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Koutsoumanis K, Allende A, Bolton D, Bover‐Cid S, Chemaly M, Davies R, De Cesare A, Herman L, Hilbert F, Lindqvist R, Nauta M, Peixe L, Ru G, Simmons M, Skandamis P, Suffredini E, Bottari B, Cummins E, Ylivainio K, Muñoz Guajardo I, Ortiz‐Pelaez A, Alvarez‐Ordóñez A. Inactivation of indicator microorganisms and biological hazards by standard and/or alternative processing methods in Category 2 and 3 animal by-products and derived products to be used as organic fertilisers and/or soil improvers. EFSA J 2021; 19:e06932. [PMID: 34900004 PMCID: PMC8638561 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Commission requested EFSA to assess if different thermal processes achieve a 5 log10 reduction in Enterococcus faecalis or Salmonella Senftenberg (775W) and (if relevant) a 3 log10 reduction in thermoresistant viruses (e.g. Parvovirus) as well as if different chemical processes achieve a 3 log10 reduction of eggs of Ascaris sp., in eight groups of Category 2 and 3 derived products and animal by-products (ABP). These included (1) ash derived from incineration, co-incineration and combustion; (2) glycerine derived from the production of biodiesel and renewable fuels; (3) other materials derived from the production of biodiesel and renewable fuels; (4) hides and skins; (5) wool and hair; (6) feathers and down; (7) pig bristles; and (8) horns, horn products, hooves and hoof products. Data on the presence of viral hazards and on thermal and chemical inactivation of the targeted indicator microorganisms and biological hazards under relevant processing conditions were extracted via extensive literature searches. The evidence was assessed via expert knowledge elicitation. The certainty that the required log10 reductions in the most resistant indicator microorganisms or biological hazards will be achieved for each of the eight groups of materials mentioned above by the thermal and/or chemical processes was (1) 99-100% for the two processes assessed; (2) 98-100% in Category 2 ABP, at least 90-99% in Category 3 ABP; (3) 90-99% in Category 2 ABP; at least 66-90% in Category 3 ABP; (4) 10-66% and 33-66%; (5) 1-33% and 10-50%; (6) 66-90%; (7) 33-66% and 50-95%; (8) 66-95%, respectively. Data generation on the occurrence and reduction of biological hazards by thermal and/or chemical methods in these materials and on the characterisation of the usage pathways of ABP as organic fertilisers/soil improvers is recommended.
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Kenubih A. Foot and Mouth Disease Vaccine Development and Challenges in Inducing Long-Lasting Immunity: Trends and Current Perspectives. VETERINARY MEDICINE-RESEARCH AND REPORTS 2021; 12:205-215. [PMID: 34513635 PMCID: PMC8420785 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s319761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an extremely contagious viral disease of livestock caused by foot and mouse disease virus genus: Aphthovirus, which causes a serious economic impact on both individual farmers and the national economy. Many attempts to advance a vaccine for FMD have failed to induce sterile immunity. The classical methods of vaccine production were due to selective accumulation of mutations around antigenic and binding sites. Reversion of the agent by positive selection and quasi-species swarm, use of this method is inapplicable for use in non-endemic areas. Chemical attenuation using binary ethyleneimine (BEI) protected the capsid integrity and produced a pronounced immunity against the challenge strain. Viral antigens which have been chemically synthesized or expressed in viruses, plasmid, or plants were tried in the vaccination of animals. DNA vaccines expressing either structural or nonstructural protein antigens have been tried to immunize animals. Using interleukins as a genetic adjuvant for DNA vaccines have a promising effect. While the challenges of inducing sterile immunity lies on non-structural (NS) proteins of FMDV which are responsible for apoptosis of dendritic cells and have negative effects on lympho-proliferative responses which lead to transient immunosuppression. Furthermore, destruction of host protein trafficking by nonstructural proteins suppressed CD8+ T-cell proliferation. In this review, it tried to address multiple approaches for vaccine development trials and bottle necks of producing sterile immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambaye Kenubih
- University of Gondar, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Para-Clinical Studies, Gondar, Ethiopia
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3
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Oliveira TESD, Leme RA, Agnol AMD, Gerez JR, Pelaquim IF, Miyabe FM, Alfieri AF, Alfieri AA, Headley SA. Seneca Valley virus induces immunodepressionin suckling piglets by selective apoptosis of B lymphocytes. Microb Pathog 2021; 158:105022. [PMID: 34129904 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Seneca Valley virus (SVV) is the causative agent of an emerging infectious vesicular disease in swine that is clinically indistinguishable from other vesicular diseases of swine. This study utilized healthy suckling piglets (control) and SVV-naturally infected suckling piglets to determine the effects of SVV on lymphoid tissues and determined the SVV RNA load by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). Furthermore, immunohistochemistry (IHC) analyses were performed to quantify the expression of T and B cell lymphocytes, natural killer cells, cleaved caspase 3, and ki-67. The main histopathologic finding in the infected group was severe lymphoid depletion. The highest average of SVV RNA load by qRT-PCR (Log10 genomic copies/g of tissue) occurred at the spleen (8.54 ± 0.8), followed by the tonsils (8.04 ± 1.42), and mesenteric lymph nodes (6.90 ± 1.42). The IHC analyses revealed that there was an increased in cellular apoptosis with concomitant reduction in the proliferation of B cells. The results from this study have demonstrated that SVV-infected piglets exhibited decreased lymphocyte density probably due to lymphoid apoptosis, affecting particularly B-cells lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thalita Evani Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Raquel Arruda Leme
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Alais Maria Dall Agnol
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Juliana Rubira Gerez
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Isadora Fernanda Pelaquim
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Flavia Megumi Miyabe
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Alice Fernandes Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Amauri Alcindo Alfieri
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Selwyn Arlington Headley
- Laboratory of Animal Pathology, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil; Multi-User Animal Health Laboratory, Tissue Processing Unit, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
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4
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Li K, Wang C, Yang F, Cao W, Zhu Z, Zheng H. Virus-Host Interactions in Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection. Front Immunol 2021; 12:571509. [PMID: 33717061 PMCID: PMC7952751 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.571509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, which has been regarded as a persistent challenge for the livestock industry in many countries. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the etiological agent of FMD that can spread rapidly by direct and indirect transmission. FMDV is internalized into host cell by the interaction between FMDV capsid proteins and cellular receptors. When the virus invades into the cells, the host antiviral system is quickly activated to suppress the replication of the virus and remove the virus. To retain fitness and host adaptation, various viruses have evolved multiple elegant strategies to manipulate host machine and circumvent the host antiviral responses. Therefore, identification of virus-host interactions is critical for understanding the host defense against virus infections and the pathogenesis of the viral infectious diseases. This review elaborates on the virus-host interactions during FMDV infection to summarize the pathogenic mechanisms of FMD, and we hope it can provide insights for designing effective vaccines or drugs to prevent and control the spread of FMD and other diseases caused by picornaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangli Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Congcong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Weijun Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zixiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Haixue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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5
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Medina GN, de Los Santos T, Diaz-San Segundo F. Use of IFN-Based Biotherapeutics to Harness the Host Against Foot-And-Mouth Disease. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:465. [PMID: 32851039 PMCID: PMC7431487 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious vesicular disease of cloven-hoofed animals that severely constrains international trade of livestock and animal products. Currently, disease control measures include broad surveillance, enforcement of sanitary policy, and use of an inactivated vaccine. While use of these measures has contributed to eliminating foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) from a vast area of the world, the disease remains endemic in three continents, and outbreaks occasionally appear in previously declared FMD-free zones, causing economic and social devastation. Among others, a very fast rate of viral replication and the need for 7 days to achieve vaccine-induced protection are the main limitations in controlling the disease. New fast-acting antiviral strategies targeted to boost the innate immunity of the host to block viral replication are needed. Here we review the knowledge on the multiple strategies FMDV has evolved to block the host innate immunity, with particularly focus on the past and current research toward the development of interferon (IFN)-based biotherapeutics in relevant livestock species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisselle N Medina
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), ARS, USDA, Orient Point, NY, United States.,Kansas State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Teresa de Los Santos
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), ARS, USDA, Orient Point, NY, United States
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6
