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Correa-Morales F, González-Acosta C, Ibarra-Ojeda D, Moreno-García M. West Nile virus in Mexico: Why vectors matter for explaining the current absence of epidemics. Acta Trop 2024; 249:107065. [PMID: 37926384 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.107065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Since 2002, West Nile Virus (WNV) has been reported in 18 states in Mexico, either by PCR or serological testing. However, it is believed that the virus is present in more states. Only four states (out of 32) have reported confirmed human cases, and one state has serological evidence. In the country, WNV is present in mainly horses and birds, but its presence extends to crocodiles, felines, canines, swines, donkeys, caprines, antilopes, cattle, bats, and camelids. Positive mosquito species include Aedes and Culex spp. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain the absence of WNV epidemics in Latin America. Since some regions of Mexico and the United States share ecological and climatic conditions, these hypotheses may not be sufficient to account for the absence of WNV outbreaks or epidemics. This paper discusses the proposed ideas and attempts to contextualize them for Mexico, particularly for the U.S.-Mexico border, where WNV infections have been reported in humans, horses, and mosquitoes. We propose that integration of urban ecology and entomology knowledge is needed to better understand the absence of WN cases in Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabián Correa-Morales
- Centro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de Enfermedades. Benjamín Franklin 132, Escandón, Ciudad de México C.P. 11800, Mexico
| | - Cassandra González-Acosta
- Centro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de Enfermedades. Benjamín Franklin 132, Escandón, Ciudad de México C.P. 11800, Mexico
| | - David Ibarra-Ojeda
- Instituto de Servicios de Salud Pública del Estado de Baja California. Palacio Federal, 3er piso. Av. De los Pioneros #1005. Centro Cívico, Mexicali, Baja California 21000, Mexico
| | - Miguel Moreno-García
- Centro Nacional de Programas Preventivos y Control de Enfermedades. Benjamín Franklin 132, Escandón, Ciudad de México C.P. 11800, Mexico.
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Nunez-Avellaneda D, Tangudu C, Barrios-Palacios J, Machain-Williams C, Alarcón-Romero LDC, Zubillaga-Guerrero MI, Nunez-Avellaneda S, McKeen LA, Canche-Aguilar I, Loaeza-Díaz L, Blitvich BJ. Co-Circulation of All Four Dengue Viruses and Zika Virus in Guerrero, Mexico, 2019. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:458-465. [PMID: 33944623 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A clinical and entomological investigation was performed to identify flavivirus infections in humans and mosquitoes in impoverished areas of Guerrero, a coastal state in southwestern Mexico. A total of 639 patients with acute febrile illness and 830 resting female mosquitoes in low-income communities of Guerrero in 2019 were tested for evidence of flavivirus infection. Sera were collected from all patients and screened at a dilution of 1:20 by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) using dengue virus (DENV)2. A total of 431 (67.4%) patients were seropositive. Sera from a subset of seropositive patients (n = 263) were tested for flavivirus NS1 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Forty-eight (18.3%) sera contained viral antigen. All NS1-positive sera were titrated and further tested by PRNT using DENV-1 to -4, St. Louis encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, and Zika virus (ZIKV). Seven patients were seropositive for DENV-1, five patients were seropositive for DENV-2, one patient was seropositive for DENV-3, and two patients each were seropositive for DENV-4 and ZIKV. The remainder had secondary flavivirus infections or antibodies to an undetermined flavivirus. Comparative PRNTs were also performed on 60 randomly selected NS1-negative sera, identifying patients seropositive for DENV-2, DENV-3, and ZIKV. The entomological investigation yielded 736 Aedes aegypti and 94 Culex quinquefasciatus that were sorted into 183 pools and 20 pools, respectively. Mosquitoes were assayed for flavivirus RNA by RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. DENV-2 RNA was detected in three pools of A. aegypti. In summary, we provide evidence for the concurrent circulation of all four DENVs and ZIKV in Guerrero, Mexico. The public health authorities reported no cases of DENV-3, DENV-4, and ZIKV in Guerrero in 2019 and thus, we provide evidence of under-reporting in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chandra Tangudu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Jacqueline Barrios-Palacios
