A Review of Zoonotic Disease Threats to Pet Owners: A Compendium of Measures to Prevent Zoonotic Diseases Associated with Non-Traditional Pets: Rodents and Other Small Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, Backyard Poultry, and Other Selected Animals

A rodent and tick bait for controlling white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis), the respective pathogen host and vector of the Lyme disease spirochetes

A promising alternative approach to conventional vector and rodent control practices is the use of a bait containing a rodenticide and acaricide in controlling vectors and pathogen reservoirs concurrently. In the United States, Lyme disease continues to be the most prevalent vector-borne disease with approximately 500,000 Lyme disease cases estimated each year. Previous research has demonstrated the usefulness of a low dose fipronil bait in controlling Ixodes scapularis larvae feeding on white-footed mice. However, considering white-footed mice can be an unwanted species because of their association with tick-borne disease and hantaviruses, a combination rodent and tick bait (RTB) might provide a useful alternative to encourage additional community participation in integrated tick management (ITM) efforts. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the use of RTB (0.025 % warfarin, 0.005 % fipronil) in controlling white-footed mice and I. scapularis larvae. Studies were designed in part based on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines. A laboratory choice test was conducted to evaluate the use of RTB in controlling white-footed mice over 15-day exposure when they were exposed to an alternative diet. Mice were observed every day for mortality and signs of warfarin toxicity. A simulated field test was conducted to evaluate the use of RTB, presented in the presence of an alternative diet, in controlling I. scapularis parasitizing white-footed mice over 4-day exposure. Mice were fitted with capsules and manually infested with I. scapularis larvae. The inside of each capsule was observed to evaluate tick attachment. Replete larvae detaching from each mouse were collected. Blood was collected from all treatment group mice via cardiac puncture to determine the fipronil sulfone concentration in plasma for each animal. Results indicated that RTB would be adequately consumed in the presence of an alternative diet under laboratory and simulated field conditions. Treatment with RTB resulted in 100 % mortality of white-footed mice during 15-day exposure and prevented 100 % larvae from feeding to repletion during 4-day exposure. All mice succumbing to RTB showed signs of warfarin toxicity. All mice parasitized with ticks that were exposed to RTB had fipronil sulfone detectable in plasma, with even the lowest concentration detected (8.1 parts per billion) controlling 100 % parasitizing I. scapularis larvae. The results suggest that RTB could be a useful means of rodent and tick control for use in ITM programs.

Retrospective analysis of antimicrobial resistance in bacterial pathogens from pet rabbits in Hong Kong, 2019-2022

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing threat to human and animal health. Data are limited on the prevalence of resistant bacteria in pet rabbits. Therefore, we aimed to identify prevalent bacterial infections and AMR profiles among pet rabbits in Hong Kong (HK). Our search of the CityU Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (VDL) database found 301 cases of pet rabbits submitted for bacteriologic and antimicrobial susceptibility testing by veterinarians at 20 exotic veterinary clinics across HK between 2019 and 2022. The rabbits were of 8 different breeds and had a median age of 6.5 y, with 54.8% males, 40.2% females, and 5% unspecified. Of the 301 samples received, 168 (55.8%) had positive bacterial growth; 125 (74.4%) had single bacterial isolates, and 43 (25.6%) had mixed cultures. Cultures included Enterococcus faecalis (21.3%) as the most frequently isolated gram-positive bacterium, followed by Streptococcus intermedius (12.5%), and Staphylococcus aureus (11.3%). The most frequently isolated gram-negative bacteria were Pseudomonas aeruginosa (18.1%), followed by Escherichia coli (8.3%), Pasteurella multocida (6.9%), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (4.2%). Approximately 83% of the isolates had acquired resistance to at least one antimicrobial agent, and 49.4% were multidrug-resistant. The isolated bacteria had high levels of resistance to penicillin (69.8%), clindamycin (47.4%), and doxycycline (46.9%). Our findings highlight the high levels of AMR in bacteria isolated from pet rabbit clinical samples in HK; many of these bacteria are zoonotic and pose a public health threat.

Multistate outbreaks of salmonellosis linked to contact with backyard poultry-United States, 2015-2022

AIMS

Contact with backyard poultry (i.e., privately-owned, non-commercial poultry) was first associated with a multistate outbreak of salmonellosis in 1955. In recent years, backyard poultry-associated salmonellosis outbreaks have caused more illnesses in the United States than salmonellosis outbreaks linked to any other type of animal. Here, we describe the epidemiology of outbreaks from 2015-2022 to inform prevention efforts.