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Parra-Sánchez H, Bustamante-Córdova L, Reséndiz M, Mata-Haro V, Pinelli-Saavedra A, Hernández J. Analysis of Swine Conventional Dendritic Cells, DEC205 +CD172a +/-CADM1 +, from Blood and Spleen in Response to PRRSV and PEDV. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111001. [PMID: 31683569 PMCID: PMC6893809 DOI: 10.3390/v11111001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) cannot be infected by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) but respond to infection via cytokine production, indicating a possible role in initiation/regulation of the immune response against PRRSV. In this work, we evaluated the responses of splenic and blood cDCs, with DEC205+CADM1+CD172a+/− phenotype, as well as those of CD163+ cells against PRRSV and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). Both populations were incubated in the presence of PRRSV or PEDV with and without naïve CD3+ T cells, and cytokine responses were evaluated by qPCR and ELISA. Our results showed that cDCs, but not CD163+ cells, produced IL-12 in response to PRRSV. PEDV did not induce IL-12 production. Cocultures of cDCs and autologous naïve CD3+ cells resulted in decreased IL-12 production and low expression of IFN-γ transcripts in response to PRRSV. Interestingly, cDCs increased the proliferation of naïve T cells in the presence of PRRSV compared with that achieved with monocytes and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Cocultures of CD163+ cells induced IL-10 and IL-4 expression in the presence of PRRSV and PEDV, respectively. In conclusion, cDCs can selectively produce IL-12 in response to PRRSV but poorly participate in the activation of naïve T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor Parra-Sánchez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
| | - Lorena Bustamante-Córdova
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
| | - Mónica Reséndiz
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
| | - Verónica Mata-Haro
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
| | - Araceli Pinelli-Saavedra
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
| | - Jesús Hernández
- Laboratorio de Inmunología, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C., Kilómetro 0.6 carretera la Victoria, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico.
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7
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Pfaff F, Hägglund S, Zoli M, Blaise-Boisseau S, Laloy E, Koethe S, Zühlke D, Riedel K, Zientara S, Bakkali-Kassimi L, Valarcher JF, Höper D, Beer M, Eschbaumer M. Proteogenomics Uncovers Critical Elements of Host Response in Bovine Soft Palate Epithelial Cells Following In Vitro Infection with Foot-And-Mouth Disease Virus. Viruses 2019; 11:E53. [PMID: 30642035 PMCID: PMC6356718 DOI: 10.3390/v11010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is the most devastating disease of cloven-hoofed livestock, with a crippling economic burden in endemic areas and immense costs associated with outbreaks in free countries. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a picornavirus, will spread rapidly in naïve populations, reaching morbidity rates of up to 100% in cattle. Even after recovery, over 50% of cattle remain subclinically infected and infectious virus can be recovered from the nasopharynx. The pathogen and host factors that contribute to FMDV persistence are currently not understood. Using for the first time primary bovine soft palate multilayers in combination with proteogenomics, we analyzed the transcriptional responses during acute and persistent FMDV infection. During the acute phase viral RNA and protein was detectable in large quantities and in response hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes (ISG) were overexpressed, mediating antiviral activity and apoptosis. Although the number of pro-apoptotic ISGs and the extent of their regulation decreased during persistence, some ISGs with antiviral activity were still highly expressed at that stage. This indicates a long-lasting but ultimately ineffective stimulation of ISGs during FMDV persistence. Furthermore, downregulation of relevant genes suggests an interference with the extracellular matrix that may contribute to the skewed virus-host equilibrium in soft palate epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Pfaff
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Sara Hägglund
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Host-pathogen interaction group, Division of Ruminant Medicine, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Martina Zoli
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Sandra Blaise-Boisseau
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale de Maisons-Alfort, UMR 1161 virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Eve Laloy
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale de Maisons-Alfort, UMR 1161 virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
- Biopôle EnvA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Susanne Koethe
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Daniela Zühlke
- Institute of Microbiology, Department for Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Katharina Riedel
- Institute of Microbiology, Department for Microbial Physiology and Molecular Biology, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Stephan Zientara
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale de Maisons-Alfort, UMR 1161 virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Labib Bakkali-Kassimi
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale de Maisons-Alfort, UMR 1161 virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Jean-François Valarcher
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Host-pathogen interaction group, Division of Ruminant Medicine, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Dirk Höper
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Michael Eschbaumer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald, Germany.
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8
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Medina GN, Segundo FDS, Stenfeldt C, Arzt J, de Los Santos T. The Different Tactics of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus to Evade Innate Immunity. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2644. [PMID: 30483224 PMCID: PMC6241212 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Like all pathogens, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is recognized by the immune system inducing a heightened immune response mainly mediated by type I and type III IFNs. To overcome the strong antiviral response induced by these cytokines, FMDV has evolved many strategies exploiting each region of its small RNA genome. These include: (a) inhibition of IFN induction at the transcriptional and translational level, (b) inhibition of protein trafficking; (c) blockage of specific post-translational modifications in proteins that regulate innate immune signaling; (d) modulation of autophagy; (e) inhibition of stress granule formation; and (f) in vivo modulation of immune cell function. Here, we summarize and discuss FMDV virulence factors and the host immune footprint that characterize infection in cell culture and in the natural hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisselle N Medina
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Codagenix Inc., Farmingdale, NY, United States
| | - Fayna Díaz-San Segundo
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Orient, NY, United States
| | - Carolina Stenfeldt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States.,Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States
| | - Teresa de Los Santos
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Orient, NY, United States
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9
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Adaptive Immune Responses following Senecavirus A Infection in Pigs. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01717-17. [PMID: 29142122 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01717-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Senecavirus A (SVA), an emerging picornavirus of swine, causes vesicular disease (VD) that is clinically indistinguishable from foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in pigs. Many aspects of SVA interactions with the host and the host immune responses to infection, however, remain unknown. In the present study, humoral and cellular immune responses to SVA were evaluated following infection in pigs. We show that SVA infection elicited an early and robust virus-neutralizing (VN) antibody response, which coincided and was strongly correlated with VP2- and VP3-specific IgM responses. Notably, the neutralizing antibody (NA) responses paralleled the reduction of viremia and resolution of the disease. Analysis of the major porcine T-cell subsets revealed that during the acute/clinical phase of SVA infection (14 days postinfection [p.i.]), T-cell responses were characterized by an increased frequency of αβ T cells, especially CD4+ T cells, which were first detected by day 7 p.i. and increased in frequency until day 14 p.i. Additionally, the frequency of CD8+ and double-positive CD4+ CD8+ T cells (effector/memory T cells) expressing interferon gamma (IFN-γ) or proliferating in response to SVA antigen stimulation increased after day 10 p.i. Results presented here show that SVA elicits B- and T-cell activation early upon infection, with IgM antibody levels being correlated with early neutralizing activity against the virus and peak B- and T-cell responses paralleling clinical resolution of the disease. The work provides important insights into the immunological events that follow SVA infection in the natural host.IMPORTANCE Senecavirus A (SVA) has recently emerged in swine, causing outbreaks of vesicular disease (VD) in major swine-producing countries around the world, including the United States, Brazil, China, Thailand, and Colombia. Notably, SVA-induced disease is clinically indistinguishable from other high-consequence VDs of swine, such as FMD, swine vesicular disease, vesicular stomatitis, and vesicular exanthema of swine. Despite the clinical relevance of SVA-induced VD, many aspects of the virus infection biology remain unknown. Here, we assessed host immune responses to SVA infection. The results show that SVA infection elicits early B- and T-cell responses, with the levels of VN antibody and CD4+ T-cell responses paralleling the reduction of viremia and resolution of the disease. SVA-specific CD8+ T cells are detected later during infection. A better understanding of SVA interactions with the host immune system may allow the design and implementation of improved control strategies for this important pathogen of swine.
