, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Dissociating effect of salivary gland extract from Ixodes ricinus on human fibroblasts: Potential impact on Borrelia transmission. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 10:433-441. [PMID: 30595500 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of pathogen transmission is essential for the development of strategies to reduce arthropod-borne diseases. The pharmaco- and immunomodulatory properties of insect and acarine saliva play an essential role in the efficiency of pathogen transmission. The skin as the site where arthropod saliva and pathogens are inoculated - represents the key interface in vector-borne diseases. We identified tick molecules potentially involved in pathogen transmission, using micro-HPLC and mass spectrometry, followed by in vitro assays on human skin cells. Histone H4 isolated from Ixodes ricinus salivary gland extract was identified as a molecule with a dissociating effect on human primary fibroblasts. This histone might be involved in the formation of the feeding pool formed around the tick mouthparts and responsible of tissue necrosis in the vertebrate host. Thanks to its selective antimicrobial activity, it may also sterilize the feeding pool and facilitate transmission of pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato.
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22
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Host-specific expression of Ixodes scapularis salivary genes. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2018; 10:386-397. [PMID: 30545615 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Ixodes scapularis vectors several pathogens including Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease. Nymphal and larval stages, and the pathogens transmitted by I. scapularis are maintained in a zoonotic cycle involving rodent reservoir hosts, predominantly Peromyscus leucopus. Humans are not reservoir hosts, however, accidental encounters of infected ticks with humans, results in pathogen transmission to the human host. Laboratory models of non-reservoir hosts such as guinea pigs develop a strong immune response to tick salivary proteins and reject ticks upon repeated tick infestations. Anecdotal and scientific evidence suggests that humans that get frequent tick bites might also develop resistance to ticks. Mus musculus, the laboratory model of natural host, does not develop resistance to I. scapularis upon repeated tick infestations. Addressing this dichotomy in vector-host interaction, we present data that suggest that the salivary transcriptome and proteome composition is different in mouse and guinea pig-fed I. scapularis, and that these differences might contribute to differences in host immune responses. These findings reveal a new insight into vector-host interactions and offer a functional paradigm to better understand the phenomenon of acquired tick-resistance.
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Cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions against unfed tick larval extract of Rhipicephalus evertsi in South African Mutton Merino, Namaqua Afrikaner and Dorper sheep. Small Rumin Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2018.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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24
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Ticks and Tick-Borne Infections: Complex Ecology, Agents, and Host Interactions. Vet Sci 2018; 5:vetsci5020060. [PMID: 29925800 PMCID: PMC6024845 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5020060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks transmit the most diverse array of infectious agents of any arthropod vector. Both ticks and the microbes they transmit are recognized as significant threats to human and veterinary public health. This article examines the potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of ticks and the infections they transmit; the emergence of novel tick-borne pathogens, increasing geographic range and incidence of tick-borne infections; and advances in the characterization of tick saliva mediated modulation of host defenses and the implications of those interactions for transmission, establishment, and control of tick infestation and tick-borne infectious agents.