- Experimental Pathology Section, National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Carlos Machain-Williams
- Laboratorio de Arbovirologia, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales "Dr. Hideyo Noguchi," Universidad Autónoma de Yucatan, Merida, Mexico
| | - Luz Del Carmen Alarcón-Romero
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Citopatología e Histoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biologicas, Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | - Ma Isabel Zubillaga-Guerrero
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Citopatología e Histoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias Químico Biologicas, Universidad Autónoma de Guerrero, Chilpancingo, México
| | | | - Lauren A McKeen
- College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Israel Canche-Aguilar
- Departamento de Prevención y Control de Enfermedades Transmitidas por Vector en el Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo, Mexico
| | - Laura Loaeza-Díaz
- Laboratorio de Analisis Clínicos, Hospital General Raymundo Abarca Alarcón, Chilpancingo, Mexico
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Watts DM, Rodriguez CM, Palermo PM, Suarez V, Wong SJ, Orbegozo J, Dupuis AP, Kramer LD, Gonzalez FJ, Handel GA. Serosurvey for dengue virus infection among pregnant women in the West Nile virus enzootic community of El Paso Texas. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242889. [PMID: 33253280 PMCID: PMC7703982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
All 4 dengue viruses (DENV) cause sporadic outbreaks of human disease in the Rio Grande Valley along the US-Mexico border. In addition, West Nile virus (WNV) is enzootic in most border communities, and is the only arbovirus known to cause human disease in the El Paso, Texas community. In an effort to determine if DENV were also endemic in the El Paso community, a serosurvey was conducted among mothers at the time of delivery of their babies in selected hospitals. Cord-blood plasma samples obtained from mothers were tested for DENV antibody by an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA), plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) and a multiplex microsphere immunoassay. All DENV antibody positive plasma samples were also tested for WNV antibody by the same assays to consider the possibility that DENV antibody positive samples reflected WNV cross reactive antibody. The results indicated that 0.74% (11/1,472) of the mothers had a previous DENV infection and that 3.3% (48/1,472) had a previous WNV infection. Of these mothers, 0.20% (3/1,472) had antibody to both DENV and WNV as evidence of infection by both viruses. The results indicated that 0.2% (3/1472) of the mothers were positive for antibody to only WNV envelope, thus suggesting an undetermined flavivirus infection. Although 6 of the 11 DENV antibody positive mothers did not have a history of travel to a DENV endemic country, the findings of this survey provided further evidence of local transmission of WNV and suggested the possibility of focal autochthonous transmission of DENV in the El Paso community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas M. Watts
- Department of Biological Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
| | - Cynthia M. Rodriguez
- Department of Biological Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pedro M. Palermo
- Department of Biological Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
| | - Veronica Suarez
- Department of Biological Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
| | - Susan J. Wong
- Diagnostic Immunology Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, United States of America
| | - Jeanette Orbegozo
- Department of Biological Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
| | - Alan P. Dupuis
- Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, United States of America
| | - Laura D. Kramer
- Arbovirus Laboratory, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, United States of America
| | | | - Gilbert A. Handel
- Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, El Paso, Texas, United States of America
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Abstract
Mosquito-transmitted diseases represent one of the greatest health risks when traveling to tropical and sub-tropical countries. Only Japanese encephalitis and yellow fever can be avoided by inoculation, and only malaria can be prevented by chemoprophylaxis. Exposure prophylaxis is the only protection against all other mosquito-born diseases. These infections need to be carefully considered in the differential diagnosis of returning travelers, taking current epidemiology into account. This review discusses common infectious diseases and the options for their diagnosis and therapy.