METHODS AND RESULTS

During 2015-2022, there were 88 multistate backyard poultry-associated salmonellosis outbreaks and 7866 outbreak-associated illnesses caused by 21 different Salmonella serotypes. Salmonella Enteritidis accounted for the most outbreaks (n = 21) and illnesses (n = 2400) of any serotype. Twenty-four percent (1840/7727) of patients with available information were <5 years of age. In total, 30% (1710/5644) of patients were hospitalized, and nine deaths were attributed to Salmonella infection. Throughout this period, patients reported behaviours that have a higher risk of Salmonella transmission, including kissing or snuggling poultry or allowing poultry inside their home.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite ongoing efforts to reduce the burden of salmonellosis associated with backyard poultry, outbreak-associated illnesses have nearly tripled and hospitalizations more than quadrupled compared with those in 1990-2014. Because this public health problem is largely preventable, government officials, human and veterinary healthcare providers, hatcheries, and retailers might improve the prevention of illnesses by widely disseminating health and safety recommendations to the public and by continuing to develop and implement prevention measures to reduce zoonotic transmission of Salmonella by backyard poultry.

Editorial for the Special Issue "Emerging Viral Zoonoses, Second Edition"

The "One World-One Health" framework has underscored the critical need for interdisciplinary collaboration in understanding and combating emerging viral zoonoses [...].

Risk Communication on Zoonoses and Antimicrobial Resistance-How Do Exotic Pet Owners Perceive the Communication of Their Veterinarians?

Exotic animals traded and kept as pets can transmit a variety of diseases to humans and other animals, and vice versa. Therefore, it is essential for pet owners, particularly vulnerable groups, to be informed about associated risks. Veterinarians play a crucial role in informing pet owners about health risks associated with zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and should, therefore, have good communication skills to effectively transfer information to pet owners. Thus, exotic pet owners in Germany were surveyed on animal husbandry, veterinary consultation and risk communication. To evaluate the perception of communication, a self-developed questionnaire was used to derive a communication score. The perception of veterinarian communication received a high average score showing a high level of satisfaction. The duration of the veterinarian-client relationship was associated with better communication perception, and the frequency of communication on zoonoses and AMR was associated with the presence of a permanent veterinarian. However, the results indicated that the frequency of disseminated information on zoonoses and/or AMR from veterinarians was lower than desired by the pet owners. Therefore, more educational material on zoonoses and AMR should be made available, and the awareness concerning risk communication should be increased by further education and training at universities.

Responsible ownership and health education can reduce the time of sporotrichosis treatment in domestic cats

Sporotrichosis is a widespread fungal infection that affects skin and subcutaneous tissues in humans and animals. In cats, it is displayed as nodules, ulcers and lesions on the nasal and respiratory mucosa. Antifungal treatment of cats is crucial but many cases are difficult, thus resulting in discontinue of the treatment, with disastrous consequences for the animal, encouraging contamination of the environment, other animals and people. The effects of responsible ownership education and health education for owners of cats with feline sporotrichosis as well as the interval between veterinary consultations on treatment outcomes for three groups of owners and their pet cats were evaluated in this study. The responsible ownership education and health education strategies consisted in videos in easy and accessible language for people with any level of education and were presented during consultations for two of the three groups included. The time between appointments was two weeks for two of the groups, and four weeks for one of the groups. The median of treatment time for the group without educational activities was 138 days, while for the other two groups it was 77.5 days and 86 days. It was found a significative reduction in the treatment time in the groups exposed to Responsible ownership education videos. There was no contamination of those responsible for home treatment, and the interval between monthly appointments did not impact on cure or death rates compared to the interval between fortnightly appointments. All these results can be applied to feline sporotrichoses treatment protocols increasing the owners treatment adherence and reducing either, the treatment discontinuation and the treatment costs and helps to control zoonotic sporotrichosis. The importance of attractive and comprehensible educational strategies as part of the feline sporotrichosis treatment protocol for the promotion of one health was highlighted.

