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Cuypers C, Devreese M, Van Uytfanghe K, Stove C, Schauvliege S. Pharmacokinetics of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in 6-week-old swine (Sus scrofa domesticus) after intravenous and oral administration. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2024; 47:95-106. [PMID: 37985193 DOI: 10.1111/jvp.13418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Sedative as well as protective effects during hypoxia have been described for gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Six swine (Sus scrofa domesticus) of 6 weeks old were administered NaGHB at a dose of 500 mg/kg intravenously (IV) and 500 and 750 mg/kg orally (PO) in a triple cross-over design. Repeated blood sampling was performed to allow pharmacokinetic analysis of GHB. Whole blood concentration at time point 0 after IV administration was 1727.21 ± 280.73 μg/mL, with a volume of distribution of 339.45 ± 51.41 mL/kg and clearance of 164.94 ± 47.05 mL/(kg h). The mean peak plasma concentrations after PO administration were 326.57 ± 36.70 and 488.01 ± 154.62 μg/mL for 500 mg/kg and 750 mg/kg, respectively. These were recorded at 1.42 ± 0.72 and 1.58 ± 0.58 h after PO dose for GHB 500 mg/kg and 750 mg/kg, respectively. The elimination half-life for IV and PO 500 mg/kg and PO 750 mg/kg dose was respectively 1.33 ± 0.30, 1.16 ± 0.31 and 1.11 ± 0.33 h. The bioavailability (F) for PO administration was 45%. No clinical adverse effects were observed after PO administration. Deep sleep was seen in one animal after IV administration, other animals showed head pressing and ataxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Cuypers
- Department of Large Animal Surgery, Anaesthesia and Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Katleen Van Uytfanghe
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stijn Schauvliege
- Department of Large Animal Surgery, Anaesthesia and Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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Chvilicek MM, Titos I, Rothenfluh A. The Neurotransmitters Involved in Drosophila Alcohol-Induced Behaviors. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:607700. [PMID: 33384590 PMCID: PMC7770116 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.607700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol is a widely used and abused substance with numerous negative consequences for human health and safety. Historically, alcohol's widespread, non-specific neurobiological effects have made it a challenge to study in humans. Therefore, model organisms are a critical tool for unraveling the mechanisms of alcohol action and subsequent effects on behavior. Drosophila melanogaster is genetically tractable and displays a vast behavioral repertoire, making it a particularly good candidate for examining the neurobiology of alcohol responses. In addition to being experimentally amenable, Drosophila have high face and mechanistic validity: their alcohol-related behaviors are remarkably consistent with humans and other mammalian species, and they share numerous conserved neurotransmitters and signaling pathways. Flies have a long history in alcohol research, which has been enhanced in recent years by the development of tools that allow for manipulating individual Drosophila neurotransmitters. Through advancements such as the GAL4/UAS system and CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis, investigation of specific neurotransmitters in small subsets of neurons has become ever more achievable. In this review, we describe recent progress in understanding the contribution of seven neurotransmitters to fly behavior, focusing on their roles in alcohol response: dopamine, octopamine, tyramine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine. We chose these small-molecule neurotransmitters due to their conservation in mammals and their importance for behavior. While neurotransmitters like dopamine and octopamine have received significant research emphasis regarding their contributions to behavior, others, like glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine, remain relatively unexplored. Here, we summarize recent genetic and behavioral findings concerning these seven neurotransmitters and their roles in the behavioral response to alcohol, highlighting the fitness of the fly as a model for human alcohol use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie M. Chvilicek
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Molecular Medicine Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Iris Titos
- Molecular Medicine Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Adrian Rothenfluh
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Molecular Medicine Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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Li B, Wang J, Li H, Zhang X, Duan D, Yu W, Zhao B. Efficient and green aqueous-solid system for transphosphatidylation to produce phosphatidylhydroxybutyrate: Potential drugs for central nervous system's diseases. Biotechnol Prog 2018; 35:e2726. [PMID: 30299003 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of nonnatural phospholipid, phosphatidylhydroxybutyrate (PB), was firstly introduced by phospholipase D (PLD)-mediated transphosphatidylation of phosphatidylcholine (PC) with sodium γ-hydroxybutyrate (NaGHB) in the aqueous-solid system. Nanoscale silicon dioxide (NSD) was employed as a carrier to provide an "artificial interphase" between PC and PLD. Special attention has been paid to the effect of the PC coverage on the surface area of hybrids of NSD-PC, the PC loading and the yield of PB. Results indicated that the highest PC loading of 98.3% and the highest PB yield of 97.3% were achieved. In addition, the free PLD in the aqueous-solid system showed the greater stability and pH tolerance than that in the traditional liquid-liquid system. The operational stability of free PLD solution was investigated. The yield of PB remained 70.7% after being used for five batches. The authors provide a new idea for drug design and the potential source of PB for medical experiments. PB is a potential drug and may have the excellent performance in the treatment of central nervous system's diseases. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 35: e2726, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binglin Li
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huanyu Li
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Dandan Duan
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wenyu Yu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
| | - Binxia Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, Shaanxi, China
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Abstract
Hyperkinetic movement disorders may be difficult to treat, but cases where patients respond to alcohol and/or drugs with similar effects have been described. We report the case of a 64-year-old man with tardive dyskinesia characterized by severe uncontrolled dystonic and myoclonic jerks of the face, shoulders, and arm and forearm muscles, which improved with oral sodium oxybate. Our case suggests the possibility to test sodium oxybate in patients with severe, drug-resistant hyperkinetic syndromes, especially when they are known to improve with alcohol.