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Laredo-Tiscareño SV, Garza-Hernandez JA, Salazar MI, De Luna-Santillana EJ, Tangudu CS, Cetina-Trejo RC, Doria-Cobos GL, Carmona-Aguirre SD, Garcia-Rejon JE, Machain-Williams C, Blitvich BJ, Pérez MAR. Surveillance for Flaviviruses Near the Mexico-U.S. Border: Co-circulation of Dengue Virus Serotypes 1, 2, and 3 and West Nile Virus in Tamaulipas, Northern Mexico, 2014-2016. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018; 99:1308-1317. [PMID: 30226141 PMCID: PMC6221250 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.18-0426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A clinical, serological, and molecular investigation was performed to determine the presence of dengue virus (DENV) and other flaviviruses among residents of the city of Reynosa, Tamaulipas, on the Mexico-U.S. border in 2014-2016. The sample population consisted of 2,355 patients with suspected dengue, in addition to 346 asymptomatic individuals recruited during a household-based epidemiological investigation designed to identify flavivirus seroconversions. Sera were collected from patients with suspected dengue in the acute phase of illness and from asymptomatic individuals at enrollment and every 5-7 months for 19 months. Sera from suspected dengue patients were tested for DENV antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and select antigen-positive sera were further tested using a serotype-specific, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Sera from the household cohort were tested for flavivirus-reactive antibodies by immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgG ELISAs using DENV antigen. A total of 418 (17.7%) patients with suspected dengue had laboratory-confirmed DENV infections, including 82 patients who were positive for DENV RNA. The most frequently detected serotype was DENV-1 (61 patients), followed by DENV-2 (16 patients) and DENV-3 (five patients). A total of 217 (62.7%) asymptomatic individuals had flavivirus-reactive antibodies at enrollment, and nine flavivirus-naïve individuals seroconverted. Sera from a subset of dengue patients and household participants, including all those who seroconverted, were further tested by plaque reduction neutralization test, resulting in the detection of antibodies to DENV-1, DENV-2, and West Nile virus. In summary, we provide evidence for the co-circulation of multiple flaviviruses in Reynosa, Tamaulipas, on the Mexico-U.S. border.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Viridiana Laredo-Tiscareño
- Laboratorio de Biomedicina Molecular, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México
- Laboratorio de Arbovirología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi,” Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Javier A. Garza-Hernandez
- Laboratorio Entomología Médica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México
| | - Ma Isabel Salazar
- Laboratorio de Virología e Inmunovirología, Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Erick J. De Luna-Santillana
- Laboratorio Medicina de la Conservación, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México
| | - Chandra S. Tangudu
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Rosa C. Cetina-Trejo
- Laboratorio de Arbovirología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi,” Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Gloria L. Doria-Cobos
- Departamento de Epidemiología de la Cuarta Jurisdicción Sanitaria, Secretaria de Salud, Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México
| | | | - Julian E. Garcia-Rejon
- Laboratorio de Arbovirología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi,” Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Carlos Machain-Williams
- Laboratorio de Arbovirología, Centro de Investigaciones Regionales “Dr. Hideyo Noguchi,” Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
| | - Bradley J. Blitvich
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Mario Alberto Rodríguez Pérez
- Laboratorio de Biomedicina Molecular, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa, Tamaulipas, México
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Palermo PM, De la Mora-Covarrubias A, Jimenez-Vega F, Watts DM. Serological Evidence of Dengue and West Nile Virus Human Infection in Juarez City, Mexico. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 19:134-141. [PMID: 30160620 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2018.2302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses are significant causes of human and animal diseases, globally. In the Rio Grande Valley of the United States-Mexico border region, endemic transmission of Dengue (DENV), Zika (ZIKV), and West Nile (WNV) viruses have been documented as a cause of human disease. Otherwise, very little is known about the distribution of arboviruses and their possible cause of human disease in other areas of the United States-Mexico border region. Therefore, a pilot serosurvey was conducted to determine if there was evidence of DENV and WNV infection among a human cohort in Anapra, Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Baseline blood samples were obtained from 78 participants during May-June, 2015 and from 60 of the same participants again during November-December, 2015, and all the samples were tested for DENV and WNV indirect immunoglobulin G antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). The results showed that 14.1% (n = 11) of the 78 participants had neutralizing antibody to DENV and 5.13% (n = 4) had WNV-neutralizing antibody. Among 48 of 60 participants who were negative for DENV and WNV antibody during the baseline survey, 10.4% (n = 5) had acquired antibody to DENV (n = 4) and WNV (n = 1) by the second survey during November-December, 2015. These data support the local transmission of DENV and WNV in the Anapra, Ciudad Juarez community and therefore warrant further epidemiological studies to better understand the dynamics of transmission of these viruses in this United States-Mexico border city.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro M Palermo
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso , El Paso, Texas
| | | | - Florinda Jimenez-Vega
- 2 Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juarez , Juarez City, Mexico
| | - Douglas M Watts
- 1 Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, University of Texas at El Paso , El Paso, Texas
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Etiological identification of viral agents in acute encephalitis in Guadalajara, México, 2011-2015. BIOMEDICA 2018; 38:216-223. [PMID: 30184350 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v38i0.3730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Viral encephalitis is a well-known inflammatory process associated with neurological dysfunction that might derive into severe brain damage or a fatal outcome. In México there is no epidemiological data that describes the prevalence of viral agents responsible for acute encephalitis.