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10
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Abubakar M, Manzoor S, Ahmed A. Interplay of foot and mouth disease virus with cell-mediated and humoral immunity of host. Rev Med Virol 2017; 28. [PMID: 29282795 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes a communicable disease of cloven hoofed animals, resulting in major economic losses during disease outbreaks. Like other members of the Picornaviridae FMDV has a relatively short infectious cycle; initiation of infection and dissemination, with production of infectious virions occurs in less than a week. The components of innate immunity as well as cell-mediated and humoral immunity play a crucial role in control of FMDV. However, it has been shown in vitro using a mouse model that FMDV has evolved certain mechanisms to counteract host immune responses ensuring its survival and spread. The viral leader proteinase, L pro, deters interferon beta (IFN-β) mRNA synthesis, thus, inhibiting host cell translation. Another viral proteinase, 3C pro, disrupts host cell transcription by cleaving histone H3. A transient lymphopenia in swine as a consequence of FMDV infection has also been observed, but the mechanism involved and viral protein(s) associated with this process are not clearly understood. In this review, we have covered the interaction of FMDV with different immune cells including lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells and their consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Afshan Ahmed
- FAO FMD Project (GCP/PAK/123/USA), Islamabad, Pakistan
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11
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Zhi X, Lv J, Wei Y, Du P, Chang Y, Zhang Y, Gao Y, Wu R, Guo H. Foot-and-mouth disease virus infection stimulates innate immune signaling in the mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Can J Microbiol 2017; 64:155-166. [PMID: 29253356 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2017-0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system acts as the first line of defense against invasion by bacterial and viral pathogens. The role of macrophages in innate immune responses to foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is poorly understood. To determine the mechanism underlying activation of innate immunity after FMDV infection in macrophages, we performed FMDV infection in mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells and found that FMDV serotype O infection induced a cytopathic effect. We then evaluated the gene expression profile in macrophage RAW 264.7 cells after FMDV infection using systematic microarray analysis. Gene ontology annotation and enrichment analysis revealed that FMDV promoted expression in a group of genes that are enriched in innate immune response and inflammatory response processes. Further research demonstrated that FMDV serotype O infection enhanced NF-κB, Toll-like, and RIG-I-like receptor signaling pathways and proteins expression and increased transcription and expression of a series of cytokines and interferons, as proved by qRT-PCR, Western blot, ELISA, and dual-luciferase reporter assay. Our study concluded that FMDV infection triggers the innate immune response in macrophages after activation of multiple innate immune pathway receptors and proteins by FMDV serotype O, resulting in activation and secretion of a series of cytokines and interferons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Zhi
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, 730070 Gansu, People's Republic of China.,b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianliang Lv
- b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanquan Wei
- b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Du
- b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanyan Chang
- b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Zhang
- b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Gao
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, 730070 Gansu, People's Republic of China.,b State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046 Gansu, People's Republic of China.,c College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, 730070 Gansu, People's Republic of China
| | - Run Wu
- a College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, 730070 Gansu, People's Republic of China
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Stenfeldt C, Diaz-San Segundo F, de Los Santos T, Rodriguez LL, Arzt J. The Pathogenesis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Pigs. Front Vet Sci 2016; 3:41. [PMID: 27243028 PMCID: PMC4876306 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2016.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The greatest proportion of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) clinical research has been dedicated to elucidating pathogenesis and enhancing vaccine protection in cattle with less efforts invested in studies specific to pigs. However, accumulated evidence from FMD outbreaks and experimental investigations suggest that critical components of FMD pathogenesis, immunology, and vaccinology cannot be extrapolated from investigations performed in cattle to explain or to predict outcomes of infection or vaccination in pigs. Furthermore, it has been shown that failure to account for these differences may have substantial consequences when FMD outbreaks occur in areas with dense pig populations. Recent experimental studies have confirmed some aspects of conventional wisdom by demonstrating that pigs are more susceptible to FMD virus (FMDV) infection via exposure of the upper gastrointestinal tract (oropharynx) than through inhalation of virus. The infection spreads rapidly within groups of pigs that are housed together, although efficiency of transmission may vary depending on virus strain and exposure intensity. Multiple investigations have demonstrated that physical separation of pigs is sufficient to prevent virus transmission under experimental conditions. Detailed pathogenesis studies have recently demonstrated that specialized epithelium within porcine oropharyngeal tonsils constitute the primary infection sites following simulated natural virus exposure. Furthermore, epithelium of the tonsil of the soft palate supports substantial virus replication during the clinical phase of infection, thus providing large amounts of virus that can be shed into the environment. Due to massive amplification and shedding of virus, acutely infected pigs constitute a considerable source of contagion. FMDV infection results in modulation of several components of the host immune response. The infection is ultimately cleared in association with a strong humoral response and, in contrast to ruminants, there is no subclinical persistence of FMDV in pigs. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of knowledge gained from experimental investigations of FMD pathogenesis, transmission, and host response in pigs. Details of the temporo-anatomic progression of infection are discussed in relation to specific pathogenesis events and the likelihood of transmission. Additionally, relevant aspects of the host immune response are discussed within contexts of conventional and novel intervention strategies of vaccination and immunomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Stenfeldt
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Greenport, NY, USA; PIADC Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Fayna Diaz-San Segundo
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Greenport, NY, USA; Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, CANR, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Teresa de Los Santos
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
| | - Luis L Rodriguez
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit (FADRU), Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) , Greenport, NY , USA
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Sei JJ, Waters RA, Kenney M, Barlow JW, Golde WT. Effect of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Infection on the Frequency, Phenotype and Function of Circulating Dendritic Cells in Cattle. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152192. [PMID: 27008425 PMCID: PMC4805171 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly contagious virus that causes one of the most devastating diseases in cloven-hoofed animals. Disease symptoms develop within 2 to 3 days of exposure and include fever and vesicular lesions on the tongue and hooves. Dendritic cells (DC) play an essential role in protective immune responses against pathogens. Therefore, investigating their role during FMDV infection would lead to a better understanding of host-pathogen interactions. In this study, following infection of cattle with FMDV, we investigated the frequency and function of conventional (cDC) and plasmacytoid DC (pDC) in blood by using multi-color flow cytometry. We show that the frequency of cDC and pDC increased following FMDV infection and peaked 3 to 4 days post-infection. During peak viremia, the cattle became lymphopenic, the expression of MHC class II molecules on cDC and pDC was dramatically down-regulated, the processing of exogenous antigen by cDC and pDC was impaired, and there was an increase in IL-10 production by DC and monocytes. Notably, after clearance of FMDV from the blood, MHC class II expression returned to pre-infection levels. Altogether, our study demonstrates that in cattle, FMDV inhibits the function of DC, thereby retarding the initiation of adaptive immune responses, potentially enhancing virus shedding during the acute phase of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet J. Sei
