Hypertension is related to the degradation of dietary frying oils

A comprehensive review of the mechanism, changes, and effect of deep fat frying on the characteristics of restructured foods

Restructured foods are a blend of various ingredients that are dried or fried to obtain a ready-to-eat product. Several frying techniques have been employed viz., deep fat, microwave, vacuum, air, and spray frying. Deep-fat frying is the most common technique used for products that have improved texture and sensory characteristics. It facilitates various transformations that include starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, nutrient loss, non-enzymatic browning, lipid oxidation, etc. This physicochemical change alters both the product and the fried oil quality. The frying conditions will also influence the product characteristics and affect the properties of the fried product. This review focuses on the mechanisms and transformations during deep fat frying. The properties, namely physical, chemical, sensory, thermal, rheological, and microstructural changes of restructured foods were discussed. Thus, a better understanding of mechanisms and properties at optimum frying conditions would yield the desired product quality.

Recent studies on alternative technologies for deep-fat frying

Deep fat fried food products have been considered as a vital dietary contributor to certain chronic diseases, including the risk of atherosclerosis, cancer and hypertension. Hence, many food industries are focusing on low fat fried products to attract consumers. In general, oil is absorbed during deep fat frying, and this century old process is used for preparing various kinds of fried food products such as potato chips, banana chips, savory snacks, etc. Vacuum frying, electric field frying and two-stage frying technologies have been developed as an alternatives to traditional frying. These two technologies are suitable for most fried products; however, they may not be suitable for sugar based fruits as they can lead to the formation of browning reactions, which are generally considered unacceptable. This review aims to cover recent work done in the area of vacuum frying and two-stage frying, including the role of pre-treatment and post-treatment novel methods. Additionally, emphasis has been given on recent innovations to improve the quality of vacuum and two-stage frying, particularly concerning the reduction of oil uptake in fried food products.

Dietary factors and hypertension risk in West Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND

Contrary to North America and Europe, the prevalence of hypertension is rising in West Africa. Although diet is implicated as a contributor to this trend, nutritional guidelines in West Africa are not tailored to address this concern. This study aimed to address this limitation by investigating dietary factors common to West Africa and evaluating their association with hypertension.

METHODS

PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Medline were searched to identify studies that investigated diet and hypertension in West African adults. All meta-analyses used a generic inverse-variance random effects model, with subgroup analyses by age, BMI, and study location, and were performed in R.

RESULTS

Three thousand, two hundred ninety-eight studies were identified, of which 31 ( n  = 48 809 participants) satisfied inclusion criteria - all cross-sectional. Meta-analyses of the association between dietary factors and hypertension included dietary fat [odds ratio (OR) = 1.76; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.44-2.14; P  < 0.0001], red meat (OR = 1.51; 95% CI: 1.04-2.18; P  = 0.03), junk-food (OR = 1.41; 95% CI: 1.19-1.67; P  < 0.0001), dietary salt (OR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.12-1.40; P  < 0.0001), alcohol (OR = 1.17; 95% CI: 1.03-1.32; P  = 0.013), and 'fruits and vegetables' (OR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.24-1.17; P  < 0.0001). Subgroup analyses suggested that 'fruit and vegetable' consumption is less protective in the elderly.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of dietary salt, red meat, dietary fat, junk food, and alcohol are associated with increased odds of hypertension, whereas high fruit and vegetable appear protective. This region-specific evidence will support the development of nutritional assessment tools for clinicians, patients, and researchers aiming to reduce hypertension in West Africa.

Rich oleocanthal and oleacein extra virgin olive oil and inflammatory and antioxidant status in people with obesity and prediabetes. The APRIL study: A randomised, controlled crossover study

BACKGROUND

Oleocanthal and oleacein are olive oil phenolic compounds with well known anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. The main evidence, however, is provided by experimental studies. Few human studies have examined the health benefits of olive oils rich in these biophenols. Our aim was to assess the health properties of rich oleocanthal and oleacein extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), compared to those of common olive oil (OO), in people with prediabetes and obesity.

METHODS

Randomised, double-blind, crossover trial done in people aged 40-65 years with obesity (BMI 30-40 kg/m²) and prediabetes (HbA1c 5.7-6.4%). The intervention consisted in substituting for 1 month the oil used for food, both raw and cooked, by EVOO or OO. No changes in diet or physical activity were recommended. The primary outcome was the inflammatory status. Secondary outcomes were the oxidative status, body weight, glucose handling and lipid profile. An ANCOVA model adjusted for age, sex and treatment administration sequence was used for the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 91 patients were enrolled (33 men and 58 women) and finished the trial. A decrease in interferon-γ was observed after EVOO treatment, reaching inter-treatment differences (P = 0.041). Total antioxidant status increased and lipid and organic peroxides decreased after EVOO treatment, the changes reaching significance compared to OO treatment (P < 0.05). Decreases in weight, BMI and blood glucose (p < 0.05) were found after treatment with EVOO and not with OO.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with EVOO rich in oleocanthal and oleacein differentially improved oxidative and inflammatory status in people with obesity and prediabetes.