Objective: To identify the main viral agents by real time PCR involved in acute encephalitis in Mexico.
Materials and methods: We obtained cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) samples from all patients with suspected viral encephalitis admitted to the emergency service of the Hospital Civil de Guadalajara “Fray Antonio Alcalde”. To identify pathogens, we performed nucleic acid extraction using real-time PCR and RT-PCR.
Results: Sixty-six patients were diagnosed with acute encephalitis from 2011 to 2014. A definitive viral etiological diagnosis was established in 16 patients (24%); the main causative agents were enteroviruses in 50% of the 16 positive samples, followed by herpes simplex virus (37%) and cytomegaloviruses (12.5%). Patients with encephalitis were predominantly male (63.3%) and a seasonal predominance was observed during autumn (37.5%). The main clinical characteristics in the acute encephalitis phase were fever (48.45) and cephalea (36.3), followed by seizures, disorientation, and muscular weakness (30.3%). Kerning sign was present in two cases (3%) and other two cases presented Brudzinski’s sign (3%).
Conclusions: CSF PCR is a suitable diagnostic technique for the identification of viral encephalitis caused by viral infections that allows an appropriate antiviral therapeutic treatment.
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García-Bocanegra I, Belkhiria J, Napp S, Cano-Terriza D, Jiménez-Ruiz S, Martínez-López B. Epidemiology and spatio-temporal analysis of West Nile virus in horses in Spain between 2010 and 2016. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017; 65:567-577. [PMID: 29034611 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
During the last decade, West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks have increased sharply in both horses and human in Europe. The aims of this study were to evaluate characteristics and spatio-temporal distribution of WNV outbreaks in horses in Spain between 2010 and 2016 in order to identify the environmental variables most associated with WNV occurrence and to generate high-resolution WNV suitability maps to inform risk-based surveillance strategies in this country. Between August 2010 and November 2016, a total of 403 WNV suspected cases were investigated, of which, 177 (43.9%) were laboratory confirmed. Mean values of morbidity, mortality and case fatality rates were 7.5%, 1.6% and 21.2%, respectively. The most common clinical symptoms were as follows: tiredness/apathy, recumbency, muscular tremor, ataxia, incoordination and hyperaesthesia. The outbreaks confirmed during the last 7 years, with detection of WNV RNA lineage 1 in 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015 and 2016, suggest an endemic circulation of the virus in Spain. The spatio-temporal distribution of WNV outbreaks in Spain was not homogeneous, as most of them (92.7%) were concentrated in western part of Andalusia (southern Spain) and significant clusters were detected in this region in two non-consecutive years. These findings were supported by the results of the space-time scan statistics permutation model. A presence-only MaxEnt ecological niche model was used to generate a suitability map for WNV occurrence in Andalusia. The most important predictors selected by the Ecological Niche Modeling were as follows: mean annual temperature (49.5% contribution), presence of Culex pipiens (19.5% contribution), mean annual precipitation (16.1% contribution) and distance to Ramsar wetlands (14.9% contribution). Our results constitute an important step for understanding WNV emergence and spread in Spain and will provide valuable information for the development of more cost-effective surveillance and control programmes and improve the protection of horse and human populations in WNV-endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- I García-Bocanegra
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - J Belkhiria
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - S Napp
- Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA) - Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - D Cano-Terriza
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - S Jiménez-Ruiz
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - B Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Zhang PT, Shan C, Li XD, Liu SQ, Deng CL, Ye HQ, Shang BD, Shi PY, Lv M, Shen BF, Qin CF, Zhang B. Generation of a recombinant West Nile virus stably expressing the Gaussia luciferase for neutralization assay. Virus Res 2016; 211:17-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Abstract
West Nile virus, a mosquito-vectored flavivirus of the Japanese encephalitis serogroup, was first detected in North America following an epizootic in the New York City area in 1999. In the intervening 11 years since the arrival of the virus in North America, it has crossed the contiguous USA, entered the Canadian provinces bordering the USA, and has been reported in the Caribbean islands, Mexico, Central America and, more recently, South America. West Nile virus has been reported in over 300 species of birds in the USA and has caused the deaths of thousands of birds, local population declines of some avian species, the clinical illness and deaths of thousands of domestic horses, and the clinical disease in over 30 000 Americans and the deaths of over 1000. Prior to the emergence of West Nile virus in North America, St. Louis encephalitis virus and Dengue virus were the only other known mosquito-transmitted flaviviruses in North America capable of causing human disease. This review will discuss the North American experience with mosquito-borne flavivirus prior to the arrival of West Nile virus, the entry and spread of West Nile virus in North America, effects on wild bird populations, genetic changes in the virus, and the current state of West Nile virus transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik K Hofmeister
- USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, USA.