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - Ryan A. Waters
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - Mary Kenney
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
| | - John W. Barlow
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States of America
| | - William T. Golde
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, NY, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Li D, Lei C, Xu Z, Yang F, Liu H, Zhu Z, Li S, Liu X, Shu H, Zheng H. Foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural protein 3A inhibits the interferon-β signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21888. [PMID: 26883855 PMCID: PMC4756384 DOI: 10.1038/srep21888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the etiological agent of FMD, which affects cloven-hoofed animals. The pathophysiology of FMDV has not been fully understood and the evasion of host innate immune system is still unclear. Here, the FMDV non-structural protein 3A was identified as a negative regulator of virus-triggered IFN-β signaling pathway. Overexpression of the FMDV 3A inhibited Sendai virus-triggered activation of IRF3 and the expressions of RIG-I/MDA5. Transient transfection and co-immunoprecipitation experiments suggested that FMDV 3A interacts with RIG-I, MDA5 and VISA, which is dependent on the N-terminal 51 amino acids of 3A. Furthermore, 3A also inhibited the expressions of RIG-I, MDA5, and VISA by disrupting their mRNA levels. These results demonstrated that 3A inhibits the RLR-mediated IFN-β induction and uncovered a novel mechanism by which the FMDV 3A protein evades the host innate immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Caoqi Lei
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zhisheng Xu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Huanan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Zixiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Shu Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Xiangtao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
| | - Hongbing Shu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Haixue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730046, China
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Zhang GG, Chen XY, Qian P, Chen HC, Li XM. Immunogenicity of a recombinant Sendai virus expressing the capsid precursor polypeptide of foot-and-mouth disease virus. Res Vet Sci 2016; 104:181-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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16
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Li D, Yang W, Yang F, Liu H, Zhu Z, Lian K, Lei C, Li S, Liu X, Zheng H, Shu H. The VP3 structural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus inhibits the IFN-β signaling pathway. FASEB J 2016; 30:1757-66. [PMID: 26813975 DOI: 10.1096/fj.15-281410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease is a frequently occurring disease of cloven-hoofed animals that is caused by infection with the foot-and-mouth virus (FMDV). FMDV circumvents the type-I IFN response by expressing proteins that antagonize cellular innate immunity, such as leader protease and 3C protease. We identified the FMDV structural protein VP3 as a negative regulator of the virus-triggered IFN-β signaling pathway. Expression of FMDV VP3 inhibited the Sendai virus-triggered activation of IFN regulatory factor-3 and the expression of retinoic acid-inducible gene-I/melanoma differentiation-associated protein-5. Transient transfection and coimmunoprecipitation confirmed that the structural protein VP3 interacts with virus-induced signaling adapter (VISA), which is dependent on the C-terminal aa 111-220 of VP3. In addition, we found that FMDV VP3 inhibits the expression of VISA by disrupting its mRNA. Taken together, our findings reveal a novel strategy used by the structural VP3 protein of FMDV to evade host innate immunity.-Li, D., Yang, W., Yang, F., Liu, H., Zhu, Z., Lian, K., Lei, C., Li, S., Liu, X., Zheng, H., Shu, H. The VP3 structural protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus inhibits the IFN-β signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Wenping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Fan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Huanan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Zixiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Kaiqi Lian
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Caoqi Lei
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shu Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiangtao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Haixue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, National Foot and Mouth Diseases Reference Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China; and
| | - Hongbing Shu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Viral Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
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17
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Nagendrakumar SB, Hong NTT, Geoffrey FT, Jacqueline MM, Andrew D, Michelle G, Van Phuc K, Ngon QV, Phuong LTT, Phuc NNH, Hanh TX, Van Hung V, Quynhanh LT, Tan TM, Long NT, Wilna V. A Malaysia 97 monovalent foot-and-mouth disease vaccine (>6PD50/dose) protects pigs against challenge with a variant FMDV A SEA-97 lineage virus, 4 and 7 days post vaccination. Vaccine 2015; 33:4513-9. [PMID: 26192355 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pigs play a significant role during outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) due to their ability to amplify the virus. It is therefore essential to determine what role vaccination could play to prevent clinical disease and lower virus excretion into the environment. In this study we investigated the efficacy of the double oil emulsion A Malaysia 97 vaccine (>6PD50/dose) against heterologous challenge with an isolate belonging to the A SEA-97 lineage at 4 and 7 days post vaccination (dpv). In addition, we determined whether physical separation of pigs in the same room could prevent virus transmission. Statistically there was no difference in the level of protection offered by 4 and 7 dpv. However, no clinical disease or viral RNA was detected in the blood of pigs challenged 4 dpv, although three of the pigs had antibodies to the non-structural proteins (NSPs), indicating viral replication. Viral RNA was also detected in nasal and saliva swabs, but on very few occasions. Two of the pigs vaccinated seven days prior to challenge had vesicles distal from the injection site, but on the inoculated foot, and two pigs had viral RNA detected in the blood. One pig sero-converted to the NSPs. In contrast, all unvaccinated and inoculated pigs had evidence of infection. No infection occurred in any of the susceptible pigs in the same room, but separated from the infected pigs, indicating that strict biosecurity measures were sufficient under these experimental conditions to prevent virus transmission. However, viral RNA was detected in the nasal swabs of one group of pigs, but apparently not at sufficient levels to cause clinical disease. Vaccination led to a significant decrease in viral RNA in vaccinated pigs compared to unvaccinated and infected pigs, even with this heterologous challenge, and could therefore be considered as a control option during outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fosgate T Geoffrey
- Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | | | - Davis Andrew
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO-Biosecurity Flagship, Geelong, Australia
| | - Giles Michelle
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO-Biosecurity Flagship, Geelong, Australia
| | - Kim Van Phuc
- National Veterinary Company, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Quach Vo Ngon
- National Veterinary Company, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | | | | | - Vo Van Hung
- Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Regional Animal Health Office 6, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Le Thi Quynhanh
- Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Regional Animal Health Office 6, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Tran Minh Tan
- Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Regional Animal Health Office 6, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Ngo Thanh Long
- Center for Veterinary Diagnostics, Regional Animal Health Office 6, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Vosloo Wilna
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, CSIRO-Biosecurity Flagship, Geelong, Australia.