Nutritional Intake Differences in Combinations of Carbohydrate-Rich Foods in Pirapó, Republic of Paraguay

A national strategy for obesity prevention has been promoted in Paraguay, reflecting the situation where half of adults and 23.4% of children (under 5 years old) are overweight. However, the detailed nutritional intake of the population has not yet been studied, especially in rural areas. Therefore, this study aimed to identify obesity-causing factors in Pirapó by analyzing the results from a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and one-day weighed food records (WFRs). From June to October 2015, 433 volunteers (200 males and 233 females) completed the FFQ with 36 items and one-day WFRs. Body mass index (BMI) positively correlated with the consumption of sandwiches, hamburgers, and bread and with age and diastolic blood pressure, although pizza and fried bread (pireca) had a negative correlation in males (p < 0.05). BMI positively correlated with systolic blood pressure, whereas it negatively correlated with the consumption of cassava and rice in females (p < 0.05). The FFQ revealed that fried food with wheat flour was consumed once a day. WFRs showed that 40% of meals consisted of two or more carbohydrate-rich dishes, significantly higher in energy, lipids, and sodium than those containing only one carbohydrate-rich dish. These results imply that less oily wheat dish consumption and healthy combinations of dishes should be considered for obesity prevention.

Major dietary lipids in nutrition and health

In this chapter, an overview of the major lipids in the diet with emphasis in nutritional aspects is provided. Triacylglycerols, i.e., glycerol esterified with three fatty acids, are the predominant constituents in dietary lipids. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the nature and nutritional significance of the main fatty acids in the diet and their possible modifications during food processing and commercialization. The main fatty acids in dietary lipids are grouped into saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Nutritional implications, the latest intervention trials and health recommendations will be discussed. A brief description of the major sources of lipids in the diet is included, oils and fats standing out. Other food sources shortly commented are milk and dairy products, meat, poultry and eggs, fish, and structured lipids designed to improve functional and nutritional properties. Modifications of fatty acids as a result of processing and commercialization are discussed because of their great relevance for their health implications, especially oxidation compounds and trans fatty acids.

Effects of almonds on ameliorating salt-induced hypertension in dahl salt-sensitive rats

BACKGROUND

Excessive dietary salt intake is related to an increased risk of hypertension. Dietary functional foods probably could help to improve salt-induced hypertension. In this study, Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) rats were used to investigate their metabolic differences from those of salt-resistant SS.13^BN rats and determine whether dietary protein-rich almonds could ameliorate salt-induced elevation of blood pressure in DSS rats.

RESULTS

After high-salt intake, the systolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure of the DSS rats increased dramatically. Metabolomics analysis indicated abnormal amino acid metabolism in their kidneys. Their renal nitric oxide (NO) content and nitric oxide synthase activity decreased significantly after high-salt diet. Oxidative stress also occurred in DSS rats. After the DSS rats received almond supplementation, the levels of various amino acids in their kidney increased, and renal arginine and NO contents were upregulated. Their renal hydrogen peroxide and malonaldehyde levels decreased, whereas renal catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities and glutathione levels increased.

CONCLUSION

The renal abnormal amino acid metabolism of DSS rats contributed to the impaired NO production in response to high-salt intake. Together with salt-induced oxidative stress, high-salt diet intake ultimately led to an increase in the blood pressure of DSS rats. Protein-rich almond supplementation might prevent the development of salt-induced hypertension by restoring arginine and NO regeneration and alleviating salt-induced oxidative stress. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of Natural Antioxidants from Marigolds (Tagetes erecta L.) on the Oxidative Stability of Soybean Oil

In recent years, synthetic antioxidants that are widely used in foods have been shown to cause detrimental health effects, and there has been growing interest in antioxidants realised from natural plant extracts. In this study, we investigate the potential effects of natural antioxidant components extracted from the forage plant marigold on the oxidative stability of soybean oil. First, HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) to screen and identify potential antioxidant components in marigold. Four main antioxidant components were identified, including quercetagetin-7-O-glucoside (1), quercetagetin (2), quercetin (3) and patuletin (4). Among them, quercetagetin (QG) exhibited the highest content and the strongest DPPH radical scavenging activity and effectively inhibited the production of oxidation products in soybean oil during accelerated oxidation, as indicated by reductions in the peroxide value (PV) and acid value (AV). Then, the fatty acids and volatile compounds of soybean oil were determined with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and headspace solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS). A total of 108 volatile components, including 16 alcohols, 23 aldehydes, 25 ketones, 4 acids, 15 esters, 18 hydrocarbons, and 7 other compounds, were identified. QG significantly reduced the content and number of aldehydes and ketones, whereas the formation of acids and hydrocarbons was completely prevented. In addition, the fatty acid analysis demonstrated that QG significantly inhibited oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Consequently, QG was identified as a potential, new natural antioxidant that is believed to be safe, effective and economical, and it may have potential for use in plant extracts feed additives.