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Garcia MN, Hasbun R, Murray KO. Persistence of West Nile virus. Microbes Infect 2014; 17:163-8. [PMID: 25499188 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a widespread global pathogen that results in significant morbidity and mortality. Data from animal models provide evidence of persistent renal and neurological infection from WNV; however, the possibility of persistent infection in humans and long-term neurological and renal outcomes related to viral persistence remain largely unknown. In this paper, we provide a review of the literature related to persistent infection in parallel with the findings from cohorts of patients with a history of WNV infection. The next steps for enhancing our understanding of WNV as a persistent pathogen are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa N Garcia
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Rodrigo Hasbun
- University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Kristy O Murray
- Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Elizondo-Quiroga D, Elizondo-Quiroga A. West nile virus and its theories, a big puzzle in Mexico and latin america. J Glob Infect Dis 2014; 5:168-75. [PMID: 24672180 PMCID: PMC3958988 DOI: 10.4103/0974-777x.122014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been 13 years since the first outbreak of West Nile Virus (WNV) occurred in the Americas. Since then, thousands of human cases have been reported in the United States. In contrast, there has not yet been an outbreak of WNV in any Latin American countries, including Mexico where <20 cases have been reported. We aimed to review publications to gather the main theories related to the fact that not all the countries of the continent reported human cases or that they have reported few cases since the introduction of WNV in the Western Hemisphere. We identified relevant publications using the PubMed database. Furthermore, we present on-line published information from Mexico. We found that researchers have tried to explain this phenomenon using several theories, like pre-existing antibodies against a heterotypical virus that have conferred cross protection in the population. Another explanation is that the strains circulating in Latin America are attenuated or that they came from a different origin of introduction in the continent. Another theory is that a conclusive diagnostic in regions where more than one Flavivirus is circulating results in cross-reaction in serological tests. Probably the sum of factors described by researchers in these theories in order to explain the behavior of the virus has resulted in the low number of reported cases in Latin America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darwin Elizondo-Quiroga
- Center for Research and Assistance in Technology and Design of Jalisco (CIATEJ), Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Unit, Guadalajara, Jalisco, CP. 44270, Mexico
| | - Armando Elizondo-Quiroga
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado CO 80522
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Molecular epidemiology and evolution of West Nile virus in North America. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:5111-29. [PMID: 24135819 PMCID: PMC3823310 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10105111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2013] [Revised: 10/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) was introduced to New York in 1999 and rapidly spread throughout North America and into parts of Central and South America. Displacement of the original New York (NY99) genotype by the North America/West Nile 2002 (NA/WN02) genotype occurred in 2002 with subsequent identification of a novel genotype in 2003 in isolates collected from the southwestern Unites States region (SW/WN03 genotype). Both genotypes co-circulate to date. Subsequent WNV surveillance studies have confirmed additional genotypes in the United States that have become extinct due to lack of a selective advantage or stochastic effect; however, the dynamic emergence, displacement, and extinction of multiple WNV genotypes in the US from 1999–2012 indicates the continued evolution of WNV in North America.