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Habiela M, Seago J, Perez-Martin E, Waters R, Windsor M, Salguero FJ, Wood J, Charleston B, Juleff N. Laboratory animal models to study foot-and-mouth disease: a review with emphasis on natural and vaccine-induced immunity. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:2329-2345. [PMID: 25000962 PMCID: PMC4202264 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.068270-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory animal models have provided valuable insight into foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) pathogenesis in epidemiologically important target species. While not perfect, these models have delivered an accelerated time frame to characterize the immune responses in natural hosts and a platform to evaluate therapeutics and vaccine candidates at a reduced cost. Further expansion of these models in mice has allowed access to genetic mutations not available for target species, providing a powerful and versatile experimental system to interrogate the immune response to FMDV and to target more expensive studies in natural hosts. The purpose of this review is to describe commonly used FMDV infection models in laboratory animals and to cite examples of when these models have failed or successfully provided insight relevant for target species, with an emphasis on natural and vaccine-induced immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Habiela
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Julian Seago
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | | | - Ryan Waters
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Miriam Windsor
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Francisco J. Salguero
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7TE, UK
| | - James Wood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | | | - Nicholas Juleff
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
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Infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) induces a natural killer (NK) cell response in cattle that is lacking following vaccination. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 37:249-57. [PMID: 25150134 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play a role in innate antiviral immunity by directly lysing virus-infected cells and producing antiviral cytokines such as interferon gamma (IFN-γ). We developed a system for characterizing the bovine NK response to foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), which causes a disease of cloven-hoofed animals and remains a threat to livestock industries throughout the world. IL-2 stimulation of PBMC resulted in poor killing of human K562 cells, which are often used as NK target cells, while lysis of the bovine BL3.1 cell line was readily detected. Depletion of NKp46-expressing cells revealed that 80% of the killing induced by IL-2 could be attributed to NKp46(+) cells. In order to characterize the response of NK cells against FMDV in vivo, we infected groups of cattle with three different strains of the virus (A24 Cruzeiro, O1 Manisa, O Hong Kong) and evaluated the cytolytic ability of NK cells through the course of infection. We consistently observed a transient increase in cytolysis, although there was variation in magnitude and kinetics. This increase in cytolysis remained when CD3(+) cells were removed from the preparation of lymphocytes, indicating that cytolysis was independent of MHC-T cell receptor interaction or γδ T cell activation. In contrast, animals monitored following vaccination against FMDV did not exhibit any increase in NK killing. These data suggest that NK cells play a role in the host immune response of cattle against FMDV, and contrast with the suppression of NK activity previously observed in swine infected with FMDV.
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Expression of porcine fusion protein IRF7/3(5D) efficiently controls foot-and-mouth disease virus replication. J Virol 2014; 88:11140-53. [PMID: 25031341 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00372-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Several studies have demonstrated that the delivery of type I, II, or III interferons (IFNs) by inoculation of a replication-defective human adenovirus 5 (Ad5) vector expressing IFNs can effectively control foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in cattle and swine during experimental infections. However, relatively high doses are required to achieve protection. In this study, we identified the functional properties of a porcine fusion protein, poIRF7/3(5D), as a biotherapeutic and enhancer of IFN activity against FMD virus (FMDV). We showed that poIRF7/3(5D) is a potent inducer of type I IFNs, including alpha IFN (IFN-α), IFN-β, and IFN-ω but not type III IFN (interleukin-28B), without inducing cytotoxicity. Expression of poIRF7/3(5D) significantly and steadily reduced FMDV titers by up to 6 log10 units in swine and bovine cell lines. Treatment with an IFN receptor inhibitor (B18R) combined with an anti-IFN-α antibody neutralized the antiviral activity in the supernatants of cells transduced with an Ad5 vector expressing poIRF7/3(5D) [Ad5-poIRF7/3(5D)]. However, several transcripts with known antiviral function, including type I IFNs, were still highly upregulated (range of increase, 8-fold to over 500-fold) by poIRF7/3(5D) in the presence of B18R. Furthermore, the sera of mice treated with Ad5-poIRF7/3(5D) showed antiviral activity that was associated with the induction of high levels of IFN-α and resulted in complete protection against FMDV challenge at 6, 24, or 48 h posttreatment. This study highlights for the first time the antiviral potential of Ad5-poIRF7/3(5D) in vitro and in vivo against FMDV. IMPORTANCE FMD remains one of the most devastating diseases that affect livestock worldwide. Effective vaccine formulations are available but are serotype specific and require approximately 7 days before they are able to elicit protective immunity. We have shown that vector-delivered IFN is an option to protect animals against many FMDV serotypes as soon as 24 h and for about 4 days postadministration. Here we demonstrate that delivery of a constitutively active transcription factor that induces the production of endogenous IFNs and potentially other antiviral genes is a viable strategy to protect against FMD.
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Cusick MF, Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Picornavirus infection leading to immunosuppression. Future Virol 2014; 9:475-482. [PMID: 25214881 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.14.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Viruses, such as HIV, hepatitis A, poliovirus, coxsackievirus B3 and foot-and-mouth disease virus, use a variety of mechanisms to suppress the human immune system in order to evade clearance by the host. Therefore, investigating how a few changes in the viral genome of a nonlethal virus can lead to an alteration in disease, from survivable to immunosuppression and death, would provide valuable information into viral pathogenesis. In addition, we propose that gaining a better insight into how these viruses suppress an antiviral immune response could lead to viral-based therapeutics to combat specifc autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew F Cusick
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Jane E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Robert S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Patch JR, Kenney M, Pacheco JM, Grubman MJ, Golde WT. Characterization of cytotoxic T lymphocyte function after foot-and-mouth disease virus infection and vaccination. Viral Immunol 2013; 26:239-49. [PMID: 23829779 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2013.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The induction of neutralizing antibodies specific for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) has been the central goal of vaccination efforts against this economically important disease of cloven-hoofed animals. Although these efforts have yielded much success, challenges remain, including little cross-serotype protection and inadequate duration of immunity. Commonly, viral infections are characterized by induction of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), yet the function of CTL in FMDV immunity is poorly defined. We developed an assay for detection of CTL specific for FMDV and reported that a modified adenovirus-vectored FMDV vaccine could induce CTL activity. This allowed us to determine whether FMDV-specific CTL responses are induced during infection and to test further whether vaccine-induced CTL could protect against challenge with FMDV. We now show the induction of antigen-specific CTL responses after infection of swine with FMDV strain A24 Cruizero. In addition, we developed a vaccination strategy that induces FMDV-specific CTL in the absence of significant neutralizing antibody. Animals vaccinated using this protocol showed delayed clinical disease and significantly suppressed viremia compared to control animals, suggesting a role for CTLs in the control of virus shedding. These results provide new insights showing induction of CTL responses to FMDV following infection or vaccination, and create the potential for improving vaccine performance by targeting cellular immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared R Patch
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Greenport, New York, USA
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Cell mediated innate responses of cattle and swine are diverse during foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection: a unique landscape of innate immunity. Immunol Lett 2013; 152:135-43. [PMID: 23727070 PMCID: PMC7112845 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Harnessing the innate immunity can protect domestic animals from viruses. Innate immune cells have potential capacity to afford protection against infection. Understanding the innate and adaptive immunity will aid rational vaccine design.
Pathogens in general and pathogenic viruses in particular have evolved a myriad of mechanisms to escape the immune response of mammalian species. Viruses that cause acute disease tend to bear characteristics that make them very contagious, as survival does not derive from chronicity of infection, but spread of disease throughout the herd. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is one of the most contagious viruses known. Upon infection of susceptible species, cloven-hoofed animals, the virus proliferates rapidly and causes a vesicular disease within 2–4 days. Disease symptoms resolve by 10 days to 2 weeks and in most cases, virus can no longer be detected. Periods of fever and viremia are usually brief, 1–3 days. In vivo control of virus infection and clearance of the virus during and following acute infection is of particular interest. The interaction of this virus with cells mediating the early, innate immune response has been analyzed in a number of recent studies. In most reports, the virus has a distinct inhibitory effect on the response of cells early in infection. Here we review these new data and discuss the dynamics of the interaction of virus with different cell types mediating the immune response to infection.