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Antonelli M, Ferrulli A, Sestito L, Vassallo GA, Tarli C, Mosoni C, Rando MM, Mirijello A, Gasbarrini A, Addolorato G. Alcohol addiction - the safety of available approved treatment options. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2017; 17:169-177. [PMID: 29120249 DOI: 10.1080/14740338.2018.1404025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alcohol Use Disorders (AUD) is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. At present disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate are approved for the treatment of AUD in U.S. and Europe. Nalmefene is approved in Europe and sodium oxybate is approved in Italy and Austria only. Baclofen received a 'temporary recommendation for use' in France. AREAS COVERED The safety of the above mentioned medications on liver, digestive system, kidney function, nervous system, pregnancy and lactation and their possible side effects are described and discussed. EXPERT OPINION Mechanism of action and metabolism of these drugs as well as patients' clinical characteristics can affect the safety of treatment. All approved medications are valid tools for the treatment of AUD in patients without advanced liver disease. For some drugs, attention should be paid to patients with renal failure and medications may be used with caution, adjusting the dosage according to kidney function. In patients with AUD and advanced liver disease, at present only baclofen has been formally tested in randomized controlled trials showing its safety in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariangela Antonelli
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Anna Ferrulli
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy.,b Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Disease , IRCCS Policlinico San Donato , Milan , Italy
| | - Luisa Sestito
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Gabriele A Vassallo
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Claudia Tarli
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Carolina Mosoni
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Maria M Rando
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Antonio Mirijello
- c Department of Medical Sciences , IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza Hospital , San Giovanni Rotondo , Italy
| | - Antonio Gasbarrini
- d Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology and Hepatology , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
| | - Giovanni Addolorato
- a Alcohol Use Disorders Unit , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy.,d Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology and Hepatology , Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore , Rome , Italy
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Mekonnen DW, Ludewig F. Phenotypic and chemotypic studies using Arabidopsis and yeast reveal that GHB converts to SSA and induce toxicity. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 91:429-40. [PMID: 27037708 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-016-0475-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a naturally occurring compound. It is detected in organisms such as yeasts, plants and mammals. GHB is produced from the reduction of succinic semialdehyde (SSA) by the activity of GHB dehydrogenase. Arabidopsis genome contains two GHB dehydrogenase encoding genes. The accumulation of GHB in ssadh mutants led to the speculation that GHB is the cause of aberrant phenotypes. Conversely, the accumulation of GHB in Arabidopsis plants subjected to abiotic stresses was described as a way of avoiding SSA induced damage. To resolve these contrasting views on GHB, we examined the effect of exogenous GHB and SSA on the growth of yeast and Arabidopsis plants. GHB concentrations up to 1.5 mM didn't affect shoots of Arabidopsis plants; however, root growth was inhibited. In contrast, 0.3 mM SSA has severely affected the growth of plants. Treatment of yeast wild-type strain with 10 mM SSA and 10 mM GHB didn't affect the growth. However, the growth of yeast uga2 mutant was greatly inhibited by the same concentration of SSA, but not GHB. Metabolic analysis and enzyme activity assay on native gel showed that Arabidopsis, but not yeast, possesses a GHB dehydrogenase activity that converts GHB back to SSA. The enzymatic assay has also indicated the existence of an additional GHB dehydrogenase encoding gene(s) in Arabidopsis genome. Taken together, we conclude that GHB is less toxic than SSA. Its accumulation in ssadh mutants and during abiotic stresses is a response to avoid the SSA induced damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dereje Worku Mekonnen
- Cologne Biocenter, Botanical Institute II, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Frank Ludewig
- Cologne Biocenter, Botanical Institute II, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany
- Division of Biochemistry, Department Biology, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Staudtstr. 5, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
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Maruyama T, Matsumura M, Sakai N, Nishino S. The pathogenesis of narcolepsy, current treatments and prospective therapeutic targets. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs 2015. [DOI: 10.1517/21678707.2016.1117973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Yeh CH, Korivi RP, Cheng CH. Ene-Carbonyl Reductive Coupling Mediated by Zinc and Ammonia for the Synthesis of γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid Derivatives. Adv Synth Catal 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201300073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Addolorato G, Mirijello A, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Landolfi R. Management of alcohol dependence in patients with liver disease. CNS Drugs 2013; 27:287-99. [PMID: 23456576 PMCID: PMC4979989 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-013-0043-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol dependence represents a chronic and relapsing disease affecting nearly 10 % of the general population both in the USA and in Europe, with a widespread burden of morbidity and mortality. Alcohol dependence represents the most common cause of liver damage in the Western world. Although alcoholic liver disease is associated primarily with heavy drinking, continued alcohol consumption, even in low doses after the onset of liver disease, increases the risk of severe consequences, including mortality. Consequently, the ideal treatment of patients affected by alcohol dependence and alcoholic liver disease should aim at achieving long-term total alcohol abstinence and preventing relapse. The aim of the present review is to provide an update on the management of alcohol dependence in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Increasing evidence suggests the usefulness of psychosocial interventions and medications combined in order to reduce alcohol intake, promote abstinence and prevent relapse in alcohol-dependent patients. Disulfiram, naltrexone and acamprosate have been approved for this indication; gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is approved in Italy and Austria. However, these drugs have not been tested in patients with advanced liver disease. Amongst other emerging pharmacotherapies for alcoholism, topiramate, ondansetron, and baclofen seem the most promising ones. Both topiramate and ondansetron have a safe profile in alcoholic patients; however, none of them has been tested in alcoholic patients with advanced liver disease. To date, baclofen represents the only anti-craving medication formally tested in a randomized clinical trial in alcoholic patients affected by liver cirrhosis, although additional confirmatory studies are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Addolorato
- Department of Internal Medicine, Institute of Internal Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Gemelli Hospital, Largo Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy.