Updates for Reptile Pediatric Medicine

The health of hatchling, juvenile, and young adult reptiles continues to be plagued by historic nutritional deficiencies, old and emerging infectious diseases, and more recent phenotype-selective congenital abnormalities that impact welfare. Knowledge of mating seasonality, average egg counts, gestation times, and age and/or size for sexual maturity is necessary to help guide best practices for care of pediatric reptiles. Calcium, vitamin D3, and ultraviolet B (UVB) lighting recommendations vary in effectiveness amongst different species and can change with age. Phenotype-selective color patterns for spider ball pythons and scalation pattern for bearded dragons have resulted in vestibular disease, and increased evaporative water loss, respectively. Salmonellosis remains the most reported zoonotic disease for captive reptiles in the United States, despite improvements in client education and improvements in captive reptile husbandry.

Widespread distribution of human-infective Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes in small rodents in northeast China and phylogeny and zoonotic implications revisited

Enterocytozoon bieneusi features high genetic diversity among host species and environmental sources and over 500 genotypes in 11 phylogenetic groups have been defined. Here we investigated 291 small rodents in Heilongjiang province, northeast China, for the presence of E. bieneusi by PCR of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS). Nine of 60 (15.0 %) gray squirrels from a park in Harbin, 120 of 201 (59.7 %) guinea pigs from a pet shop in Harbin, and two of 30 (6.7 %) peridomestic rats from a pasture in Qiqihar were positive for the parasite. Six known genotypes (EbpB, SCC-1, SCC-2, D, S7 and HLJ-CP1) and two novel genotypes (NESQ1 and NEGP1) were identified by sequence analysis of the ITS, with EbpB, SCC-1, SCC-2 and NESQ1 found in squirrels, D, S7 and NEGP1 in guinea pigs, and EbpB and HLJ-CP1 in rats. Widespread distribution of human-infective Group 10 genotype S7 and Group 1 genotype D in guinea pigs raised our concerns about the importance of pet animals as zoonotic reservoirs of microsporidiosis. Co-occurrence of Group 1 genotypes D and HLJ-CP1 in cancer patients and rodents in Heilongjiang indicated a possibility of zoonotic transmission. The host range of Group 1 genotype EbpB previously considered pig-adapted was extended. A potential variant of genotype S7, namely NESQ1, went into the existing Group 10 in phylogenetic analysis. The other new genotype, NEGP1, was clustered in an undefined clade we proposed as Group 15. With the emerging epidemiologic evidence, the host specificity of existing E. bieneusi genotypes is now being challenged.

The importance, benefits, and future of nanobiosensors for infectious diseases

Infectious diseases, caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi, are crucial for efficient disease management, reducing morbidity and mortality rates and controlling disease spread. Traditional laboratory-based diagnostic methods face challenges such as high costs, time consumption, and a lack of trained personnel in resource-poor settings. Diagnostic biosensors have gained momentum as a potential solution, offering advantages such as low cost, high sensitivity, ease of use, and portability. Nanobiosensors are a promising tool for detecting and diagnosing infectious diseases such as coronavirus disease, human immunodeficiency virus, and hepatitis. These sensors use nanostructured carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanoparticles to detect specific biomarkers or pathogens. They operate through mechanisms like the lateral flow test platform, where a sample containing the biomarker or pathogen is applied to a test strip. If present, the sample binds to specific recognition probes on the strip, indicating a positive result. This binding event is visualized through a colored line. This review discusses the importance, benefits, and potential of nanobiosensors in detecting infectious diseases.

Salmonella Vitkin Outbreak Associated with Bearded Dragons, Canada and United States, 2020-2022

We identified 2 cases of Salmonella enterica serovar Vitkin infection linked by whole-genome sequencing in infants in Ontario, Canada, during 2022. Both households of the infants reported having bearded dragons as pets. The outbreak strain was also isolated from an environmental sample collected from a patient's bearded dragon enclosure. Twelve cases were detected in the United States, and onset dates occurred during March 2021-September 2022 (isolates related to isolates from Canada within 0-9 allele differences by core-genome multilocus sequence typing). Most US patients (66.7%) were <1 year of age, and most (72.7%) had reported bearded dragon exposure. Hospitalization was reported for 5 (38.5%) of 13 patients. Traceback of bearded dragons identified at least 1 potential common supplier in Southeast Asia. Sharing rare serovar information and whole-genome sequencing data between Canada and the United States can assist in timely identification of outbreaks, including those that might not be detected through routine surveillance.