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Pacheco JM, Tucker M, Hartwig E, Bishop E, Arzt J, Rodriguez LL. Direct contact transmission of three different foot-and-mouth disease virus strains in swine demonstrates important strain-specific differences. Vet J 2012; 193:456-63. [PMID: 22342891 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A novel direct contact transmission model for the study of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection of swine was utilized to investigate transmission characteristics of three FMDV strains belonging to serotypes A, O and Asia1. Each strain demonstrated distinct transmission characteristics and required different exposure times to achieve successful contact transmission. While a 4h exposure was sufficient for strain A24 Cruzeiro (A24Cru), both O1 Manisa and Asia1 Shamir transmission required 18 h or more. Viral excretion levels from donors (for all three strains) and virus present in room air (for A24Cru and O1 Manisa) were evaluated and associated with clinical signs and observed transmission pattern. Although all directly inoculated donor animals showed acute FMD, A24Cru had the highest levels of viral shedding in saliva and nasal swabs followed by O1 Manisa and Asia1 Shamir. Virus levels in room air were higher and were detected longer for A24Cru than for O1 Manisa. These results provide direct evidence for important strain-specific variation in transmission characteristics and emphasize the need for thorough evaluation of different FMDV viral strains using a well defined contact transmission methodology. This information is critical for vaccine and biotherapeutic efficacy testing, pathogenesis and disease modeling of FMDV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Pacheco
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Agriculture Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY 11944, USA.
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25
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Bovine type III interferon significantly delays and reduces the severity of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle. J Virol 2012; 86:4477-87. [PMID: 22301155 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06683-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are the first line of defense against viral infections. Although type I and II IFNs have proven effective to inhibit foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) replication in swine, a similar approach had only limited efficacy in cattle. Recently, a new family of IFNs, type III IFN or IFN-λ, has been identified in human, mouse, chicken, and swine. We have identified bovine IFN-λ3 (boIFN-λ3), also known as interleukin 28B (IL-28B), and demonstrated that expression of this molecule using a recombinant replication-defective human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) vector, Ad5-boIFN-λ3, exhibited antiviral activity against FMDV in bovine cell culture. Furthermore, inoculation of cattle with Ad5-boIFN-λ3 induced systemic antiviral activity and upregulation of IFN-stimulated gene expression in the upper respiratory airways and skin. In the present study, we demonstrated that disease could be delayed for at least 6 days when cattle were inoculated with Ad5-boIFN-λ3 and challenged 24 h later by intradermolingual inoculation with FMDV. Furthermore, the delay in the appearance of disease was significantly prolonged when treated cattle were challenged by aerosolization of FMDV, using a method that resembles the natural route of infection. No clinical signs of FMD, viremia, or viral shedding in nasal swabs was found in the Ad5-boIFN-λ3-treated animals for at least 9 days postchallenge. Our results indicate that boIFN-λ3 plays a critical role in the innate immune response of cattle against FMDV. To this end, this work represents the most successful biotherapeutic strategy so far tested to control FMDV in cattle.
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Inoculation of swine with foot-and-mouth disease SAP-mutant virus induces early protection against disease. J Virol 2011; 86:1316-27. [PMID: 22114339 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.05941-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) leader proteinase (L(pro)) cleaves itself from the viral polyprotein and cleaves the translation initiation factor eIF4G. As a result, host cell translation is inhibited, affecting the host innate immune response. We have demonstrated that L(pro) is also associated with degradation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), a process that requires L(pro) nuclear localization. Additionally, we reported that disruption of a conserved protein domain within the L(pro) coding sequence, SAP mutation, prevented L(pro) nuclear retention and degradation of NF-κB, resulting in in vitro attenuation. Here we report that inoculation of swine with this SAP-mutant virus does not cause clinical signs of disease, viremia, or virus shedding even when inoculated at doses 100-fold higher than those required to cause disease with wild-type (WT) virus. Remarkably, SAP-mutant virus-inoculated animals developed a strong neutralizing antibody response and were completely protected against challenge with WT FMDV as early as 2 days postinoculation and for at least 21 days postinoculation. Early protection correlated with a distinct pattern in the serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines in comparison to the levels detected in animals inoculated with WT FMDV that developed disease. In addition, animals inoculated with the FMDV SAP mutant displayed a memory T cell response that resembled infection with WT virus. Our results suggest that L(pro) plays a pivotal role in modulating several pathways of the immune response. Furthermore, manipulation of the L(pro) coding region may serve as a viable strategy to derive live attenuated strains with potential for development as effective vaccines against foot-and-mouth disease.
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Moraes MP, Segundo FDS, Dias CC, Pena L, Grubman MJ. Increased efficacy of an adenovirus-vectored foot-and-mouth disease capsid subunit vaccine expressing nonstructural protein 2B is associated with a specific T cell response. Vaccine 2011; 29:9431-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Revised: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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28
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Windsor MA, Carr BV, Bankowski B, Gibson D, Reid E, Hamblin P, Gubbins S, Juleff N, Charleston B. Cattle remain immunocompetent during the acute phase of foot-and-mouth disease virus infection. Vet Res 2011; 42:108. [PMID: 22014145 PMCID: PMC3207891 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of cattle with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) results in the development of long-term protective antibody responses. In contrast, inactivated antigen vaccines fail to induce long-term protective immunity. Differences between susceptible species have also been observed during infection with FMDV, with cattle often developing persistent infections whilst pigs develop more severe symptoms and excrete higher levels of virus. This study examined the early immune response to FMDV in naïve cattle after in-contact challenge. Cattle exposed to FMDV were found to be viraemic and produced neutralising antibody, consistent with previous reports. In contrast to previous studies in pigs these cattle did not develop leucopenia, and the proliferative responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells to either mitogen or third party antigen were not suppressed. Low levels of type 1 interferon and IL-10 were detected in the circulation. Taken together, these results suggest that there was no generalised immunosuppression during the acute phase of FMDV infection in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam A Windsor
- Pirbright Laboratory, Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Woking, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK.
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29
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Toka FN, Kenney MA, Golde WT. Rapid and transient activation of γδ T cells to IFN-γ production, NK cell-like killing, and antigen processing during acute virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:4853-61. [PMID: 21383249 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
γδ T cells are the majority peripheral blood T cells in young cattle. The role of γδ T cells in innate responses against infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus was analyzed on consecutive 5 d following infection. Before infection, bovine WC1(+) γδ T cells expressed a nonactivated phenotype relative to CD62L, CD45RO, and CD25 expression and did not produce IFN-γ ex vivo. Additionally, CD335 expression was lacking and no spontaneous target cell lysis could be detected in vitro, although perforin was detectable at a very low level. MHC class II and CD13 expression were also lacking. Following infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus, expression of CD62L and CD45RO was greatly reduced on WC1(+) γδ T cells, and unexpectedly, CD45RO expression did not recover. A transient increase in expression of CD25 correlated with production of IFN-γ. Expression of CD335 and production of perforin were detected on a subset of γδ T cells, and this correlated with an increased spontaneous killing of xenogeneic target cells. Furthermore, increased MHC class II expression was detected on WC1(+) γδ T cells, and these cells processed protein Ags. These activities are rapidly induced, within 3 d, and wane by 5 d following infection. All of these functions, NK-like killing, Ag processing, and IFN-γ production, have been demonstrated for these cells in various species. However, these results are unique in that all these functions are detected in the same samples of WC1(+) γδ T cells, suggesting a pivotal role of these cells in controlling virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix N Toka
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY 11944, USA
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30
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Foot-and-mouth disease virus exhibits an altered tropism in the presence of specific immunoglobulins, enabling productive infection and killing of dendritic cells. J Virol 2010; 85:2212-23. [PMID: 21177807 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02180-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes an acute vesicular disease of farm animals. The development of successful control strategies is limited by an incomplete understanding of the immune response to FMDV. Dendritic cells (DC) mediate the induction of immunity to pathogens, but their role in FMDV infection of cattle is uncharacterized. Bovine monocyte-derived DC (moDC) were exposed to integrin-binding and cell culture-adapted strains of FMDV in vitro. MoDC were not largely susceptible to infection by integrin-binding FMDV but were susceptible to culture-adapted virus. Binding specific antibodies to integrin-binding FMDV at neutralizing or subneutralizing IgG concentrations significantly enhanced infection via CD32 (FcγR). Monocytes also expressed CD32 but were nonsusceptible to FMDV immune complex (IC) infection, indicating a requirement for additional factors involved in cellular susceptibility. Infection of moDC by the FMDV IC was productive and associated with high levels of cell death. Infected moDC were unable to efficiently stimulate FMDV-specific CD4(+) memory T cells, but exposing moDC to IC containing inactivated FMDV resulted in significantly increased T cell stimulation. Thus, neutralized FMDV concurrently loses its ability to infect susceptible cells while gaining the capacity to infect immune cells. This represents a change in the tropism of FMDV that could occur after the onset of the antibody response. We propose that IC could dynamically influence the anti-FMDV immune response and that this may explain why the early immune response to FMDV has evolved toward T cell independence in vivo. Moreover, we propose that DC targeting could prove useful in the development of effective vaccines against FMDV.