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25
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Anderson JM, Moore IN, Nagata BM, Ribeiro JMC, Valenzuela JG, Sonenshine DE. Ticks, Ixodes scapularis, Feed Repeatedly on White-Footed Mice despite Strong Inflammatory Response: An Expanding Paradigm for Understanding Tick-Host Interactions. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1784. [PMID: 29326693 PMCID: PMC5741700 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks transmit infectious agents including bacteria, viruses and protozoa. However, their transmission may be compromised by host resistance to repeated tick feeding. Increasing host resistance to repeated tick bites is well known in laboratory animals, including intense inflammation at the bite sites. However, it is not known whether this also occurs in wild rodents such as white-footed mice, Peromyscus leucopus, and other wildlife, or if it occurs at all. According to the “host immune incompetence” hypothesis, if these mice do not have a strong inflammatory response, they would not reject repeated tick bites by Ixodes scapularis. To test this hypothesis, histopathological studies were done comparing dermal inflammation in P. leucopus versus guinea pigs, Cavia porcellus, repeatedly infested with I. scapularis. In P. leucopus, the immune cell composition was like that seen in laboratory mouse models, with some differences. However, there was a broad sessile lesion with intact dermal architecture, likely enabling the ticks to continue feeding unimpeded. In contrast, in C. porcellus, there was a relatively similar mixed cellular profile, but there also was a large, leukocyte-filled cavitary lesion and scab-like hyperkeratotic changes to the epidermal layer, along with itching and apparent pain. Ticks attached to sensitized C. porcellus fed poorly or were dislodged, presumably due to the weakened anchoring of the tick’s mouthparts cemented in the heavily inflamed and disintegrating dermal tissues. This is the first time that the architecture of the skin lesions has been recognized as a major factor in understanding tick–host tolerance versus tick bite rejection. These findings broadly strengthen previous work done on lab animal models but also help explain why I. scapularis can repeatedly parasitize white-footed mice, supporting the “immune evasion theory” but cannot repeatedly parasitize other, non-permissive hosts such as guinea pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Anderson
- Vector Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Ian N Moore
- Infectious Disease and Pathogenesis Section, Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Bianca M Nagata
- Infectious Disease and Pathogenesis Section, Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States
| | - José M C Ribeiro
- Vector Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Jesus G Valenzuela
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Daniel E Sonenshine
- Vector Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIH), Rockville, MD, United States.,Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
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26
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Bernard Q, Wang Z, Di Nardo A, Boulanger N. Interaction of primary mast cells with Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu stricto): role in transmission and dissemination in C57BL/6 mice. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:313. [PMID: 28655322 PMCID: PMC5488306 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2243-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Borrelia burgdorferi (sensulato), the causative agent of Lyme borreliosis is a bacterium transmitted by hard ticks, Ixodes spp. Bacteria are injected into the host skin during the tick blood meal with tick saliva. There, Borrelia and saliva interact together with skin cells such as keratinocytes, fibroblasts, mast cells and other specific immune cells before disseminating to target organs. Methods To study the role of mast cells in the transmission of Lyme borreliosis, we isolated mouse primary mast cells from bone marrow and incubated them in the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu stricto) and tick salivary gland extract. We further analyzed their potential role in vivo, in a mouse model of deficient in mast cells (Kitwsh−/− mice). Results To our knowledge, we report here for the first time the bacteria ability to induce the inflammatory response of mouse primary mast cells. We show that OspC, a major surface lipoprotein involved in the early transmission of Borrelia, induces the degranulation of primary mast cells but has a limited effect on the overall inflammatory response of these cells. In contrast, whole bacteria have an opposite effect. We also show that mast cell activation is significantly inhibited by tick salivary gland extract. Finally, we demonstrate that mast cells are likely not the only host cells involved in the early transmission and dissemination of Borrelia since the use of mast cell deficient Kitwsh−/− mice shows a limited impact on these two processes in the context of this mouse genetic background. Conclusions The absence of mast cells did not change the replication rate of Borrelia in the skin. However, in the absence of mast cells, Borrelia dissemination to the joints was faster. Mast cells do not control skin bacterial proliferation during primary infection and the establishment of the primary infection, as shown in the C57BL/6 mouse model studied. Nevertheless, the Borrelia induced cytotokine modulation on mast cells might be involved in long term and/or repeated infections and protect from Lyme borreliosis due to the development of a hypersensitivity to tick saliva. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2243-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Present address: Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, USA
| | - Zhenping Wang
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Anna Di Nardo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France. .,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France.