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Ulmer A, Müller M, Frietsch B. Dihydrocodeine/Agonists for alcohol dependents. Front Psychiatry 2012; 3:21. [PMID: 22470353 PMCID: PMC3311265 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alcohol addiction too often remains insufficiently treated. It shows the same profile as severe chronic diseases, but no comparable, effective basic treatment has been established up to now. Especially patients with repeated relapses, despite all therapeutic approaches, and patients who are not able to attain an essential abstinence to alcohol, need a basic medication. It seems necessary to acknowledge that parts of them need any agonistic substance, for years, possibly lifelong. For >14 years, we have prescribed such substances with own addictive character for these patients. METHODS We present a documented best possible practice, no designed study. Since 1997, we prescribed Dihydrocodeine (DHC) to 102 heavily alcohol addicted patients, later, also Buprenorphine, Clomethiazole (>6 weeks), Baclofen, and in one case Amphetamine, each on individual indication. This paper focuses on the data with DHC, especially. The Clomethiazole-data has been submitted to a German journal. The number of treatments with the other substances is still low. RESULTS The 102 patients with the DHC treatment had 1367 medically assisted detoxifications and specialized therapies before! The 4 years-retention rate was 26.4%, including 2.8% successfully terminated treatments. In our 12-steps scale on clinical impression, we noticed a significant improvement from mean 3.7 to 8.4 after 2 years. The demand for medically assisted detoxifications in the 2 years remaining patients was reduced by 65.5%. Mean GGT improved from 206.6 U/l at baseline to 66.8 U/l after 2 years. Experiences with the other substances are similar but different in details. CONCLUSION Similar to the Italian studies with GHB and Baclofen, we present a new approach, not only with new substances, but also with a new setting and much more trusting attitude. We observe a huge improvement, reaching an almost optimal, stable, long term status in around 1/4 of the patients already. Many further optimizations are possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albrecht Ulmer
- Gemeinschaftspraxis Dres.med. Ulmer, Frietsch, MuellerStuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus Müller
- Gemeinschaftspraxis Dres.med. Ulmer, Frietsch, MuellerStuttgart, Germany
| | - Bernhard Frietsch
- Gemeinschaftspraxis Dres.med. Ulmer, Frietsch, MuellerStuttgart, Germany
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Lesar CT, Decatur J, Lukasiewicz E, Champeil E. Report on the analysis of common beverages spiked with gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) using NMR and the PURGE solvent-suppression technique. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 212:e40-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 06/16/2011] [Accepted: 06/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Nava F, Premi S, Manzato E, Lucchini A. Comparing Treatments of Alcoholism on Craving and Biochemical Measures of Alcohol Consumptions. J Psychoactive Drugs 2011; 38:211-7. [PMID: 17165363 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2006.10399846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
An open randomized study was conducted to compare different treatments of alcoholism on ethanol intake, craving, and on biochemical measures of alcohol consumptions. Eighty-six alcoholics were abstinent for a mean of two weeks prior to random assignment to g-hydroxybutyrate (GHB, 50 mg/kg of body weight t.i.d), naltrexone (NTX, 50 mg/day) or disulfiram (DSF, 200 mg/ day) treatment for 12 months. All treatments were equally effective in reducing alcohol intake and in maintaining abstinence. In all patients, the treatments were able to reduce both craving and the altered biological markers of alcohol abuse. The maximum effects were observed in GHB-treated patients. The results of the present study suggest that GHB might act both as anticraving and cellular protector agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felice Nava
- Department of Addiction Medicine, Drug Abuse Unit (Ser.T.), Hospital of Castelfranco Veneto, Via Ospedale, 18, 31033 Castelfranco Veneto-Treviso, Italy.
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Hughes RR, Walker GS. Rapid Screening for the Detection and Differentiation of Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate using Ion Chromatography*,†. J Forensic Sci 2011; 56:1256-60. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01845.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Winstanley EL, O'Melia AM, Mori N, Keck PE, Hudson JI. Sodium oxybate in the treatment of binge eating disorder: an open-label, prospective study. Int J Eat Disord 2011; 44:262-8. [PMID: 20209489 DOI: 10.1002/eat.20798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess preliminarily the effectiveness of sodium oxybate in binge eating disorder. METHOD This was an open-label, prospective, 16-week, flexible dose study of sodium oxybate in binge eating disorder. The primary outcome was binge eating episode frequency. RESULTS Twelve individuals received sodium oxybate, 10 completed at least one postbaseline evaluation, and five completed the study. Mean dose at endpoint was 7.1 (2.0) g/day. Sodium oxybate was associated with significant reductions in frequency of binge days and binge episodes, as well as measures of clinical severity, eating pathology, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, food cravings, body mass index, and body weight. Nine participants had remission of binge eating and five lost ≥5% of their baseline weight; all five of the latter participants had remission of binge eating. DISCUSSION In this open-label trial, sodium oxybate was effective in binge eating disorder, but associated with high a discontinuation rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan L McElroy
- Research Institute, Lindner Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA
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Lam WK, Felmlee MA, Morris ME. Monocarboxylate transporter-mediated transport of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 38:441-7. [PMID: 19952290 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.030775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to determine mRNA expression of monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) and to evaluate intestinal transport of the MCT substrates gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and d-lactate in human intestinal Caco-2 cells. The presence of mRNA for MCT1, 2, 3, and 4 was observed in Caco-2 cells. The uptake of both GHB and d-lactate in Caco-2 cells was demonstrated to be pH- and concentration-dependent and sodium-independent. The uptake of GHB and d-lactate was best described by a Michaelis-Menten equation with passive diffusion (GHB: K(m) = 17.6 +/- 10.5 mM, V(max) = 17.3 +/- 11.7 nmol/min/mg, and P = 0.38 +/- 0.15 microl/min/mg; and d-lactate: K(m) = 6.0 +/- 2.9 mM, V(max) = 35.0 +/- 18.4 nmol/min/mg, and P = 1.3 +/- 0.6 microl/min/mg). The uptake of GHB and d-lactate was significantly decreased by the known MCT inhibitor alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate and the MCT substrates GHB and d-lactate but not by the organic cation tetraethylammonium chloride. Directional flux studies with both GHB and d-lactate suggested the involvement of carrier-mediated transport with the permeability in the apical to basolateral direction higher than that in the basolateral to apical direction. These findings confirm the presence of MCT1-4 in Caco-2 cells and demonstrate GHB and d-lactate transport characteristics consistent with proton-dependent MCT-mediated transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing Ki Lam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Amherst, New York, USA
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Nava F, Premi S, Manzato E, Campagnola W, Lucchini A, Gessa GL. Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate Reduces both Withdrawal Syndrome and Hypercortisolism in Severe Abstinent Alcoholics: An Open Study vs. Diazepam. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2009; 33:379-92. [PMID: 17613965 DOI: 10.1080/00952990701315046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In 42 alcoholic inpatients we performed an open randomized study to compare the effects of diazepam and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) on the suppression of severe alcohol withdrawal syndrome and hypercortisolism. Both diazepam (.5 mg/kg bodyweight, q.i.d.) and GHB (50 mg/kg bodyweight, q.i.d.) were orally administered for three weeks. During all study period, GHB was more able than diazepam in reducing both withdrawal syndrome and hypercortisolism. These effects were evident during the first week of treatment and persisted throughout the study period. The results confirm a strict correlation between high levels of plasma cortisol and alcohol withdrawal symptoms and they show a slight superiority of GHB over diazepam in the suppression of both ethanol withdrawal and hypercortisolism. Taken together, our data suggest that GHB may act as potent anti-withdrawal agent in severe abstinent alcoholics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felice Nava
- Italian Society of Addiction Medicine FederSerD, Milan, Italy.