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Kaabinejadian S, Piazza PA, McMurtrey CP, Vernon SR, Cate SJ, Bardet W, Schafer FB, Jackson KW, Campbell DM, Buchli R, Rinaldo CR, Hildebrand WH. Identification of class I HLA T cell control epitopes for West Nile virus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66298. [PMID: 23762485 PMCID: PMC3677933 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent West Nile virus (WNV) outbreak in the United States underscores the importance of understanding human immune responses to this pathogen. Via the presentation of viral peptide ligands at the cell surface, class I HLA mediate the T cell recognition and killing of WNV infected cells. At this time, there are two key unknowns in regards to understanding protective T cell immunity: 1) the number of viral ligands presented by the HLA of infected cells, and 2) the distribution of T cell responses to these available HLA/viral complexes. Here, comparative mass spectroscopy was applied to determine the number of WNV peptides presented by the HLA-A*11:01 of infected cells after which T cell responses to these HLA/WNV complexes were assessed. Six viral peptides derived from capsid, NS3, NS4b, and NS5 were presented. When T cells from infected individuals were tested for reactivity to these six viral ligands, polyfunctional T cells were focused on the GTL9 WNV capsid peptide, ligands from NS3, NS4b, and NS5 were less immunogenic, and two ligands were largely inert, demonstrating that class I HLA reduce the WNV polyprotein to a handful of immune targets and that polyfunctional T cells recognize infections by zeroing in on particular HLA/WNV epitopes. Such dominant HLA/peptide epitopes are poised to drive the development of WNV vaccines that elicit protective T cells as well as providing key antigens for immunoassays that establish correlates of viral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saghar Kaabinejadian
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Paolo A. Piazza
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Curtis P. McMurtrey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Stephen R. Vernon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Steven J. Cate
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Wilfried Bardet
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Fredda B. Schafer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Kenneth W. Jackson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Diana M. Campbell
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Rico Buchli
- Pure Protein L.L.C., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Charles R. Rinaldo
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - William H. Hildebrand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Pure Protein L.L.C., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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15
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Torres-Aponte JM, Luce RR, Hunsperger E, Muñoz-Jordan JL, Beltrán M, Vergne E, Argüello DF, García EJ, Sun W, Tomashek KM. Enhanced West Nile virus surveillance in a dengue-endemic area--Puerto Rico, 2007. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 88:997-1002. [PMID: 23478583 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.12-0575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In June of 2007, West Nile virus (WNV) was detected in sentinel chickens and blood donors in Puerto Rico, where dengue virus (DENV) is hyperendemic. Enhanced human surveillance for acute febrile illness (AFI) began in eastern Puerto Rico on July 1, 2007. Healthcare providers submitted specimens from AFI cases for WNV and DENV virology and serology testing. Over 6 months, 385 specimens were received from 282 cases; 115 (41%) specimens were DENV laboratory-positive, 86 (31%) specimens were laboratory-indeterminate, and 32 (11%) specimens were laboratory-negative for WNV and DENV. One WNV infection was detected by anti-WNV immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody and confirmed by a plaque reduction neutralization test. DENV and WNV infections could not be differentiated in 27 cases (10%). During a period of active WNV transmission, enhanced human surveillance identified one case of symptomatic WNV infection. Improved diagnostic methods are needed to allow differentiation of WNV and DENV in dengue-endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jomil M Torres-Aponte
- Epidemiology and Research Office, Puerto Rico Department of Health, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
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16
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Blitvich BJ, Saiyasombat R, Talavera-Aguilar LG, Garcia-Rejon JE, Farfan-Ale JA, Machain-Williams C, Loroño-Pino MA. Orthobunyavirus antibodies in humans, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 18:1629-32. [PMID: 23017592 PMCID: PMC3471633 DOI: 10.3201/eid1810.120492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We performed a serologic investigation to determine whether orthobunyaviruses commonly infect humans in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. Orthobunyavirus-specific antibodies were detected by plaque reduction neutralization test in 146 (18%) of 823 persons tested. Further studies are needed to determine health risks for humans from this potentially deadly group of viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J Blitvich
- Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA.