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27
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Šimo L, Kazimirova M, Richardson J, Bonnet SI. The Essential Role of Tick Salivary Glands and Saliva in Tick Feeding and Pathogen Transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:281. [PMID: 28690983 PMCID: PMC5479950 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
As long-term pool feeders, ticks have developed myriad strategies to remain discreetly but solidly attached to their hosts for the duration of their blood meal. The critical biological material that dampens host defenses and facilitates the flow of blood-thus assuring adequate feeding-is tick saliva. Saliva exhibits cytolytic, vasodilator, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive activity. This essential fluid is secreted by the salivary glands, which also mediate several other biological functions, including secretion of cement and hygroscopic components, as well as the watery component of blood as regards hard ticks. When salivary glands are invaded by tick-borne pathogens, pathogens may be transmitted via saliva, which is injected alternately with blood uptake during the tick bite. Both salivary glands and saliva thus play a key role in transmission of pathogenic microorganisms to vertebrate hosts. During their long co-evolution with ticks and vertebrate hosts, microorganisms have indeed developed various strategies to exploit tick salivary molecules to ensure both acquisition by ticks and transmission, local infection and systemic dissemination within the vertebrate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladislav Šimo
- UMR BIPAR, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
| | - Maria Kazimirova
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jennifer Richardson
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sarah I. Bonnet
- UMR BIPAR, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-EstMaisons-Alfort, France
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28
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Glatz M, Means T, Haas J, Steere AC, Müllegger RR. Characterization of the early local immune response to Ixodes ricinus tick bites in human skin. Exp Dermatol 2017; 26:263-269. [PMID: 27623398 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the immunomodulation by tick saliva during a natural tick bite in human skin, the site of the tick-host interaction. We examined the expression of chemokines, cytokines and leucocyte markers on the mRNA levels and histopathologic changes in human skin biopsies of tick bites (n=37) compared to unaffected skin (n=9). Early tick-bite skin lesions (<24 hours of tick attachment) were characterized by a predominance of macrophages and dendritic cells, elevated mRNA levels of macrophage chemoattractants (CCL2, CCL3, CCL4) and neutrophil chemoattractants (CXCL1, CXCL8), of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-1β, and the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-5. In contrast, the numbers of lymphocytes and mRNA levels of lymphocyte cell markers (CD4, CD8, CD19), lymphocyte chemoattractants (CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, CXCL13, CCL1, CCL22), dendritic cell chemoattractants (CCL20), and other pro- (IL-6, IL-12p40, IFN-γ, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) did not differ from normal skin. With longer tick attachment (>24 hours), the numbers of innate immune cells and mediators (not significantly) declined, whereas the numbers of lymphocytes (not significantly) increased. Natural tick bites by Ixodes ricinus ticks initially elicit a strong local innate immune response in human skin. Beyond 24 hours of tick attachment, this response usually becomes less, perhaps because of immunomodulation by tick saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Glatz
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Allergy Unit, Department of Dermatology, University and University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Terry Means
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Josef Haas
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Allen C Steere
- Division of Rheumatology Allergy and Immunology, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert R Müllegger
- Department of Dermatology, State Hospital Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria.,Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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29
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Hermance ME, Santos RI, Kelly BC, Valbuena G, Thangamani S. Immune Cell Targets of Infection at the Tick-Skin Interface during Powassan Virus Transmission. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155889. [PMID: 27203436 PMCID: PMC4874601 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Powassan virus (POWV) is a tick-borne flavivirus that can result in a severe neuroinvasive disease with 50% of survivors displaying long-term neurological sequelae. Human POWV cases have been documented in Canada, the United States, and Russia. Although the number of reported POWV human cases has increased in the past fifteen years, POWV remains one of the less studied human pathogenic flaviviruses. Ixodes ticks are the vectors for POWV, and the virus is transmitted to a host’s skin very early during the tick feeding process. Central to the successful transmission of a tick-borne pathogen are complex interactions between the host immune response and early tick-mediated immunomodulation, all of which initially occur at the skin interface. In our prior work, we examined the cutaneous immune gene expression during the early stages of POWV-infected Ixodes scapularis feeding. The present study serves to further investigate the skin interface by identifying early cell targets of infection at the POWV-infected tick feeding site. An in vivo infection model consisting of POWV-infected ticks feeding on mice for short durations was used in this study. Skin biopsies from the tick feeding sites were harvested at various early time points, enabling us to examine the skin histopathology and detect POWV viral antigen in immune cells present at the tick feeding site. The histopathology from the present study demonstrates that neutrophil and mononuclear cell infiltrates are recruited earlier to the feeding site of a POWV-infected tick versus an uninfected tick. This is the first report demonstrating that macrophages and fibroblasts contain POWV antigens, which suggests that they are early cellular targets of infection at the tick feeding site. These data provide key insights towards defining the complex interactions between the host immune response and early tick-mediated immunomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan E. Hermance