A Review of the Industrial Importance, Common Bacterial Diseases, and Zoonotic Risks of Freshwater Aquarium Fish

Background: The ever-increasing popularity of home aquariums, most often involving freshwater varieties, has exploded in recent years partially due to the Coronavirus pandemic and related to stay-at-home public health precautions for social distancing. With this ever-increasing popularity of aquariums as a hobby, and whether this involves freshwater or marine fish species, a number of important economic, ecological, and public health issues arise for both fish and hobbyists alike. Materials and Methods: This review highlights the history and genesis of aquariums as both a hobby and an important economic factor (industrial, commercial) for many countries on a global basis. Types of aquarium fish are described, and culture conditions leading to homeostasis in aquatic environments are detailed. When these conditions are not met and aquatic systems are out of balance, the disease can result due to stressed fish. Results: Major bacterial diseases associated with freshwater aquarium fish are reviewed, as are potential human infections related to the care and maintenance of home aquaria. Conclusion: Besides, scientific information was also combined with the false facts of hobbyists who tried to identify and treat diseases during an outbreak in the aquarium. Finally, unresolved issues and important misconceptions regarding the field are discussed.

Multistate outbreak of turtle-associated salmonellosis highlights ongoing challenges with the illegal sale and distribution of small turtles

The sale and distribution of small turtles (shell length <4 inches) as pets has been banned in the United States since 1975 because of the risk of Salmonella transmission, especially to children. Despite this 48-year-old ban, salmonellosis outbreaks continue to be linked to contact with small turtles. During investigations of turtle-associated outbreaks, information regarding the turtle farm of origin is difficult to obtain because turtles are commonly sold by transient vendors. During 2020-2021, public health officials investigated a multistate illness outbreak caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium linked to pet small turtles. Cases were defined as a laboratory-confirmed Salmonella Typhimurium infection highly related (within 0-6 allele differences) to the outbreak strain based on whole-genome sequencing analysis by core-genome multilocus sequence typing with illness onset occurring during 27 August 2020-14 May 2021. Forty-three patients were identified from 12 states; of these, 35% (15/43) were children <5 years old. Among patients with available information, 37% (14/38) were hospitalized, and one death was reported. Seventy-four percent (25/34) of patients reported turtle exposure in the week before illness onset, and 84% (16/19) specified exposure to small turtles. The outbreak strain was isolated from samples collected from a Pennsylvania patient's small turtle tank. Two patients reported purchasing their small turtles from pet stores. Salmonella Braenderup was isolated from samples collected from small turtles and their habitat at one of these stores; however, at that time, this strain was not associated with any human illnesses. This investigation was notable because of the documented sale of small turtles from several pet stores combined with the identification of a single small turtle supplier to these pet stores. The high proportion of children involved in this outbreak highlights the continued need to educate the pet industry as well as parents and caregivers about the risk of turtle-associated salmonellosis especially in children. Understanding and addressing the persisting challenges related to the illegal sale and distribution of small turtles could reduce the burden of turtle-associated salmonellosis.

Zoonotic Pathogens Associated with Pet and Feeder Murid Rodent Species: A Global Systematic Review

Background: Pet and feeder rodents are one of the main sources of emerging infectious diseases. These rodents are purchased from pet shops, breeders, and online. Consequently, some of these rodents may subtly transmit diseases as they may be asymptomatic to certain pathogens. Materials and Methods: We systematically searched four academic databases viz. Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus to determine zoonotic pathogens associated with pet and feeder rodents globally. Our searches were performed in R statistical software using the packages "metagear" and "revtool". Results: We found 62 studies reporting on zoonotic pathogens between 1973 and 2022 from 16 countries representing 4 continents, namely Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America. The review identified 30 zoonotic pathogens isolated from pet and feeder rodents, including the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides), brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), and the house mouse (Mus musculus). The greatest number of pathogens was reported from the United States, followed by Togo and the United Kingdom. Bacterial pathogens were the most prevalent. However, the Seoul virus and rat bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis) were the most studied pathogens, found in more than one country, with reported outbreak cases. Most of the zoonotic pathogens were isolated from rodents acquired from pet shops. Conclusions: We recommend that pet and feeder rodents purchased from pet shops should be regularly screened for potential zoonotic pathogens as some of these animals may not show clinical signs of the illness. There is also a critical need to develop strict regulations and policies, especially in underdeveloped and developing regions for an effective surveillance process, which will include early detection, rapid response, and control of zoonotic diseases globally.