Stability and Change in Fatty Acids Composition of Soybean, Corn, and Sunflower Oils during the Heating Process

This work has been undertaken to investigate the effect of heat treatment on the edible oils (soybean, sunflower, and corn) used in frying and cooking, in particular on the fatty acid composition. The heating process was maintained at 150, 180, 210, and 240°C. At each temperature, the variation of the fatty acid composition was determined after 12, 24, 36, 48, and 60 h of treatment by using an improved analytical gas chromatography method. This study showed that the oils, which had undergone a temperature of 150 to 180°C, kept some thermal stability and preserved their fatty acid composition at different treatment periods. At the temperature (180°C), two new fatty acids (C8:0 and C12:0) appeared, which could be explained by the transformation of the other fatty acids during the heating process by different chemical reactions. However, the composition of the three oils was significantly affected at 210°C and 240°C. Two trans-fatty acids (C18:1 9t and C18:2tt) were generated proportionally to heat treatment during the heating process for the three oils, providing information on their oxidative state. The results showed that sunflower oil was most affected by the heating temperature than soybean and corn oil. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the heat treatment used and the heating period to preserve the quality of edible oils.

Managing the hazardous waste cooking oil by conversion into bioenergy through the application of waste-derived green catalysts: A review

Waste cooking oil (WCO) is a hazardous waste generated at staggering values globally. WCO disposal into various ecosystems, including soil and water, could result in severe environmental consequences. On the other hand, mismanagement of this hazardous waste could also be translated into the loss of resources given its energy content. Hence, finding cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative pathways for simultaneous management and valorization of WCO, such as conversion into biodiesel, has been widely sought. Due to its low toxicity, high biodegradability, renewability, and the possibility of direct use in diesel engines, biodiesel is a promising alternative to mineral diesel. However, the conventional homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts used in the biodiesel production process, i.e., transesterification, are generally toxic and derived from non-renewable resources. Therefore, to boost the sustainability features of the process, the development of catalysts derived from renewable waste-oriented resources is of significant importance. In light of the above, the present work aims to review and critically discuss the hazardous WCO application for bioenergy production. Moreover, various waste-oriented catalysts used to valorize this waste are presented and discussed.

Schemes for enhanced antioxidant stability in frying meat: a review of frying process using single oil and blended oils

Deep-fried meat products are widely popular. However, harmful compounds produced by various chemical reactions during frying have been shown to be detrimental to human health. It is of great necessity to raise practical suggestions for improving the oxidation problem of frying oils and frying conditions in some aspects. Vegetable oils are not as thermally stable as saturated fats, and blended oils have higher thermal stability than single oil. In this review, we discussed the oxidation problems frying oils and meats are subject to during frying, starting from the oil oxidation mechanism, the effects of different oils and fats on the quality of different fried meats under different conditions were concluded to alleviate the oxidation problem, to highlight the necessity of applying blended oils for frying, and effective antioxidants added to frying oils are also introduced, that would provide more convenient and practical options for obtaining higher quality of fried meat products and offer better understanding of the potential of blended frying oils for frying meat products.

The formation, determination and health implications of polar compounds in edible oils: Current status, challenges and perspectives

To effectively control the quality of edible oil, polar compounds in edible oils have been studied extensively in the past few decades, particularly in the field of frying. This article critically reviews the formation, determination, and health implications of the polar compounds in edible oils via comprehensive literature research. The challenges and perspectives of polar compounds in edible oils are also discussed. Three chemical reactions, including oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization, elaborate polar compound formation. Many techniques are used to determine the total polar compound content of edible oils, with comparative analysis; Fourier transform infrared technique is a relatively ideal method. A major obstacle for nutritional studies focused on polar compounds formed during frying is that few pure compounds have been quantified. To inhibit the formation of the polar compounds effectively, investigations into the applications of enzymatic method in developing new lipophilized antioxidants may be a new direction in research.