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Rodrigo I. Santos
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Brent C. Kelly
- Department of Dermatology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Gustavo Valbuena
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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30
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Bernard Q, Gallo RL, Jaulhac B, Nakatsuji T, Luft B, Yang X, Boulanger N. Ixodes tick saliva suppresses the keratinocyte cytokine response to TLR2/TLR3 ligands during early exposure to Lyme borreliosis. Exp Dermatol 2015; 25:26-31. [PMID: 26307945 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Ixodes hard tick induces skin injury by its sophisticated biting process. Its saliva plays a key role to enable an efficient blood meal that lasts for several days. We hypothesized that this feeding process may also be exploited by pathogens to facilitate their transmission, especially in the context of arthropod-borne diseases. To test this, we used Lyme borreliosis as a model. This bacterial infection is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato transmitted by Ixodes. We co-incubated Borrelia with human keratinocytes in the presence of poly (I: C), a dsRNA TLR3 agonist generated by skin injury. This induced a strong cytokine response from human primary keratinocytes that was much greater than that induced by Borrelia alone. OspC, a TLR2/1 agonist and a major surface lipoprotein of Borrelia also amplified the process. Interestingly, tick saliva inhibited cytokine responses by keratinocytes to these TLR agonists. We propose that Borrelia uses the immunoprivileged site produced by tick saliva to facilitate its transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Bernard
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Richard L Gallo
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Benoît Jaulhac
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France
| | - Teruaki Nakatsuji
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin Luft
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Xiahoua Yang
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- EA7290 Virulence bactérienne précoce: groupe borréliose de Lyme, Fédération de médecine Translationnelle et Faculté de Pharmacie de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Reference Borrelia, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Strasbourg, France
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31
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Shattuck WMC, Dyer MC, Desrosiers J, Fast LD, Terry FE, Martin WD, Moise L, De Groot AS, Mather TN. Partial pathogen protection by tick-bite sensitization and epitope recognition in peptide-immunized HLA DR3 transgenic mice. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2015; 10:3048-59. [PMID: 25517089 PMCID: PMC5443055 DOI: 10.4161/21645515.2014.985498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are notorious vectors of disease for humans, and many species of ticks transmit multiple pathogens, sometimes in the same tick bite. Accordingly, a broad-spectrum vaccine that targets vector ticks and pathogen transmission at the tick/host interface, rather than multiple vaccines against every possible tickborne pathogen, could become an important tool for resolving an emerging public health crisis. The concept for such a tick protective vaccine comes from observations of an acquired tick resistance (ATR) that can develop in non-natural hosts of ticks following sensitization to tick salivary components. Mice are commonly used as models to study immune responses to human pathogens but normal mice are natural hosts for many species of ticks and fail to develop ATR. We evaluated HLA DR3 transgenic (tg) "humanized" mice as a potential model of ATR and assessed the possibility of using this animal model for tick protective vaccine discovery studies. Serial tick infestations with pathogen-free Ixodes scapularis ticks were used to tick-bite sensitize HLA DR3 tg mice. Sensitization resulted in a cytokine skew favoring a Th2 bias as well as partial (57%) protection to infection with Lyme disease spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi) following infected tick challenge when compared to tick naïve counterparts. I. scapularis salivary gland homogenate (SGH) and a group of immunoinformatic-predicted T cell epitopes identified from the I. scapularis salivary transcriptome were used separately to vaccinate HLA DR3 tg mice, and these mice also were assessed for both pathogen protection and epitope recognition. Reduced pathogen transmission along with a Th2 skew resulted from SGH vaccination, while no significant protection and a possible T regulatory bias was seen in epitope-vaccinated mice. This study provides the first proof-of-concept for using HLA DR tg "humanized" mice for studying the potential tick protective effects of immunoinformatic- or otherwise-derived tick salivary components as tickborne disease vaccines.