Mapping Plague Risk Using Super Species Distribution Models and Forecasts for Rodents in the Zhambyl Region, Kazakhstan

One of the most extensive natural plague centers, or foci, is located in Central Asia, in particular, the Zhambyl region in Southern Kazakhstan. Here, we conducted plague surveillance from 2000 to 2020 in the Zhambyl region in Kazakhstan and confirmed 3,072 cases of infected wild animals. We used Species Distribution Modeling by employing MaxEnt, and identified that the natural plague foci are primarily located in the Moiynqum, Betpaqdala, and Tauqum Deserts. The Zhambyl region's central part, including the Moiynqum and Sarysu districts, has a high potential risk of plague outbreak for the rural towns and villages. Since the phenomenon of climate change has been identified as a determinant that affects the rodent populations, thereby elevating the likelihood of an outbreak of plague, we investigated the potential dissemination routes of the disease under the changing climate conditions, thus creating Species Distribution Forecasts for the rodent species in southern part of Kazakhstan for the year 2100. By 2100, in case of increasing temperatures, the range of host species is likely to expand, leading to a higher risk of plague outbreaks. The highest risk of disease transmission can be expected at the outer limits of the modeled total distribution range, where infection rates are high, but antibody presence is low, making many species susceptible to the pathogen. To mitigate the risk of a potential plague outbreak, it is necessary to implement appropriate sanitary-epidemiological measures and climate mitigation policies.

Pet Owners' Attitudes and Opinions towards Cat and Dog Care Practices in Aotearoa New Zealand

This research aimed to explore cat and dog owners' attitudes and opinions towards various pet care practices in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), and determine what factors were associated with them. An online survey composed of both closed and open-ended questions was administered from January to March 2019. A total of 2358 respondents answered the questions on pet care practices. Of these, 37.5 percent (n = 885) were both dog and cat owners, 28.0 percent (n = 652) were cat owners, and 26.0 percent (n = 609) were dog owners, while 9% (n = 212) of respondents did not own a cat or dog at the time of taking the survey. The study revealed that most respondents (>90%) acknowledge the importance of providing adequate housing, regular worming and flea treatments, microchipping, and vaccinations for their pets. Notably, demographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, age range, having children, having a rural upbringing, and place of residence influenced owners' attitudes, with those towards cat care practices varying more than those for dogs. The study highlights the need for responsible pet ownership interventions considering these demographic factors. The study identifies a knowledge gap among pet owners concerning the importance of regular veterinary visits and the impact of breeding for certain looks on animal welfare. The use of shock collar devices provoked varying opinions on their usage for training and behavior modification. The study suggests that enhancing pet owners' knowledge is pivotal for responsible pet ownership. Overall, the findings emphasize the need for tailored interventions that account for demographic variations for promoting responsible pet ownership and animal welfare. The findings underscore the importance of improving access to veterinary health care teams, especially in rural areas, and of providing culturally appropriate education resources for both pet owners and veterinary health care teams.

Detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli genes isolated from cat rectal swabs at Surabaya Veterinary Hospital, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Escherichia coli causes a bacterial illness that frequently affects cats. Diseases caused by E. coli are treated using antibiotics. Because of their proximity to humans, cats possess an extremely high risk of contracting antibiotic resistance genes when their owners touch cat feces containing E. coli that harbor resistance genes. This study was conducted to identify multidrug-resistant E. coli and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing genes from cat rectal swabs collected at Surabaya City Veterinary Hospital to determine antibiotic sensitivity.

Materials and Methods

Samples of cat rectal swabs were cultured in Brilliant Green Bile Lactose Broth medium and then streaked on eosin methylene blue agar medium for bacterial isolation, whereas Gram-staining and IMViC tests were conducted to confirm the identification results. The Kirby-Bauer diffusion test was used to determine antibiotic sensitivity, and the double-disk synergy test was used to determine ESBL-producing bacteria. Molecular detection of the genes TEM and CTX-M was performed using a polymerase chain reaction.