The Nutraceutical Properties of "Pizza Napoletana Marinara TSG" a Traditional Food Rich in Bioaccessible Antioxidants

Italian gastronomy experiences have ever-enhancing fame around the world. It is due to the linkage between taste and salubriousness commonly related to Mediterranean foods. The market proposes many types of pizza to suit all palates. The antioxidant potential of the “Pizza Napoletana marinara” included in the register of traditional specialties guaranteed (TSG) was determined in this work. ABTS (2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) method evaluated the antioxidant activity of the pizza homogenized. In vitro digestion models estimated the intestinal and gastric bioaccessibility of the main antioxidant compounds (lycopene and phenolics). To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide the content, antioxidant potential, and bioaccessibility of the antioxidants (polyphenols and lycopene) contained in the traditional pizza “marinara TSG”. Our results showed that the “Pizza Napoletana marinara” had polyphenols concentration, lycopene level, antioxidant activity, and bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and lycopene better than other similar pizzas. They confirmed the nutritional importance of traditional preparations and established the nutraceutical potential of “pizza marinara TSG” as a food rich in bio-accessible antioxidants.

Physicochemical Changes of Deep-Fat-Fried Chicken Drumsticks Treated with Quercetin-in-Edible Coating during Storage Time

In this study, 10% of chicken protein isolate (CPI) and quercetin (1 mg/mL) were used to develop an edible coating to improve the oxidative stability of deep-fat-fried chicken drumsticks during refrigerated storage (4 °C) for 10 days. Chicken samples with edible coating formulated with only 10% CPI served as the control. Although the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values of the treated samples were lower than the control samples, no significant differences were observed. Quercetin-treated samples were generally harder than control samples. The pH was reduced by quercetin incorporation (p < 0.05). L* and b* values increased, while there was no significant variation in a* values during storage (p > 0.05).

Association between the Mediterranean Diet and Metabolic Syndrome with Serum Levels of miRNA in Morbid Obesity

Background: The Mediterranean diet (MD) could be involved in the regulation of different miRNAs related to metabolic syndrome (MS). Methods: We analyzed the serum level of mir-let7a-5p, mir-21, mir-590, mir-107 and mir-192 in patients with morbid obesity and its association with the MD and MS. Results: There is an association between the adherence to MD and higher serum levels of mir-590. Mir-590 was lower in those patients who consumed >2 commercial pastries/week. Mir-let7a was lower in those who consumed ≥1 sweetened drinks, in those who consumed ≥3 pieces of fruit/day and in those who consumed less red than white meat. A lower mir-590 and mir-let7a, and a higher mir-192 level, were found in patients who met the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) criterion of MS. A higher mir-192 was found in those patients who met the triglyceride criterion of MS and in those with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Conclusions: There is an association between specific serum levels of miRNAs and the amount and kind of food intake related to MD. Mir-590 was positively associated with a healthy metabolic profile and type of diet, while mir-192 was positively associated with a worse metabolic profile. These associations could be suggestive of a possible modulation of these miRNAs by food.

Fried-Food Consumption Does Not Increase the Risk of Stroke in the Spanish Cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Study

BACKGROUND

The nutritional determinants of stroke and, more specifically, the association of frying with the risk of incident stroke have rarely been studied.

OBJECTIVES

Our aim was to evaluate prospectively the association between the consumption of fried food and the risk of incident stroke in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study using the Spanish cohort.

METHODS

Participants included 40,328 healthy adults (62% women) aged 29-69 y at study entry who were enrolled between 1992 and 1996. Participants were followed up until 31 December, 2017, at which time incident stroke (the main outcome) was measured. The main exposure measure was the percentage of energy obtained from fried-food consumption. Sex-specific quintiles were calculated.

RESULTS

During a follow-up period of 23.5 y, 975 cases of stroke occurred (750 ischemic, 185 hemorrhagic, and 40 undetermined). Compared with those in the first (lowest) quintile of fried-food consumption, the multivariate HRs (95% CIs) of incident stroke in the consecutive quintiles were 1.05 (0.86, 1.30), 1.11 (0.90, 1.36), 1.05 (0.84, 1.31), and 0.91 (0.72, 1.15; P-trend = 0.45). There were no differences identified when subtypes of stroke were considered.

CONCLUSIONS

In this Spanish cohort, whose participants mainly used olive oil or sunflower oil when frying, the consumption of fried food was not associated with an increased risk of incident stroke.

Association of the Modified Mediterranean Diet Score (mMDS) with Anthropometric and Biochemical Indices in US Career Firefighters

The Mediterranean diet is associated with multiple health benefits, and the modified Mediterranean Diet Score (mMDS) has been previously validated as a measure of Mediterranean diet adherence. The aim of this study was to examine associations between the mMDS and anthropometric indices, blood pressure, and biochemical parameters in a sample of career firefighters. The participants were from Indiana Fire Departments, taking part in the "Feeding America's Bravest" study, a cluster-randomized controlled trial that aimed to assess the efficacy of a Mediterranean diet intervention. We measured Mediterranean diet adherence using the mMDS. Anthropometric, blood pressure, and biochemical measurements were also collected. Univariate and multivariate linear regression models were used. In unadjusted analyses, many expected favorable associations between the mMDS and cardiovascular disease risk factors were found among the 460 firefighters. After adjustment for age, gender, ethnicity, physical activity, and smoking, a unitary increase in the mMDS remained associated with a decrease of the total cholesterol/HDL ratio (β-coefficient -0.028, p = 0.002) and an increase of HDL-cholesterol (β-coefficient 0.254, p = 0.004). In conclusion, greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet was associated with markers of decreased cardiometabolic risk. The mMDS score is a valid instrument for measuring adherence to the Mediterranean diet and may have additional utility in research and clinical practice.