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Key Words
- ATR, Acquired tick resistance
- B6, C57BL/6
- Bb, Borrelia burgdorferi; Mn, Mus musculus
- ConA, Concanavalin A
- EpiMatrix
- HLA DR3, Human leukocyte antigen, D related 3
- IFN-γ, Interferon gamma
- IL-4, Interleukin-4
- Ixodes scapularis
- LPP, Liposomal peptide pool
- Lyme disease
- NPP, Naked peptide pool
- NR, No response
- SFC, Spot forming cells
- SGH, Salivary gland homogenate
- TBD, Tickborne disease
- epitope discovery
- epitope-based vaccine
- immunization
- immunoinformatic
- salivary gland
- tg, Transgenic
- tick protective vaccine
- transgenic mouse model
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M C Shattuck
- a Center for Vector-Borne Disease ; University of Rhode Island ; Kingston , RI USA
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Kim J, Kang HA, Kim SS, Joo HS, Chong WS. Perianal tick-bite lesion caused by a fully engorged female Amblyomma testudinarium. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2014; 52:685-90. [PMID: 25548423 PMCID: PMC4277034 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2014.52.6.685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A perianal tick and the surrounding skin were surgically excised from a 73-year-old man residing in a southwestern costal area of the Korean Peninsula. Microscopically a deep penetrating lesion was formed beneath the attachment site. Dense and mixed inflammatory cell infiltrations occurred in the dermis and subcutaneous tissues around the feeding lesion. Amorphous eosinophilic cement was abundant in the center of the lesion. The tick had Y-shaped anal groove, long mouthparts, ornate scutum, comma-shaped spiracular plate, distinct eyes, and fastoons. It was morphologically identified as a fully engorged female Amblyomma testudinarium. This is the third human case of Amblyomma tick infection in Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Kim
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Seonam University, Namwon 590-711, Korea
| | - Haeng An Kang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Kangmoon Surgical Clinic, Gwangju 502-835, Korea
| | - Sung Sun Kim
- Department of Pathology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju 501-746, Korea
| | - Hyun Soo Joo
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Seonam University, Namwon 590-711, Korea
| | - Won Seog Chong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of medicine, Seonam University, Namwon 590-711, Korea
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Wikel S. Ticks and tick-borne pathogens at the cutaneous interface: host defenses, tick countermeasures, and a suitable environment for pathogen establishment. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:337. [PMID: 24312085 PMCID: PMC3833115 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are unique among hematophagous arthropods by continuous attachment to host skin and blood feeding for days; complexity and diversity of biologically active molecules differentially expressed in saliva of tick species; their ability to modulate the host defenses of pain and itch, hemostasis, inflammation, innate and adaptive immunity, and wound healing; and, the diverse array of infectious agents they transmit. All of these interactions occur at the cutaneous interface in a complex sequence of carefully choreographed host defense responses and tick countermeasures resulting in an environment that facilitates successful blood feeding and establishment of tick-borne infectious agents within the host. Here, we examine diverse patterns of tick attachment to host skin, blood feeding mechanisms, salivary gland transcriptomes, bioactive molecules in tick saliva, timing of pathogen transmission, and host responses to tick bite. Ticks engage and modulate cutaneous and systemic immune defenses involving keratinocytes, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T cell subpopulations (Th1, Th2, Th17, Treg), B cells, neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, endothelial cells, cytokines, chemokines, complement, and extracellular matrix. A framework is proposed that integrates tick induced changes of skin immune effectors with their ability to respond to tick-borne pathogens. Implications of these changes are addressed. What are the consequences of tick modulation of host cutaneous defenses? Does diversity of salivary gland transcriptomes determine differential modulation of host inflammation and immune defenses and therefore, in part, the clades of pathogens effectively transmitted by different tick species? Do ticks create an immunologically modified cutaneous environment that enhances specific pathogen establishment? Can tick saliva molecules be used to develop vaccines that block pathogen transmission?