Results

Based on morphological culture, Gram-staining, and biochemical testing, the results of sample inspection showed that of the 100 cat rectal swab samples isolated, 71 (71%) were positive for E. coli. Furthermore, 23 E. coli isolates (32.39%) demonstrated the highest resistance to ampicillin. Four isolates were confirmed to be multidurg-resistant and ESBL-producing strains. Molecular examination revealed that three E. coli isolates harbored TEM and CTX-M.

Conclusion

In conclusion, pet owners must be educated on the use of antibiotics to improve their knowledge about the risks of antibiotic resistance.

The (Re-)Emergence and Spread of Viral Zoonotic Disease: A Perfect Storm of Human Ingenuity and Stupidity

Diseases that are transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans are referred to as zoonotic diseases. Although microbial agents such as bacteria and parasites are linked to zoonotic events, viruses account for a high percentage of zoonotic diseases that have emerged. Worryingly, the 21st century has seen a drastic increase in the emergence and re-emergence of viral zoonotic disease. Even though humans and animals have coexisted for millennia, anthropogenic factors have severely increased interactions between the two populations, thereby increasing the risk of disease spill-over. While drivers such as climate shifts, land exploitation and wildlife trade can directly affect the (re-)emergence of viral zoonotic disease, globalisation, geopolitics and social perceptions can directly facilitate the spread of these (re-)emerging diseases. This opinion paper discusses the "intelligent" nature of viruses and their exploitation of the anthropogenic factors driving the (re-)emergence and spread of viral zoonotic disease in a modernised and connected world.

Ecology and epidemiology of Salmonella spp. isolated from the environment and the roles played by wild animals in their maintenance

Salmonella is a ubiquitous organism of public health importance that causes diarrhea and other systemic disease syndromes. The ecology and epidemiology of the organism in addition to the roles played by wild animals are important in understanding its disease. Relevant published peer-reviewed literature was obtained after imputing the study's keywords into the Google search engine. The publications were thereafter saved for the study. The study revealed the ecology of Salmonella is directly related to its epidemiology. These were found to be either positively or negatively influenced by the living and non-living parts of the environment. Free-ranging and captive wild animals can serve as asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella, therefore, help to maintain the cycle of the disease since wildlife serves as reservoir hosts to over 70% of emerging zoonotic diseases. Cockroaches transmit Salmonella through their feces, and body parts and when ingested by birds and animals. The statistically significant over 83% of Salmonella isolation in lizards suggests the reptile could be a source of Salmonella distribution. Snakes, foxes, badgers, rodents, and raccoons have been reported to have Salmonella as a natural component of their gut with the ability to shed the organism often. The high occurrence (>45%) of diverse Salmonella serovars coupled with the fact that some of these animals were handled, kept as pets and consumed by man portends these animals as potential sources of transmission of the organism and the disease. The etiology and epidemiology of Salmonella are overtly affected by several environmental factors which also determine their survival and maintenance. The roles played by wild animals in the relationship, transmission, growth or interaction within and between Salmonella spp., the occurrence, prevalence, and distribution of the organism help maintain the organism in the environment. An understanding of the roles played by the different parts of the environment and wild animals in the ecology and epidemiology of Salmonella can help make informed decisions on the prevention and control of the diseases it causes. This review aimed to investigate the relationship between ecology, epidemiology, and environment, including the roles played by wild animals in the maintenance of the organism and its disease.

Detección molecular de coinfección por Ehrlichia canis y Ehrlichia ewingii en un perro en Ecuador

Se presenta el estudio de un perro con sintomatología de Parvovirosis que resultó positivo a los test de inmunocromatografìa para Parvovirus y Ehrlichia canis el cual fue confirmado, a nivel molecular, como positivo para E. canis y E. ewingii. Además del interés que representa este caso desde el punto de vista clínico, la detección mediante PCR de E. ewingii sugiere la presencia de este patógeno fuera de su rango de distribución geográfica natural (México, Guatemala, Guyana, Guayana Francesa y Estados Unidos) y destaca la necesidad de realizar estudios moleculares en garrapatas locales a fin de verificar si éste es un caso aislado en Ecuador o si, por el contrario, existe colonización de E. ewingii en vectores locales.