Deep frying cooking oils promote the high risk of metastases in the breast-A critical review

Deep-frying is the most common food preparation method, manifestations of color, taste, flavor, and fried consistency. The beneficial role of vegetable oils become deteriorate when repeatedly treated with higher temperature and air. Repeatedly heated cooking oils (RCO) produce various byproducts, containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aldehydes, well-known to be a carcinogenic, mutagenic, and tumorigenic properties. RCO is nowadays one of the often consumed media for cooking and frying, which intake can cause various unhealthy adverse effects including various cancer in the multiple organs. Hence, the present comprehensive study targets to provide the intake of RCO elevate the risks of human breast cancer. The data on RCO and its impacts were obtained via various electronic findings and library databases. Notable studies have confirmed that the effects of RCO have been attributed to their unfavorable effects, and underlying molecular mechanisms can also strongly promoting tumorigenic effects in the mammary organ.

Dietary preferences and diabetic risk in China: A large-scale nationwide Internet data-based study

BACKGROUND

Unhealthy diet is one of the important risk factors of diabetes, which is one of the major public health problems in China. The Internet tools provide large-scale passively collected data that show people's dietary preferences and their relationship with diabetes risk.

METHODS

212 341 708 individuals' dietary preference labels were created based on Internet data from online search and shopping software. Metabolic data obtained from the 2010 China Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance, which had 98 658 participants, was used to estimate the relation between dietary preferences geographical distribution and diabetes risk.

RESULTS

Chinese dietary preferences had different geographical distribution, which is related to the local climate and consumption level. Fried food preference proportion distribution was significantly positively correlated with diabetes prevalence, hypertension prevalence and body mass index (BMI). Similarly, grilled food preference proportion distribution had significantly positive correlation with the prevalence of diabetes and hypertension. In contrast, spicy food preference proportion distribution was negatively correlated with diabetes prevalence. Sweet food preference proportion distribution was positively related to diabetes prevalence. Using dietary preferences data to predict regional prevalence of diabetes, hypertension and BMI, the average values of error (95% CI) between the three paired predicted and observed values were 9.8% (6.9%-12.7%), 7.5% (5.0%-10.0%) and 1.6% (1.2%-2.0%), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Fried food, grilled food, and sweet food preferences were positively related to diabetes risk whereas spicy food preference was negatively correlated with diabetes risk. Dietary preferences based on passively collected Internet data could be used to predict regional prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, and BMI and showed good value for public health monitoring.

Association of fried food intake with prehypertension and hypertension: the Filipino women's diet and health study

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Few epidemiological studies examined the association between fried food intake and hypertension. This study examined whether fried food intake was associated with higher prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined in a cross-sectional study of the Filipino Women's Diet and Health Study (FiLWHEL).

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study included a total of 428 women aged 20-57 years who have ever been married to Korean men. Prehypertension was defined as 120 - < 140 mmHg of SBP or 80 - < 90 mmHg of DBP and hypertension as SBP ≥ 140 mmHg or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg. Fried food intake was assessed using one-day 24-hour recall. Fried foods were categorized into total, deep/shallow and pan/stir fried foods. The odds ratio (OR)s and 95% confidence interval (CI)s were calculated using multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

The prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined was 41.36% in this population. High fried food intake was associated with high prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined. The odds of having prehypertension and hypertension was higher in the 3rd tertile of fried food intake among fried food consumers compared to non-fried food consumers (OR = 2.46, 95% CI = 1.24, 4.87; P for trend = 0.004). Separate analysis for types of frying showed that deep and shallow fried food intake was associated with prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined for comparing the 3rd tertile vs. non-fried food consumers (OR = 2.93; 95% CI = 1.57-5.47; P for trend = < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed the evidence that high fried food intake was significantly associated with high prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension combined among Filipino women married to Korean men.

Fried food consumption and risk of coronary artery disease: The Million Veteran Program

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies of the relationship between fried food consumption and coronary artery disease (CAD) have yielded conflicting results. We tested the hypothesis that frequent fried food consumption is associated with a higher risk of incident CAD events in Million Veteran Program (MVP) participants.