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31
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Induction of foot-and-mouth disease virus-specific cytotoxic T cell killing by vaccination. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2010; 18:280-8. [PMID: 21177918 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00417-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) continues to be a significant threat to the health and economic value of livestock species. This acute infection is caused by the highly contagious FMD virus (FMDV), which infects cloven-hoofed animals, including large and small ruminants and swine. Current vaccine strategies are all directed toward the induction of neutralizing antibody responses. However, the role of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) has not received a great deal of attention, in part because of the technical difficulties associated with establishing a reliable assay of cell killing for this highly cytopathic virus. Here, we have used recombinant human adenovirus vectors as a means of delivering FMDV antigens in a T cell-directed vaccine in pigs. We tested the hypothesis that impaired processing of the FMDV capsid would enhance cytolytic activity, presumably by targeting all proteins for degradation and effectively increasing the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC)/FMDV peptide concentration for stimulation of a CTL response. We compared such a T cell-targeting vaccine with the parental vaccine, previously shown to effectively induce a neutralizing antibody response. Our results show induction of FMDV-specific CD8(+) CTL killing of MHC-matched target cells in an antigen-specific manner. Further, we confirm these results by MHC tetramer staining. This work presents the first demonstration of FMDV-specific CTL killing and confirmation by MHC tetramer staining in response to vaccination against FMDV.
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32
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Zhou X, Song Z, Liu X, Jia F, Wang Y. Production of Recombinant Porcine Interferon alpha Using PHB–Intein-Mediated Protein Purification Strategy. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2010; 163:981-93. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-010-9101-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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33
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Toka FN, Nfon CK, Dawson H, Estes DM, Golde WT. Activation of porcine natural killer cells and lysis of foot-and-mouth disease virus infected cells. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010; 29:179-92. [PMID: 19196070 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2008.0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells play a vital role in innate response against viral infections and cellular transformation. In vivo modulation of their response may enhance their antiviral function. Here we describe the phenotype of porcine NK cells, test potential proinflammatory cytokines for activation of these cells and assess the capability of porcine NK cells to kill virus-infected or tumor cells in vitro. The CD2+/CD8+/CD3(-) cell compartment contained porcine NK cells, which at the resting stage were minimally cytotoxic toward foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)-infected porcine cells or tumor cell lines. Direct stimulation of NK cells with proinflammatory cytokines induced efficient lysis of FMDV-infected cells with interleukin (IL)-2 or IL-15 showing the highest stimulatory capacity. Lower levels of NK cell activation were induced by IL-12, IL-18, or interferon (IFN)-alpha, however, IL-12 and IL-18 synergistically activated NK cells. Combinations of IL-15 and IL-12 or IL-15 and IL-18 did not further increase the porcine NK cell lytic capability over IL-15 alone. Natural killer cells expressed IFN-gamma regardless of the cytokine used for stimulation while expression of perforin increased modestly. The enhancement of porcine NK cell activity by proinflammatory cytokines offers a promising tool for development of antiviral approaches against virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix N Toka
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Greenport, New York 11944, USA
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34
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Nfon CK, Toka FN, Kenney M, Pacheco JM, Golde WT. Loss of plasmacytoid dendritic cell function coincides with lymphopenia and viremia during foot-and-mouth disease virus infection. Viral Immunol 2010; 23:29-41. [PMID: 20121400 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2009.0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes an acute, highly contagious disease of livestock. Though FMDV is very sensitive to interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha), IFN-beta, and IFN-gamma, the virus has evolved mechanisms to evade such innate responses. For instance, during acute infection, FMDV suppresses IFN-alpha production by skin and myeloid dendritic cells (DCs). We have previously reported that FMDV infection induces a transient lymphopenia and interruption of T-lymphocyte responses to mitogenic stimuli. To further understand the immunopathogenesis of FMD, we have now analyzed the serum IFN-alpha response in relation to lymphopenia, and the number and function of plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) following infection of pigs with multiple serotypes of FMDV. Serum IFN-alpha peaked 2-3 d post-infection (PI), regardless of FMDV serotype. Lymphopenia coincided with peak viremia and the serum IFN-alpha response. Circulating pDC numbers and in-vitro pDC IFN-alpha secretion transiently declined by 48 h following infection. Infection of lymphocytes or pDCs was never detected regardless of the FMDV serotype inoculated or the age of the animal infected. These data indicate that, like other DC subsets, there is suppression of interferon production by pDCs, which abrogates this important innate response. Rapid induction of serum IFN-alpha, albeit short-lived, may contribute to the rapid resolution of FMDV viremia prior to induction of specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles K Nfon
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center , Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Greenport, New York 11944-0848, USA
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35
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Natural killer cell dysfunction during acute infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2009; 16:1738-49. [PMID: 19828769 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00280-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells provide one of the initial barriers of cellular host defense against pathogens, in particular intracellular pathogens. The role of these cells in foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection is unknown. Previously, we characterized the phenotype and function of NK cells from swine (F. N. Toka et al., J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 29:179-192, 2009). In the present study, we report the analysis of NK cells isolated from animals infected with FMDV and tested ex vivo and show that NK-dependent cytotoxic activity against tumor cells as targets was impaired. More relevantly to this infection, the killing of target cells infected with FMDV also was inhibited. Further, the proportion of NK cells capable of producing gamma interferon and storing perforin was reduced. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from infected animals are not productively infected, but virus exposure in vivo resulted in the significant induction of NKp30 and Toll-like receptor 3 expression and the moderate activation of SOCS3 and interleukin-15 receptor mRNA. However, there was little alteration of mRNA expression from a number of other receptor genes in these cells, including SH2D1B and NKG2A (inhibitory) as well as NKp80, NKp46, and NKG2D (activating). These data indicate that this virus infection influences the ability of NK cells to recognize and eliminate FMDV-infected cells. In addition, a reduction in NK cell cytotoxicity coincided with the increase in virus titers, indicating the virus blocking of NK cell-associated innate responses, albeit temporarily. These effects likely culminate in brief but effective viral immune evasion, allowing the virus to replicate and disseminate within the host.