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Koek W, Mercer SL, Coop A, France CP. Behavioral effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate, its precursor gamma-butyrolactone, and GABA(B) receptor agonists: time course and differential antagonism by the GABA(B) receptor antagonist 3-aminopropyl(diethoxymethyl)phosphinic acid (CGP35348). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2009; 330:876-83. [PMID: 19564487 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.109.151845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is used therapeutically and recreationally. The mechanism by which GHB produces its therapeutic and recreational effects is not entirely clear, although GABA(B) receptors seem to play an important role. This role could be complex, because there are indications that different GABA(B) receptor mechanisms mediate the effects of GHB and the prototypical GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen. To further explore possible differences in underlying GABA(B) receptor mechanisms, the present study examined the effects of GHB and baclofen on operant responding and their antagonism by the GABA(B) receptor antagonist 3-aminopropyl(diethoxymethyl)phosphinic acid (CGP35348). Pigeons were trained to peck a key for access to food during response periods that started at different times after the beginning of the session. In these pigeons, GHB, its precursor gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and the GABA(B) receptor agonists baclofen and 3-aminopropyl(methyl)phosphinic acid hydrochloride (SKF97541) decreased the rate of responding in a dose- and time-dependent manner. CGP35348 shifted the dose-response curve of each agonist to the right, but the magnitude of the shift differed among the agonists. Schild analysis yielded a pA(2) value of CGP35348 to antagonize GHB and GBL [i.e., 3.9 (3.7-4.2)] that was different (P = 0.0011) from the pA(2) value to antagonize baclofen and SKF97541 [i.e., 4.5 (4.4-4.7)]. This finding is further evidence that the GABA(B) receptor mechanisms mediating the effects of GHB and prototypical GABA(B) receptor agonists are not identical. A better understanding of the similarities and differences between these mechanisms, and their involvement in the therapeutic effects of GHB and baclofen, could lead to more effective medications with fewer adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Koek
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, Mail Code 7792, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
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Cui D, Morris ME. The drug of abuse gamma-hydroxybutyrate is a substrate for sodium-coupled monocarboxylate transporter (SMCT) 1 (SLC5A8): characterization of SMCT-mediated uptake and inhibition. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:1404-10. [PMID: 19389857 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.027169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a drug of abuse, is a substrate of monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs). Sodium-coupled monocarboxylate transporter 1 (SMCT1; SLC5A8) is expressed in kidney, thyroid gland, neurons, and intestinal tract and exhibits substrate specificity similar to that of the proton-dependent MCT (SLC16A) family. The role of SMCT1 in GHB disposition has not been determined. In this study we characterized the driving force, transport kinetics, and inhibitors of GHB uptake, as well as expression of SMCT and MCT isoforms, in rat thyroid follicular (FRTL-5) cells. GHB, as well as the monocarboxylates butyrate and d-lactate, exhibited sodium-dependent uptake at pH 7.4, which could be described with a simple Michaelis-Menten equation plus a diffusional component [K(m) 0.68 +/- 0.30 mM, V(max) 3.50 +/- 1.58 nmol . mg(-1) . min(-1), and diffusional clearance (P) 0.25 +/- 0.08 microl . mg(-1) . min(-1)]. In the absence of sodium, GHB uptake was significantly increased at lower pH, suggesting proton-gradient dependent transport. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western analyses demonstrated the expression of SMCT1, MCT1, and MCT2 in FRTL-5 cells, supporting the activity results. Sodium-dependent GHB uptake in FRTL-5 cells was inhibited by MCT substrates (d-lactate, l-lactate, pyruvate, and butyrate), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen), and probenecid. IC(50) values for l-lactate, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and probenecid were 101, 31.6, 64.4, and 380 muM, respectively. All four inhibitors also significantly inhibited GHB uptake in rat MCT1 gene-transfected MDA/MB231 cells, suggesting they are not specific for SMCT1. Luteolin and alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnimate represent specific proton-dependent MCT inhibitors. Our findings indicate that GHB is a substrate for both sodium- and proton-dependent MCTs and identified specific inhibitors of MCTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dapeng Cui
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Amherst, NY 14260, USA
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Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Caputo F, Gasbarrini A. The therapeutic potential of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid for alcohol dependence: balancing the risks and benefits. A focus on clinical data. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2009; 18:675-86. [DOI: 10.1517/13543780902905855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Sellman JD, Robinson GM, Beasley R. Should ethanol be scheduled as a drug of high risk to public health? J Psychopharmacol 2009; 23:94-100. [PMID: 18583435 DOI: 10.1177/0269881108091596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Six criteria described in the New Zealand Misuse of Drugs Act and used by the Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD) for determining the risk of a drug to public health were examined in relation to ethanol, using gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) as a comparator drug. GHB is an ideal candidate for use as a comparator because it is a sedative substance very similar to ethanol and has been previously investigated by the EACD using these six criteria. GHB was subsequently classified as a Class B1 drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act, that is, as a prohibited drug of high risk to public health. The dangerousness level of ethanol was found to be at least similar to that of GHB in this analysis. This highlights a major discrepancy in public policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Sellman
- National Addiction Centre, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Klein M, Remi J, Pfister H, Straube A, Rupprecht T, Weckbach S, Pfefferkorn T. Mimicking of Cerebral Herniation Through γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid Therapy. Am J Crit Care 2008. [DOI: 10.4037/ajcc2008.17.6.593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Besides being a treatment option for narcolepsy, γ-hydroxybutyrate is used as an adjuvant during anesthesia in Europe. In addition, it is illegally used as a recreational drug. Fixed and dilated, asymmetric pupils developed in 2 patients during continuous therapy with intravenous γ-hydroxybutyrate, which was added to the long-term anesthetics fentanyl and midazolam. Cerebral herniation as an alternative cause for the pupillary changes was ruled out by using continuous intracranial pressure monitoring and computed tomography. In both patients, the pupillary abnormalities resolved after discontinuation of γ-hydroxybutyrate. Thus, fixed and dilated pupils that are asymmetric seem to be an important side effect of γ-hydroxybutyrate therapy that may mimic cerebral herniation in deeply anesthetized patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Klein