METHODS

Veterans Health Administration electronic health record data were linked to questionnaires completed at MVP enrollment. Self-reported fried food consumption at baseline was categorized: (<1, 1-3, 4-6 times per week or daily). The outcome of interest was non-fatal myocardial infarction or CAD events. We fitted a Cox regression model adjusting for age, sex, race, education, exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption.

RESULTS

Of 154,663 MVP enrollees with survey data, mean age was 64 years and 90% were men. During a mean follow-up of approximately 3 years, there were 6,725 CAD events. There was a positive linear relationship between frequency of fried food consumption and risk of CAD (p for trend 0.0015). Multivariable adjusted hazard ratios (95% CI) were 1.0 (ref), 1.07 (1.01-1.13), 1.08 (1.01-1.16), and 1.14 (1.03-1.27) across consecutive increasing categories of fried food intake.

CONCLUSIONS

In a large national cohort of U.S. Veterans, fried food consumption has a positive, dose-dependent association with CAD.

Dielectric Spectroscopy of Palm Olein During Batch Deep Frying and Their Relation with Degradation Parameters

Total polar compounds (TPC) and free fatty acids (FFA) are important indicators in evaluating the quality of frying oil. Conventional methods to determine TPC and FFA are often time consuming, involved laboratory analyses which required skilled personnel and used substantial amount of harmful solvent. In this study, dielectric spectroscopy technique was used to investigate the relation between dielectric property of refined, bleached and deodorized palm olein (RBDPO) during deep frying with TPC and FFA. In total, 150 batches of French fries were intermittently fried at 185 ± 5 °C for 7 hr a day over 5 consecutive days. A total of 30 frying oil samples were collected. The dielectric property of frying oil samples were measured using impedance analyzer with frequencies ranging from 100 Hz to 10 MHz. The TPC of frying oil samples were measured with a Testo 270, while the FFA analysis was done using Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) test method. Results showed that dielectric constant, TPC and FFA of RBDPO increased as the frying time increased. Dielectric constant increased from 3.09 to 3.17, while TPC and FFA increased from 9.96 to 19.52 and from 0.08% to 0.36%, respectively. Partial least square (PLS) analysis produced good prediction of TPC and FFA with the application of genetic algorithm (GA). Model developed for prediction of TPC and FFA yielded highly significant correlation with R² of 0.91 and 0.95, respectively and both had root mean square error in cross-validation (RMSECV) of 1.06%. This study demonstrates the potential of dielectric spectroscopy in monitoring palm olein degradation during frying. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The application of dielectric spectroscopy to detect degradation of palm olein during frying was studied. The dielectric property of palm olein during frying has successfully correlated with TPC and FFA. The model developed in this study could be used for the development of a sensing system for palm olein degradation monitoring.

Implementation of public health policies for healthy lifestyles promotion: what Brazil should tell us?

The objective of this work was to update Brazilian experiences on implementation research (IR)regarding promotion of healthy lifestyles to decrease the risk of chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCD). Some Brazilian governmental activities for promotion of healthy lifestyles have been adopted around the world such as the case of the "World Physical Activity Day" and the"Walking for health program". Following the example of many other developing and developed countries, Brazilian government has been sponsored leisure-time physical activity and healthy eating programs which still were not capable of promoting massive participation, especially from workers, elderly and people from the less privileged socioeconomic classes. Although successful exercise promotion strategies have been done in Brazil, the implementation science on promotion of healthy lifestyles is still rising and more research is necessary to identify the settings, circumstances, and processes for effective and sustainable adoption of healthy dietary and exercise practices. Understanding problems, concerns and barriers for implementation of health promotion (HP) policies in Brazil could be useful for many other developing nations.

Fried food intake and risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in the Costa Rica Heart Study

Economic development in middle-income countries has led to a noticeable rise in the availability of commercial deep fried foods and lifestyles that require eating meals “on the go” and outside of the home. Yet, data from these countries where fried foods were traditionally prepared at home are scarce, despite several studies showing the potential adverse effects of fried food consumption on risk for heart disease. We aimed to examine whether consumption of fried foods inside or outside of the home is associated with an increased risk of myocardial infarction (MI) among Hispanic/Latinos living in Costa Rica. Participants were incident cases of a first acute MI (n = 2,154) and randomly selected controls matched for age, sex, and residence (n = 2,154). After adjustment for traditional cardiovascular risk factors, including history of diabetes, history of hypertension, smoking, abdominal obesity, income, educational years, occupation, alcohol intake, dietary intakes of saturated fatty acid, fiber intake, and total energy intake, the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio (OR, 95% CI) for risk of MI were 1.00 (reference), 1.02 (0.86–1.21), 1.26 (0.81–1.95), and 1.58 (1.08–2.30) for intake of fried foods outside of the home <1/week, 1-3/week, 4-6/week, and 1/day, respectively (P trend = 0.02); and 1.00, 0.81 (0.65–1.00), 0.81 (0.61–1.09), and 0.93 (0.72–1.19), respectively (P for trend = 0.65) for intake of fried foods inside the home. The data suggest that consumption of fried foods outside of the home, a practice that has been associated with economic development, could have adverse effects on cardiovascular disease.