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17
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Mann BR, McMullen AR, Guzman H, Tesh RB, Barrett ADT. Dynamic transmission of West Nile virus across the United States-Mexican border. Virology 2012; 436:75-80. [PMID: 23141421 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 09/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Confirmed clinical and veterinary cases of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in Mexico remain restricted to northern Mexico, supporting a unidirectional transmission model from the US into Mexico. Full-length genomic sequencing of nine WNV isolates obtained from Culex spp. mosquito pools in El Paso, Texas (n=7) and Cuidad Juarez, Mexico (n=2) from 2005 to 2010 demonstrates the co-circulation of three independent genetic groups, two of which belong to the southwestern (SW/WN03) genotype and the other to the North American (NA/WN02) genotype. These results indicate ongoing dynamic circulation of WNV between the United States and Mexico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Mann
- Department of Pathology, Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, and Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-0436, USA
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18
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Blitvich BJ, Saiyasombat R, Travassos da Rosa A, Tesh RB, Calisher CH, Garcia-Rejon JE, Farfán-Ale JA, Loroño RE, Bates A, Loroño-Pino MA. Orthobunyaviruses, a common cause of infection of livestock in the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 87:1132-9. [PMID: 23045250 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the seroprevalence of selected orthobunyaviruses in livestock in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, a serologic investigation was performed using serum samples from 256 domestic animals (182 horses, 31 sheep, 1 dog, 37 chickens, and 5 turkeys). All serum samples were examined by plaque reduction neutralization test using Cache Valley virus (CVV), Cholul virus (CHLV), South River virus (SOURV), Kairi virus, Maguari virus, and Wyeomyia virus. Of the 182 horses, 60 (33.0%) were seropositive for CHLV, 48 (26.4%) were seropositive for CVV, 1 (0.5%) was seropositive for SOURV, 60 (33.0%) had antibodies to an undetermined orthobunyavirus, and 13 (7.1%) were negative for orthobunyavirus-specific antibody. Of the 31 sheep, 6 (19.3%) were seropositive for CHLV, 3 (9.7%) were seropositive for CVV, 4 (12.9%) were seropositive for SOURV, 16 (51.6%) had antibodies to an undetermined orthobunyavirus, and 2 (6.5%) were negative for orthobunyavirus-specific antibody. The single dog was seropositive for SOURV. Four (11%) chickens had antibodies to an undetermined orthobunyavirus, and 1 (20%) turkey was seropositive for CHLV. These data indicate that orthobunyaviruses commonly infect livestock in the Yucatan Peninsula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J Blitvich
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
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19
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Poorly neutralizing cross-reactive antibodies against the fusion loop of West Nile virus envelope protein protect in vivo via Fcgamma receptor and complement-dependent effector mechanisms. J Virol 2011; 85:11567-80. [PMID: 21917960 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05859-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human antibody response to flavivirus infection is dominantly directed against a cross-reactive epitope on the fusion loop of domain II (DII-FL) of the envelope (E) protein. Although antibodies against this epitope fail to recognize fully mature West Nile virus (WNV) virions and accordingly neutralize infection poorly in vitro, their functional properties in vivo remain less well understood. Here, we show that while passive transfer of poorly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAb) and polyclonal antibodies against the DII-FL epitope protect against lethal WNV infection in wild-type mice, they fail to protect mice lacking activating Fcγ receptors (FcγR) and the complement opsonin C1q. Consistent with this, an aglycosyl chimeric mouse-human DII-FL MAb (E28) variant that lacks the ability to engage FcγR and C1q also did not protect against WNV infection in wild-type mice. Using a series of immunodeficient mice and antibody depletions of individual immune cell populations, we demonstrate that the nonneutralizing DII-FL MAb E28 does not require T, B, or NK cells, inflammatory monocytes, or neutrophils for protection. Rather, E28 treatment decreased viral load in the serum early in the course of infection, which resulted in blunted dissemination to the brain, an effect that required phagocytic cells, C1q, and FcγRIII (CD16). Overall, these studies enhance our understanding of the functional significance of immunodominant, poorly neutralizing antibodies in the polyclonal human anti-flavivirus response and highlight the limitations of current in vitro surrogate markers of protection, such as cell-based neutralization assays, which cannot account for the beneficial effects conferred by these antibodies.