- M. Klein, J. Remi and T. A. Rupprecht are residents, H. W. Pfister and A. Straube are professors, and T. Pfefferkorn is a fellow in the Department of Neurology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany. S. Weckbach is a resident in the Department of Radiology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University
| | - J. Remi
- M. Klein, J. Remi and T. A. Rupprecht are residents, H. W. Pfister and A. Straube are professors, and T. Pfefferkorn is a fellow in the Department of Neurology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany. S. Weckbach is a resident in the Department of Radiology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University
| | | | - A. Straube
- M. Klein, J. Remi and T. A. Rupprecht are residents, H. W. Pfister and A. Straube are professors, and T. Pfefferkorn is a fellow in the Department of Neurology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany. S. Weckbach is a resident in the Department of Radiology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University
| | | | - S. Weckbach
- M. Klein, J. Remi and T. A. Rupprecht are residents, H. W. Pfister and A. Straube are professors, and T. Pfefferkorn is a fellow in the Department of Neurology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany. S. Weckbach is a resident in the Department of Radiology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University
| | - T. Pfefferkorn
- M. Klein, J. Remi and T. A. Rupprecht are residents, H. W. Pfister and A. Straube are professors, and T. Pfefferkorn is a fellow in the Department of Neurology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany. S. Weckbach is a resident in the Department of Radiology, Klinikum Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilian University
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Carter LP, Koek W, France CP. Behavioral analyses of GHB: receptor mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 121:100-14. [PMID: 19010351 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 10/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
GHB is used therapeutically and recreationally, although the precise mechanism of action responsible for its different behavioral effects is not entirely clear. The purpose of this review is to summarize how behavioral procedures, especially drug discrimination procedures, have been used to study the mechanism of action of GHB. More specifically, we will review several different drug discrimination procedures and discuss how they have been used to qualitatively and quantitatively study different components of the complex mechanism of action of GHB. A growing number of studies have provided evidence that the behavioral effects of GHB are mediated predominantly by GABAB receptors. However, there is also evidence that the mechanisms mediating the effects of GHB and the prototypical GABAB receptor agonist baclofen are not identical, and that other mechanisms such as GHB receptors and subtypes of GABAA and GABAB receptors might contribute to the effects of GHB. These findings are consistent with the different behavioral profile, abuse liability, and therapeutic indications of GHB and baclofen. A better understanding of the similarities and differences between GHB and baclofen, as well as the pharmacological mechanisms of action underlying the recreational and therapeutic effects of GHB, could lead to more effective medications with fewer adverse effects.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Benzodiazepine treatment of life-threatening gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) withdrawal is frequently unsatisfactory. Animal studies suggest strongly that treatment with GABA(B) agonists, such as baclofen, will be a more effective strategy. METHODS A case report from the medical intensive care unit (ICU) of the university tertiary care hospital. RESULTS A 61-year-old woman was admitted to the medical ICU for severe withdrawal symptoms from chronic GHB use. This manifested as delirium, tremor, and seizures despite only small decreases in GHB dose and treatment with benzodiazepines. The addition of baclofen allowed the rapid sequential decreases in the GHB dose without seizure or delirium and resulted in long-term improvement of her tremor. CONCLUSIONS Baclofen, a GABA(B) agonist, may be a useful agent in the treatment of severe GHB withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L LeTourneau
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine and Center for Intensive Care Research, Department of Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Biomedical Research Building (UHN-67), 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
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Cataleptic effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and baclofen in mice: mediation by GABA(B) receptors, but differential enhancement by N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 199:191-8. [PMID: 18446324 PMCID: PMC3470870 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1160-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Accepted: 04/02/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) analog that is used to treat narcolepsy but that is also abused. GHB has many actions in common with the GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen, but their underlying GABA(B) receptor mechanisms may be different. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study is to further investigate a possible differential role of glutamate in GABA(B) receptor-mediated effects of GHB and baclofen. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiments examined the effects of non-competitive antagonists at the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors on GHB-induced catalepsy and compared these effects with those on baclofen-induced catalepsy. RESULTS In C57BL/6J mice, ketamine, phencyclidine (PCP), and dizocilpine (MK-801) all enhanced GHB-induced catalepsy. They did so with a potency order (i.e., MK-801 > PCP > ketamine) consistent with their relative potencies as NMDA antagonists but not as inhibitors of dopamine or organic cation transporters. Ketamine, PCP, and MK-801 enhanced catalepsy along inverted U-shaped dose-response curves likely because higher doses affected motor coordination, which limited their catalepsy-enhancing effects. Doses that were maximally effective to enhance GHB-induced catalepsy did not affect the cataleptic effects of baclofen. CONCLUSIONS The finding that NMDA receptor antagonists enhance the cataleptic effects of GHB but not those of baclofen is further evidence that the GABA(B) receptor mechanisms mediating the effects of GHB and GABA(B) agonists are not identical. Differential interactions of glutamate with the GABA(B) receptor mechanisms mediating the effects of GHB and baclofen may explain why GHB is effective for treating narcolepsy and is abused, whereas baclofen is not.