Dietary fatty acids modulate adipocyte TNFa production via regulation of its DNA promoter methylation levels

The factors regulating TNF alpha (TNFa) levels could be considered therapeutic targets against metabolic syndrome development. DNA methylation is a potent regulator of gene expression and may be associated with protein levels. In this study we investigate whether the effect of dietary fatty acids on TNFa released from adipocytes might be associated with modifications of the TNFa promoter DNA methylation status. A group of rats was assigned to three diets with a different composition of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Samples of visceral adipose tissues were taken for adipocyte isolation, in which released TNFa levels were measured, and for methylation and expression studies. In addition, 3 T3-L1 cells were treated with palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids, with and without 5-Azacitydine (5-AZA). After treatments, cells and supernatants were included in the same analyses as rat samples. TNFa promoter methylation levels, gene expression and secretion were different according to the diets and fatty acid treatments associated with them. Cells treated with 5-AZA displayed higher TNFa levels than in the absence of 5-AZA, without differences between fatty acids. According to our results, dietary fatty acid regulation of adipocyte TNFa levels may be mediated by epigenetic modifications of the TNFa promoter DNA methylation levels.

Effects of Polar Compounds Generated from the Deep-Frying Process of Palm Oil on Lipid Metabolism and Glucose Tolerance in Kunming Mice

In the present study, effects of deep-fried palm oil, specifically polar compounds generated during the frying process, on animal health including lipid and glucose metabolism and liver functions were investigated. Kunming mice were fed a high-fat diet containing deep-fried palm oil or purified polar compounds for 12 weeks. Their effects on animal health including hepatic lipid profile, antioxidant enzyme activity, serum biochemistry, and glucose tolerance were analyzed. Our results revealed that the consumption of polar compounds was related to the change of lipid deposition in liver and adipose tissue, as well as glucose tolerance alteration in Kunming mice. Correspondingly, the transcription study of genes involved in lipid metabolism including PPARα, Acox1, and Cpt1α indicated that polar compounds probably facilitated the fatty acid oxidation on peroxisomes, whereas lipid oxidation in mitochondria was suppressed. Furthermore, glucose tolerance test (GTT) revealed that a high amount of polar compound intake impaired glucose tolerance, indicating its effect on glucose metabolism in vivo. Our results provide critical information on the effects of polar compounds generated from the deep-frying process of palm oil on animal health, particularly liver functions and lipid and glucose metabolism, which is important for the evaluation of the biosafety of frying oil.

Evaluation of the deleterious health effects of consumption of repeatedly heated vegetable oil

Consumption of repeatedly heated cooking oil (RHCO) has been a regular practice without knowing the harmful effects of use. The present study is based on the hypothesis that, heating of edible oils to their boiling points results in the formation of free radicals that cause oxidative stress and induce damage at the cellular and molecular levels. Peroxide value of heated oil, histopathological alterations, antioxidant enzyme levels and blood biochemistry were determined in Wistar rats treated with the RHCO. RHCO revealed higher peroxide value in comparison to oil that has been unheated or singly heated. Histopathological observation depicted significant damage in jejunum, colon and liver of animals that received oil heated repeatedly for 3 times. The altered antioxidant status reflects an adaptive response to oxidative stress. Alteration in the levels of these enzymes might be due to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through auto oxidation or enzyme catalyzed oxidation of electrophilic components within RHCO. Analysis of blood samples revealed elevated levels of glucose, creatinine and cholesterol with declined levels of protein and albumin in repeatedly heated cooking oil group. Hematological parameters did not reveal any statistically significant difference between treated and control groups. Results of the present study confirm that the thermal oxidation of cooking oil generates free radicals and dietary consumption of such oil results in detrimental health effects.

Urbanized South Asians' susceptibility to coronary heart disease: The high-heat food preparation hypothesis

OBJECTIVE

Known risk factors do not fully explain the comparatively high susceptibility to coronary heart disease (CHD) in South Asians (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Sri Lankan populations in South Asia and overseas). The search for explanatory hypotheses and cofactors that raise susceptibility of South Asians to CHD continues. The aim of this study was to propose "the high-heat food preparation hypothesis," where neo-formed contaminants (NFCs) such as trans-fatty acids (TFAs) and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are the cofactors.