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20
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Diaz-Badillo A, Bolling BG, Perez-Ramirez G, Moore CG, Martinez-Munoz JP, Padilla-Viveros AA, Camacho-Nuez M, Diaz-Perez A, Beaty BJ, Munoz MDL. The distribution of potential West Nile virus vectors, Culex pipiens pipiens and Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae), in Mexico City. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:70. [PMID: 21554725 PMCID: PMC3117809 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Culex spp. mosquitoes are considered to be the most important vectors of West Nile virus (WNV) detected in at least 34 species of mosquitoes in the United States. In North America, Culex pipiens pipiens, Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus, and Culex tarsalis are all competent vectors of WNV, which is considered to be enzootic in the United States and has also been detected in equines and birds in many states of Mexico and in humans in Nuevo Leon. There is potential for WNV to be introduced into Mexico City by various means including infected mosquitoes on airplanes, migrating birds, ground transportation and infected humans. Little is known of the geographic distribution of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes and hybrids in Mexico City. Culex pipiens pipiens preferentially feed on avian hosts; Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus have historically been considered to prefer mammalian hosts; and hybrids of these two species could theoretically serve as bridge vectors to transmit WNV from avian hosts to humans and other mammalian hosts. In order to address the potential of WNV being introduced into Mexico City, we have determined the identity and spatial distribution of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes and their hybrids. Results Mosquito larvae collected from 103 sites throughout Mexico City during 2004-2005 were identified as Culex, Culiseta or Ochlerotatus by morphological analysis. Within the genus Culex, specimens were further identified as Culex tarsalis or as belonging to the Culex pipiens complex. Members of the Culex pipiens complex were separated by measuring the ratio of the dorsal and ventral arms (DV/D ratio) of the male genitalia and also by using diagnostic primers designed for the Ace.2 gene. Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus was the most abundant form collected. Conclusions Important WNV vectors species, Cx. p. pipiens, Cx. p. quinquefasciatus and Cx. tarsalis, are all present in Mexico City. Hybrids of Cx. p. pipiens and Cx. p. quinquefasciatus were also collected and identified. The presence and abundance of these WNV competent vectors is a cause for concern. Understanding the distribution of these vectors can help improve viral surveillance activities and mosquito control efforts in Mexico City.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Diaz-Badillo
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Madero, México DF, México
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21
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Kutasi O, Bakonyi T, Lecollinet S, Biksi I, Ferenczi E, Bahuon C, Sardi S, Zientara S, Szenci O. Equine encephalomyelitis outbreak caused by a genetic lineage 2 West Nile virus in Hungary. J Vet Intern Med 2011; 25:586-91. [PMID: 21457323 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0715.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The spread of lineage 2 West Nile virus (WNV) from sub-Saharan regions to Europe and the unpredictable change in pathogenicity indicate a potential public and veterinary health threat and requires scientific awareness. OBJECTIVES To describe the results of clinical and virological investigations of the 1st outbreak of a genetic lineage 2 WNV encephalomyelitis in horses. ANIMALS Seventeen horses with neurologic signs. METHODS Information regarding signalment, clinical signs, and outcome was obtained for each animal. Serology was performed in 15 cases, clinicopathological examination in 7 cases, and cerebrospinal fluid was collected from 2 horses. Histopathology was carried out in 4 horses, 2 of which were assessed for the presence of WNV in their nervous system. RESULTS WNV neutralizing antibody titers were between 10 and 270 (median, 90) and the results of other serological assays were in agreement with those of the plaque reduction neutralization test. Common signs included ataxia, weakness, asymmetric gait, muscle tremors, hypersensitivity, cranial nerve deficits, and recumbency. Twelve animals survived. Amplicons derived from the infection-positive specimens allowed molecular characterization of the viral strain. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE From our results, we conclude that this outbreak was caused by a lineage 2 WNV strain, even though such strains often are considered nonpathogenic. Neurological signs and survival rates were similar to those reported for lineage 1 virus infections. The disease occurrence was not geographically limited as had been the typical case during European outbreaks; this report describes a substantial northwestern spread of the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Kutasi
- Large Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent Istvan University, Ullo, Hungary.
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22
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Rios-Ibarra C, Blitvich BJ, Farfan-Ale J, Ramos-Jimenez J, Muro-Escobedo S, Martínez-Rodriguez HR, OrtizLópez R, Torres-López E, Rivas-Estilla AM. Fatal human case of West Nile disease, Mexico, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16:741-3. [PMID: 20350413 PMCID: PMC3321966 DOI: 10.3201/eid1604.091614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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