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36
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Abstract
Summary: The interface between successful pathogens and their hosts is often a tenuous balance. In acute viral infections, this balance involves induction and inhibition of innate responses. Foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) is considered one of the most contagious viruses known and is characterized by rapid induction of clinical disease in cloven hoofed animals exposed to infection. Viral shedding is extensive before the equally rapid resolution of acute disease. This positive strand RNA virus is an extremely successful pathogen, due in part to the ability to interrupt the innate immune response. Previous reviews have described the inhibition of cellular innate responses in the infected cell both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we present a review of virus inhibition of cells that are a source of antiviral function in swine. Particularly in the case of dendritic cells and natural killer cells, the virus has evolved mechanisms to interrupt the normal function of these important mediators of innate function, even though these cells are not infected by the virus. Understanding how this virus subverts the innate response will provide valuable information for the development of rapidly acting biotherapeutics to use in response to an outbreak of FMDV.
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Affiliation(s)
- William T Golde
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, ARS, USDA, Greenport, NY 11944-0848, USA.
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37
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Kimman TG, Cornelissen LA, Moormann RJ, Rebel JMJ, Stockhofe-Zurwieden N. Challenges for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) vaccinology. Vaccine 2009; 27:3704-18. [PMID: 19464553 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) continues to be a threat for the pig industry. Vaccines have been developed, but these failed to provide sustainable disease control, in particular against genetically unrelated strains. Here we give an overview of current knowledge and gaps in our knowledge that may be relevant for the development of a future generation of more effective vaccines. PRRSV replicates in cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage, induces apoptosis and necrosis, interferes with the induction of a proinflammatory response, only slowly induces a specific antiviral response, and may cause persistent infections. The virus appears to use several evasion strategies to circumvent both innate and acquired immunity, including interference with antigen presentation, antibody-mediated enhancement, reduced cell surface expression of viral proteins, and shielding of neutralizing epitopes. In particular the downregulation of type I interferon-alpha production appears to interfere with the induction of acquired immunity. Current vaccines are ineffective because they suffer both from the immune evasion strategies of the virus and the antigenic heterogeneity of field strains. Future vaccines therefore must "uncouple" the immune evasion and apoptogenic/necrotic properties of the virus from its immunogenic properties, and they should induce a broad immune response covering the plasticity of its major antigenic sites. Alternatively, the composition of the vaccine should be changed regularly to reflect presently and locally circulating strains. Preferably new vaccines should also allow discriminating infected from vaccinated pigs to support a virus elimination strategy. Challenges in vaccine development are the incompletely known mechanisms of immune evasion and immunity, lack of knowledge of viral sequences that are responsible for the pathogenic and immunosuppressive properties of the virus, lack of knowledge of the forces that drive antigenic heterogeneity and its consequences for immunogenicity, and a viral genome that is relatively intolerant for subtle changes at functional sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tjeerd G Kimman
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR (CVI), P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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38
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Accessory-cell-mediated activation of porcine NK cells by toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) and TLR8 agonists. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2009; 16:866-78. [PMID: 19369481 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00035-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The induction of innate immune responses by toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists is the subject of intense investigation. In large part, this reflects the potential of such compounds to be effective vaccine adjuvants. For that reason, we analyzed the activation of innate cells in swine by TLR7 and TLR8 agonists. These agonists activated porcine NK cells by increasing gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) expression and perforin storage. The activation of porcine NK cells was mediated by accessory cells, since their depletion resulted in reduced cytotoxicity toward target cells. Accessory cells were stimulated to produce interleukin 12 (IL-12), IL-15, IL-18, and IFN-alpha after treatment with TLR7 or TLR8 agonists. Neutralization of these cytokines reduced but did not completely inhibit the induction of NK cell cytotoxicity. Direct stimulation of NK cells with TLR7 or TLR8 agonists resulted in minimal cytotoxicity but levels of IFN-gamma equivalent to those detected in the presence of accessory cells. Porcine NK cells express both TLR7 and TLR8 mRNAs, and treatment with these TLR agonists induced higher mRNA expression levels of TRAIL and IL-15Ralpha, which may contribute to the activity of NK cells. These data indicate that TLR7 and TLR8 agonists indirectly or directly activate porcine NK cells but that optimum levels of activation require cytokine secretion by accessory cells activated by these compounds. Interestingly, NK cells activated by TLR7 or TLR8 agonists were cytotoxic against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)-infected cells in vitro, indicating that these TLR agonists may be beneficial as adjuvants to stimulate the innate immunity against FMDV.
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39
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Innate immune responses against foot-and-mouth disease virus: Current understanding and future directions. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2009; 128:205-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.10.296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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40
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Summerfield A, McCullough KC. The porcine dendritic cell family. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 33:299-309. [PMID: 18582937 PMCID: PMC7103208 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2008.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2008] [Revised: 05/05/2008] [Accepted: 05/05/2008] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Considering the pivotal roles played by dendritic cells (DCs) in both innate and adaptive immune responses, advances in the field of porcine immunology DC biology have recently progressed rapidly. As with the more extensively studied murine and human DCs, porcine DC can be generated from bone marrow haematopoietic cells or monocytes, and have been analysed in various immunological and non-immunological tissues. Both conventional DC (cDC) and plasmacytoid DC (pDC) have been characterized. The function of porcine monocyte-derived DC has not only been characterized in terms of antigen presentation and lymphocyte activation, but also their response to various ligands of pattern recognition receptors. These have been characterized in terms of the induction of DC maturation and pro-inflammatory, Th1-like or Th2-like cytokines secretion. Porcine pDC most effectively sense virus infections and are characterized by their capacity to produce large quantities of IFN-alpha and the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-12. As such, the DC family as a whole is a powerful ally in the host battle against pathogen attack. Nevertheless, DC in particular tissue environments or under particular stimuli can down-regulate immune response development. This is not only important for preventing over-activation of the immune system and also for ensuring tolerance against self or "friendly" substances including food components, but may also be used as a mechanism of pathogens to evade immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artur Summerfield
- Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis, Sensemattstrasse 293, 3147 Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.
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41
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Grubman MJ, Moraes MP, Diaz-San Segundo F, Pena L, de los Santos T. Evading the host immune response: how foot-and-mouth disease virus has become an effective pathogen. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 53:8-17. [PMID: 18400012 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2008.00409.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes an economically devastating disease of cloven-hoofed animals. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms FMDV has evolved to counteract the host innate and adaptive immune responses and the role of viral proteins in this process. The viral leader proteinase, L pro, limits the host innate response by inhibiting the induction of interferon beta (IFN beta) mRNA and blocking host cell translation. A second viral proteinase, 3C pro, may affect host cell transcription because it cleaves histone H3. Viral protein 2B in conjunction with 2C or their precursor 2BC inhibits protein trafficking through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. A decrease in surface expression of major histocompatibility class I molecules during FMDV infection suggests that 2B, 2C and/or 2BC may be involved in delaying the initiation of the host adaptive immune response and also adversely affect the secretion of induced signaling molecules. FMDV also causes a transient lymphopenia in swine, but the mechanism involved is not understood nor have any viral protein(s) been implicated. Furthermore, the interaction of FMDV with various cells in the immune system including lymphocytes and dendritic cells and the possible role of apoptosis and autophagy in these interactions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin J Grubman
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Greenport, New York 11944, USA.
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