METHODS

We reviewed the actions of AGEs and TFAs, the burden of these products in tissues and blood in South Asians, the relationship between these products and CHD, the effects of preparing food and reheating oils at high temperatures on NFCs, and the foods and mode of preparation in South Asian and Chinese cuisines.

RESULTS

Animal and human studies show NFCs increase the risk for CHD. Evidence on the consumption and body burden of these products across ethnic groups is not available, and comparable data on the NFC content of the cuisine of South Asians and potential comparison populations (e.g., the Chinese with lower CHD rates) are limited. South Asians' cuisine is dominated by frying and roasting techniques that use high temperatures. South Asian foods have high TFA content primarily through the use of partially hydrogenated fats, reheated oils, and high-heat cooking. Reheating oils greatly increases the TFA content. In comparison, Chinese cuisine involves mostly braising, steaming, and boiling rather than frying.

CONCLUSION

We hypothesize that South Asians' susceptibility to CHD is partly attributable to high-heat treated foods producing high NFCs. Research to accrue direct evidence is proposed.

Experimental investigation of electro-rheological properties of modeled vegetable oils

Vegetable oil becomes polarized on oxidation and polymerization resulting in the formation of peroxide, triglycerides, etc. The quality and reusable state were investigated for sunflower, sesame, rice bran oil and model oil with the addition of oleic acid (2, 4 and 6 %) and antioxidants (citric and tert-Butyl hydroquinone-TBHQ). Excessive reclaims of cooking oil produce toxic by-products due to chemical breakdown that induce the production of polar compounds in oil. To determine the consumable fitness, variations of dielectric constant are observed at different temperatures (29 to 70 °C) and frequencies (1 to 10(7)Hz) for the cooking oil. Physical parameters, such as viscosity and density associated with the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid, are also measured at different temperatures to determine the quality of oil. Dielectric constant and viscosity are correlated and analyzed using a newly developed equation with high correlation constant (R (2)  = 0.998) for oil added with citric acid. Oil added with 2-4 % of oleic acid is observed to have high determination coefficient (R (2)  > 0.92). A lowest correlation (R (2)  = 0.6-0.7) was observed for the oil added with TBHQ. The present study also states that addition of TBHQ to oil does not impede oxidation reaction. Besides, even the shelf life of the oil could not be enhanced and may produce adverse effects in human health.

Ingestion of frying fat leads to activation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced unfolded protein response in the duodenal mucosa of pigs

SCOPE

Ingestion of oxidized fats (OF) causes activation of stress signaling pathways such as nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in the intestine. Activation of this pathway is mediated by ER stress-induced unfolded protein response (UPR). Herein, we hypothesized that ingestion of OF causes ER stress-induced UPR in duodenal mucosa of pigs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Six-wk-old cross-bred pigs received either a control diet with fresh fat or a diet with OF for 29 days. Pigs fed OF exhibited increased phosphorylation of the ER stress downstream target eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α and induction of several genes involved in ER stress-induced UPR and Nrf2 target genes in duodenal mucosa. No signs of an impaired intestinal barrier function or a systemic inflammatory response could be found in pigs fed OF.

CONCLUSION

Activation of ER stress-induced UPR by OF in the duodenal mucosa in pigs might be interpreted as a cytoprotective response to stress factors associated with ingestion of OF. Given the similarities between pigs and humans with respect to digestive physiology, it is possible that regular ingestion of fried foods containing OF activates the ER stress-induced UPR also in the intestinal mucosa of humans.

Association between fried food consumption and hypertension in Korean adults

The present study explored the relationships between fried food consumption and metabolic risk factors and hypertension in Korean adults. The study was based on the fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 2010 and 2011. A total of 9221 Korean adults aged ≥19 years were studied. Fried food consumption was assessed using a validated FFQ. Metabolic risk factors such as waist circumference, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), TAG, HDL-cholesterol and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) were measured. Hypertension was defined as SBP≥140 mmHg, DBP≥90 mmHg or current use of antihypertensive medication. Adjusted OR for elevated blood pressure significantly increased in men (OR 1·62; 95 % CI 1·11, 2·37;Ptrend=0·0447) and women (OR 2·20; 95 % CI 1·21, 4·00;Ptrend=0·0403) with a greater than twice a week consumption of fried food compared with those who rarely consumed fried food. However, fried food consumption was not associated with other metabolic risk factors (abdominal obesity, high FPG, hypertriacylglycerolaemia, low HDL-cholesterol and the metabolic syndrome). The adjusted OR for hypertension increased by 2·4-fold in women (OR 2·37; 95 % CI 1·19, 4·72;Ptrend=0·0272) with a greater than twice a week fried food consumption compared with those who rarely consumed it. No significant association was found between fried food consumption and hypertension in men. This study suggests that frequent fried food consumption is associated with hypertension in Korean women. Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of different types of fried foods on hypertension.