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Wikel
- Department of Medical Sciences, Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine, Quinnipiac University Hamden, CT, USA
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34
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Sakhon OS, Severo MS, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. A Nod to disease vectors: mitigation of pathogen sensing by arthropod saliva. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:308. [PMID: 24155744 PMCID: PMC3801108 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Arthropod saliva possesses anti-hemostatic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties that facilitate feeding and, inadvertently, dissemination of pathogens. Vector-borne diseases caused by these pathogens affect millions of people each year. Many studies address the impact of arthropod salivary proteins on various immunological components. However, whether and how arthropod saliva counters Nod-like (NLR) sensing remains elusive. NLRs are innate immune pattern recognition molecules involved in detecting microbial molecules and danger signals. Nod1/2 signaling results in activation of the nuclear factor-κB and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Caspase-1 NLRs regulate the inflammasome~– a protein scaffold that governs the maturation of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Recently, several vector-borne pathogens have been shown to induce NLR activation in immune cells. Here, we provide a brief overview of NLR signaling and discuss clinically relevant vector-borne pathogens recognized by NLR pathways. We also elaborate on possible anti-inflammatory effects of arthropod saliva on NLR signaling and microbial pathogenesis for the purpose of exchanging research perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia S Sakhon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA
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Embers ME, Narasimhan S. Vaccination against Lyme disease: past, present, and future. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:6. [PMID: 23407755 PMCID: PMC3569838 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Lyme borreliosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato bacteria transmitted to humans and domestic animals by the bite of an Ixodes spp. tick (deer tick). Despite improvements in diagnostic tests and public awareness of Lyme disease, the reported cases have increased over the past decade to approximately 30,000 per year. Limitations and failed public acceptance of a human vaccine, comprised of the outer surface A (OspA) lipoprotein of B. burgdorferi, led to its demise, yet current research has opened doors to new strategies for protection against Lyme disease. In this review we discuss the enzootic cycle of B. burgdorferi, and the unique opportunities it poses to block infection or transmission at different levels. We present the correlates of protection for this infectious disease, the pros and cons of past vaccination strategies, and new paradigms for future vaccine design that would include elements of both the vector and the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica E Embers
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA.
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36
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Heinze DM, Wikel SK, Thangamani S, Alarcon-Chaidez FJ. Transcriptional profiling of the murine cutaneous response during initial and subsequent infestations with Ixodes scapularis nymphs. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:26. [PMID: 22309607 PMCID: PMC3293053 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ixodes scapularis ticks are hematophagous arthropods capable of transmitting many infectious agents to humans. The process of blood feeding is an extended and continuous interplay between tick and host responses. While this process has been studied extensively in vitro, no global understanding of the host response to ticks has emerged. METHODS To address this issue, we used PCR-arrays to measure skin-specific expression of 233 discrete genes at 8 time points during primary and secondary infestations of mice with pathogen-free I. scapularis nymphs. Selected results were then validated at the mRNA and protein levels by additional real-time PCR and bioplex assay. RESULTS Primary infestation was characterized by the late induction of an innate immune response. Lectin pattern recognition receptors, cytokines, and chemokines were upregulated consistent with increased neutrophil and macrophage migration. Gene ontology and pathway analyses of downregulated genes suggested inhibition of gene transcription and Th17 immunity. During the secondary infestation, additional genes were modulated suggesting a broader involvement of immune cells including CD8 and CD4 positive T lymphocytes. The cytokine response showed a mixed Th1/Th2 profile with a potential for T regulatory cell activity. Key gene ontology clusters observed during the secondary infestation were cell migration and activation. Matrix metalloproteinases were upregulated, apoptosis-related genes were differentially modulated, and immunoreceptor signaling molecules were upregulated. In contrast, transcripts related to mitogenic, WNT, Hedgehog, and stress pathways were downregulated. CONCLUSIONS Our results support a model of tick feeding where lectin pattern recognition receptors orchestrate an innate inflammatory response during primary infestation that primes a mixed Th1/Th2 response upon secondary exposure. Tick feeding inhibits gene transcription and Th17 immunity. Salivary molecules may also inhibit upregulation of mitogenic, WNT, Hedgehog, and stress pathways and enhance the activity of T regulatory cells, production of IL-10, and suppressors of cytokine signaling molecules (SOCS). This study provides the first comprehensive transcriptional analysis of the murine host response at the I. scapularis bite site and suggests both a potential model of the host cutaneous response and candidate genes for further description and investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dar M Heinze
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
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Kern A, Collin E, Barthel C, Michel C, Jaulhac B, Boulanger N. Tick Saliva Represses Innate Immunity and Cutaneous Inflammation in a Murine Model of Lyme Disease. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:1343-50. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Kern
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Elody Collin
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Cathy Barthel
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Chloé Michel
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Benoît Jaulhac
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nathalie Boulanger
- EA4438, Physiopathologie et Médecine Translationnelle, Groupe Borréliose de Lyme, Facultés de pharmacie et de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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