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Koek W, Mercer SL, Coop A. Cataleptic effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), its precursor gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and GABAB receptor agonists in mice: differential antagonism by the GABAB receptor antagonist CGP35348. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 192:407-14. [PMID: 17277933 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0718-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2006] [Accepted: 01/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is used to treat narcolepsy but is also abused. GHB has many actions in common with the GABA(B) receptor agonist baclofen. OBJECTIVE To further study the role of GABA(B) receptors in the effects of GHB. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiments examined the ability of the GABA(B) receptor antagonist CGP35348 to attenuate GHB-induced catalepsy in comparison with its ability to attenuate the cataleptic effects of GABA(B) receptor agonists. RESULTS In C57BL/6J mice, GHB, the GHB precursor gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and the GABA(B) receptor agonists baclofen and SKF97541 all produced catalepsy but differed in potency (i.e., SKF97541>baclofen>GBL>GHB) and in onset of action. The cataleptic effects of drug combinations were assessed at the time of peak effect of each compound, i.e., 60 min after CGP35348 and 60, 30, 30, and 15 min after baclofen, SKF97541, GHB, and GBL, respectively. At 100 mg/kg, CGP35348 shifted the dose-response curves of baclofen and SKF97541 to the right but not those of GHB and GBL; at 320 mg/kg, CGP35348 shifted the curves of all four compounds to the right. CONCLUSIONS The finding that CGP35348 was about threefold less potent to antagonize GHB and GBL than baclofen and SKF97541 is further evidence that the mechanisms mediating the effects of GHB and GABA(B) agonists are not identical. Differential involvement of GABA(B) receptor subtypes, or differential interactions with GABA(B) receptors, may possibly explain why GHB is effective for treating narcolepsy and is abused whereas baclofen is not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Koek
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA.
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Abstract
In recent years, advances in neuroscience led to the development of new medications to treat alcohol dependence and especially to prevent alcohol relapse after detoxification. Whereas the earliest medications against alcohol dependence were fortuitously discovered, recently developed drugs are increasingly based on alcohol's neurobiological mechanisms of action. This review discusses the most recent developments in alcohol pharmacotherapy and emphasizes the neurobiological basis of anti-alcohol medications. There are currently three approved drugs for the treatment of alcohol dependence with quite different mechanisms of action. Disulfiram is an inhibitor of the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase and acts as an alcohol-deterrent drug. Naltrexone, an opiate antagonist, reduces alcohol craving and relapse in heavy drinking, probably via a modulation of the mesolimbic dopamine activity. Finally, acamprosate helps maintaining alcohol abstinence, probably through a normalization of the chronic alcohol-induced hyperglutamatergic state. In addition to these approved medications, many other drugs have been suggested for preventing alcohol consumption on the basis of preclinical studies. Some of these drugs remain promising, whereas others have produced disappointing results in preliminary clinical studies. These new drugs in the field of alcohol pharmacotherapy are also discussed, together with their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Tambour
- Unité de Recherche en Psychologie Expérimentale et Neurosciences Cognitives (URPENC), Université de Liège, Boulevard du Rectorat 5/B32, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
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Leonard ST, Gerak LR, Gurkovskaya O, Moerschbaecher JM, Winsauer PJ. Effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and flunitrazepam on ethanol intake in male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 85:780-6. [PMID: 17208286 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2006] [Revised: 11/15/2006] [Accepted: 11/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Both gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and flunitrazepam are often used illicitly in combination with ethanol. Nevertheless, the effects that these and other drugs of abuse have on the reinforcing effects of ethanol remain inconclusive. To test the effects of GHB and flunitrazepam on contingent ethanol intake, twelve male Long-Evans rats were trained to orally consume ethanol using a saccharin-fading procedure. After training, all animals preferentially consumed ethanol instead of water at each of five ethanol concentrations (0-32%) when tested with a two-bottle preference test in the homecage. Animals then received a noncontingent dose of ethanol (0.32, 0.56, 1, and 1.33 g/kg), flunitrazepam (0.032, 0.1, and 0.32 mg/kg), or GHB (100, 180, 320, and 560 mg/kg) prior to each subject's daily access to ethanol (18% v/v). Noncontingent doses of ethanol decreased ethanol intake, however, the subjects consumed enough ethanol to maintain a consistent total ethanol dose in g/kg. Flunitrazepam did not affect ethanol intake at any dose tested, whereas GHB only affected intake at the highest dose (560 mg/kg), a dose that also produced sedation. These data suggest that there are perceptible or qualitative differences between GHB, flunitrazepam, and ethanol in terms of their capacity for modulating oral ethanol intake in outbred rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart T Leonard
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics at Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido St., New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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Raybon JJ, Boje KMK. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid during tolerance in rats: effects on extracellular dopamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 320:1252-60. [PMID: 17138862 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.106.113886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a potent sedative/hypnotic and drug of abuse. Tolerance develops to GHB's sedative/hypnotic effects. It is hypothesized that GHB tolerance may be mediated by alterations in central nervous system pharmacokinetics or neurotransmitter response. Rats were dosed daily with GHB (548 mg/kg s.c. q.d. for 5 days), and sleep time was measured as an index of behavioral tolerance. Plasma and brain GHB pharmacokinetics on days 1 and 5 were monitored using blood and microdialysis sampling. Extracellular (ECF) striatal dopamine levels were measured by microdialysis as a pharmacodynamic endpoint of tolerance. Pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) modeling was performed to describe the plasma and brain disposition using an indirect response model with inhibition of dopamine synthesis rate to describe the pharmacodynamic response. GHB plasma and brain ECF concentration versus time profiles following acute or chronic exposure were not significantly different. GHB sedative/hypnotic tolerance was observed by day 5. Acute GHB administration resulted in a decrease in striatal ECF dopamine (DA) levels compared with baseline levels. GHB tolerance was reflected by a 60% decrease in dopamine area under the curve (effect and baseline): acute, 10.1 +/- 15.3% basal DA/min/10(-3) versus chronic, 4.73 +/- 1.49% basal DA/min/10(-3) (p < 0.05, n = 5; unpaired Student's t test). The PK/PD model revealed an increase in the IC50 following chronic exposure indicating decreased dopaminergic sensitivity toward the inhibitory effects of GHB. Our findings indicate that GHB pharmacokinetics do not contribute to behavioral tolerance; however, changes in neurotransmitter responsiveness may suggest specific neurochemical pathways involved in the development and expression of tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Raybon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, H517 Cooke-Hochstetter, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
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Carter LP, Richards BD, Mintzer MZ, Griffiths RR. Relative abuse liability of GHB in humans: A comparison of psychomotor, subjective, and cognitive effects of supratherapeutic doses of triazolam, pentobarbital, and GHB. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:2537-51. [PMID: 16880774 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although preclinical studies suggest that GHB has low likelihood for abuse, case reports indicate that GHB is abused. This study evaluated the relative abuse liability of GHB in 14 volunteers with histories of drug abuse. Psychomotor, subjective, and cognitive effects of a broad range of GHB doses (2-18 g/70 kg), up to a dose that produced severe behavioral impairment in each participant, were compared to placebo and two abused sedative/hypnotic drugs, triazolam (0.5 and 1 mg/70 kg) and pentobarbital (200 and 400 mg/70 kg), under double-blind, double-dummy conditions at a residential research facility. In general, GHB produced effects similar to triazolam and pentobarbital, although GHB was not identified as a benzodiazepine or barbiturate by participants that correctly identified triazolam and pentobarbital as such. On most measures of likelihood of abuse (eg ratings of liking, reinforcing effects), effects of pentobarbital were significantly greater than those of triazolam, with GHB being intermediate. GHB produced significantly greater negative subjective effects, including nausea, than the other drugs. Memory impairment after GHB was less than that after triazolam and pentobarbital. Within participants, the dose-effect function for sedation was steeper for GHB than for triazolam and pentobarbital. Also, at higher doses, GHB was associated with greater sedation and more variability across participants in sedation. Taken together, these data suggest that the profile of effects of GHB only partially overlaps with that of triazolam and pentobarbital. Although the likelihood for GHB to be abused is intermediate to triazolam and pentobarbital, the possibility of accidental overdose (ie greater sedation than intended) with GHB appears to be greater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence P Carter
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a common drug of abuse that can produce serious toxicity, particularly when used with other sedatives. We examined the individual and combined effects of GHB and ethanol in human volunteers. METHODS Sixteen healthy adults (7 men) were given 50 mg/kg GHB (Xyrem), 0.6 g/kg ethanol in 2 doses, alone and combined in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Plasma concentrations, heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and oxygen saturation (O2sat) were serially monitored for 24 hours. RESULTS Adverse events included 2 instances of hypotension and 6 episodes of vomiting with GHB-plus-ethanol ingestion. Oxygen saturation was decreased by GHB and ethanol individually, and maximally decreased by the drugs combined (max -2.1% +/- 0.3%, P < 0.0001 vs placebo). Compared with baseline, systolic and diastolic BP were significantly decreased, and HR was increased by ethanol but not affected by GHB alone (maximum systolic BP change -15.7 +/- 3.0 mm Hg, P = 0.0006; maximum HR change 13.5 +/- 2.3 beats per minute, P = 0.006). Ethanol coingestion resulted in 16% higher GHB maximal plasma concentration and 29% longer elimination half-life, indicating possible enhanced bioavailability or reduced clearance of GHB caused by ethanol, however, these effects were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS Modest doses of GHB do not affect hemodynamic function, but O2sat was decreased. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate-plus-ethanol resulted in more adverse effects, including gastrointestinal disturbances, hypotension, and decreased O2sat, but only minimal pharmacokinetic interactions were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dung Thai
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California
| | - Jo Ellen Dyer
- California Poison Control System, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Neal L. Benowitz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California
| | - Christine A. Haller
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California
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Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a drug of abuse that causes euphoria, anxiolysis, and hypnosis. The recent rise in the recreational intake of GHB, as well as its association with 'drug rape', has turned the attention to GHB in acute hospital settings. Acutely admitted GHB intoxicated patients may display various levels of sedation or coma, but may also show paradoxical agitation, combativeness, or self-injurious behaviors. The symptoms can be nonspecific and the definite diagnosis therefore normally relies on the detection of GHB in blood or body fluids, which is an analysis that may not be promptly available. As a basis for understanding the clinical features of GHB intoxication and abuse, we here review the pharmacological and neurophysiological knowledge about GHB, which stems from decades of clinical and basic GHB research. In addition, we discuss the latest discoveries in the quest for distinct GHB receptors in the brain, and their possible implications for future therapies of GHB abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R Drasbek
- Institute of Physiology and Biophysics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