Mobile Zoos and Other Itinerant Animal Handling Events: Current Status and Recommendations for Future Policies

Mobile zoos are events in which non-domesticated (exotic) and domesticated species are transported to venues such as schools, hospitals, parties, and community centres, for the purposes of education, entertainment, or social and therapeutic assistance. We conducted literature searches and surveyed related government agencies regarding existing provisions within laws and policies, number of mobile zoos, and formal guidance issued concerning operation of such events in 74 countries or regions. We also examined governmental and non-governmental guidance standards for mobile zoos, as well as websites for mobile zoo operations, assessed promotional or educational materials for scientific accuracy, and recorded the diversity of species in use. We used the EMODE (Easy, Moderate, Difficult, or Extreme) algorithm, to evaluate identified species associated with mobile zoos for their suitability for keeping. We recorded 14 areas of concern regarding animal biology and public health and safety, and 8 areas of false and misleading content in promotional or educational materials. We identified at least 341 species used for mobile zoos. Mobile zoos are largely unregulated, unmonitored, and uncontrolled, and appear to be increasing. Issues regarding poor animal welfare, public health and safety, and education raise several serious concerns. Using the precautionary principle when empirical evidence was not available, we advise that exotic species should not be used for mobile zoos and similar itinerant events.

Fur, Fin, and Feather: Management of Animal Interactions in Australian Residential Aged Care Facilities

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) have been occurring in Australian Residential Aged Care Facilities (RACF) for more than 40 years and may relieve loneliness and improve quality of life. The presence of animals in RACF poses an inherent risk to residents and the animals involved. Little is known about the policies and guidelines for including animals in the Australian RACF. We anticipated that most RACFs would have some policies, but they may lack the detail necessary to keep humans and animals safe. Using an adapted survey, we surveyed and interviewed a small but representative sample of Australian RACF managers. The results demonstrated that RACF did have animal policies; however, the content regarding the need for hand washing, infection prevention, and animal welfare was lacking. Including unregulated family pets in RACF was an unexpected additional risk factor identified during data analysis. There is a need for national guidelines tied to the national aged care policy, which includes training and educational resources for RACF and AAI providers.

Monkeypox infection: The past, present, and future

Monkeypox is a zoonotic illness caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV) that has a similar etiology to smallpox. The first case of monkeypox was reported in Western and Central Africa in 1971, and in 2003, there was an outbreak of monkeypox viruses outside Africa. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), monkeypox is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or persons exposed to infectious sores, scabs, or body fluids. Also, intimate contact between people during sex, kissing, cuddling, or touching parts of the body can result in the spreading of this disease. The use of the smallpox vaccine against monkeypox has several challenges and hence anti-virals such as cidofovir, brincidofovir, and tecovirimat have been used for the symptomatic relief of patients and reversing the lesion formation on the skin. Despite the recent outbreak of monkeypox most especially in hitherto non-endemic countries, there is still a lack of definitive treatment for monkeypox. In the present review, emphasis was focused on etiopathology, transmission, currently available therapeutic agents, and future targets that could be explored to halt the progression of monkeypox. From our review we can postulate that owing to the lack of a definitive cure to this reemerging disorder, there is a need for general awareness about the transmission as well as to develop appropriate diagnostic procedures, immunizations, and antiviral medication.

Prevalence of Different Salmonella enterica Subspecies and Serotypes in Wild Carnivores in Emilia-Romagna Region, Italy

Salmonella is a pathogen of considerable health concern, given its zoonotic potential, and, in Italy, is the most frequently reported causative agent for foodborne outbreaks. Wild animals and in particular wild carnivores may be carriers of different Salmonella enterica subspecies and serotypes. Given their potential role as reservoirs, surveillance activities are necessary. This study aims to investigate the presence of different Salmonella subspecies and serotypes in wild carnivores in the Emilia-Romagna Region. A total of 718 fox (Vulpes vulpes), 182 badger (Meles meles) and 27 wolf (Canis lupus) carcasses, submitted between 2016-2022, were included for the present work. Gender and age data were collected along with geographical coordinates of carcass' discovery site. Contents of the large intestine were sampled and cultured according to ISO 6579-1 and both serogroup and serotype identification were performed according to ISO/TR 6579-3:2014. Salmonella was retrieved from 42 foxes (6%), 21 badgers (12%) and 3 wolves (12%), respectively. Isolated Salmonella enterica strains belonged to 4 different subspecies and 25 different serotypes. S. veneziana and S. typhimurium were the most frequent serotypes found (11/67 and 10/67, respectively). In conclusion, zoonotic serotypes were found in all these species of wildlife, thus confirming their potential role in the ecology of Salmonella spp.