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Carter LP, Chen W, Coop A, Koek W, France CP. Discriminative stimulus effects of GHB and GABAB agonists are differentially attenuated by CGP35348. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 538:85-93. [PMID: 16647701 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Revised: 03/14/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the possible heterogeneity of mechanisms that contribute to the discriminative stimulus and rate-decreasing effects of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). Dose effect curves were determined for GHB and two GABA(B) receptor agonists (baclofen and SKF97541) alone and together with the selective GABA(B) receptor antagonist CGP35348 in rats discriminating GHB. In a second study, GHB and SKF97541 dose effect curves were determined alone and together with baclofen. CGP35348 attenuated the discriminative stimulus and rate-decreasing effects of SKF97541 and baclofen to a greater extent than those of GHB. In the second study, baclofen enhanced the discriminative stimulus and rate-decreasing effects of GHB and SKF97541; however, the GHB dose effect curve was not shifted in a parallel manner. Taken together, these data suggest that multiple mechanisms, possibly including GHB receptors and GABA(B) receptor subtypes, are involved in the discriminative stimulus and rate-decreasing effects of GHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence P Carter
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, Texas 78229, USA
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Crunelli V, Emri Z, Leresche N. Unravelling the brain targets of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2005; 6:44-52. [PMID: 16368267 PMCID: PMC2174623 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2005.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2005] [Accepted: 10/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a naturally occurring gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) metabolite that has been proposed as a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator that acts via its own receptor (GHBR). Its exogenous administration, however, elicits central nervous system-dependent effects (e.g. memory impairment, increase in sleep stages 3 and 4, dependence, seizures and coma) that are mostly mediated by GABAB receptors. The past few years have seen important developments in our understanding of GHB neurobiology: a putative GHBR has been cloned; a transgenic model of GHB aciduria has been developed; GABAB receptor knockout mice and novel GHB analogs have helped to characterize the vast majority of exogenous GHB actions mediated by GABAB receptors; and some of the cellular mechanisms underlying the dependence/abuse properties of GHB, and its ability to elicit absence seizures and an increase in sleep stages 3 and 4, have been clarified. Nevertheless, the physiological significance of a brain GHB signaling pathway is still unknown, and there is an urgent need for a well-validated functional assay for GHBRs. Moreover, as GHB can also be metabolized to GABA, it remains to be seen whether the many GABAB receptor-mediated actions of GHB are caused by GHB itself acting directly on GABAB receptors or by a GHB-derived GABA pool (or both).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Crunelli
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, UK.
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Johnson BA. Recent advances in the development of treatments for alcohol and cocaine dependence: focus on topiramate and other modulators of GABA or glutamate function. CNS Drugs 2005; 19:873-96. [PMID: 16185095 DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200519100-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Neuroscientific developments have promulgated interest in developing efficacious medications for the treatment of substance dependence. Previous pharmacological strategies that involve the use of relatively specific medications to alter corticomesolimbic dopaminergic neuronal activity--the critical pathway for expression of the reinforcing effects of abused drugs--have yielded modest efficacy in the treatment of alcohol dependence, and no medication has been established as a treatment for cocaine dependence. Since corticomesolimbic dopaminergic neurons interact with other neurotransmitters that modulate the effects of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, would it not be possible to control these dopaminergic effects more reliably with a medication that acts contemporaneously on more than one neuromodulator of dopaminergic function? Further, since the long-term use of either alcohol or cocaine results in neuronal adaptations as a result of sensitisation, would the chances of effective therapy not be bolstered by administering a medication that was also able to mitigate these chronic effects? Thus, a new conceptual approach is needed. My proposal is that a medication--in this case topiramate--that principally potentiates inhibitory GABA(A) receptor-mediated input and antagonises excitatory glutamatergic afferents to the corticomesolimbic dopaminergic system should have therapeutic potential in treating either alcohol or cocaine dependence or perhaps both. This is because the principal neurochemical effects of topiramate would not only serve to decrease the acute reinforcing effects of alcohol or cocaine, but might also facilitate cessation of their use following a period of long-term use by decreasing neuronal sensitisation. This overview highlights the scientific concepts and clinical evidence for the development of topiramate in the treatment of alcohol dependence and introduces preliminary evidence to indicate that it might also have utility in treating cocaine dependence. Finally, to place the material on topiramate in context, information has been included on the utility and development of other medications that modulate GABA- or glutamate-mediated neuronal systems for the treatment of alcohol or cocaine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bankole A Johnson
- Department of Psychiatric Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Dimitrijevic N, Dzitoyeva S, Satta R, Imbesi M, Yildiz S, Manev H. Drosophila GABA(B) receptors are involved in behavioral effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Eur J Pharmacol 2005; 519:246-52. [PMID: 16129424 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2005] [Revised: 07/11/2005] [Accepted: 07/19/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) can be synthesized in the brain but is also a known drug of abuse. Although putative GHB receptors have been cloned, it has been proposed that, similar to the behavior-impairing effects of ethanol, the in vivo effects of pharmacological GHB may involve metabotropic gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) GABA(B) receptors. We developed a fruitfly (Drosophila melanogater) model to investigate the role of these receptors in the behavioral effects of exogenous GHB. Injecting GHB into male flies produced a dose-dependent motor impairment (measured with a computer-assisted automated system), which was greater in ethanol-sensitive cheapdate mutants than in wild-type flies. These effects of pharmacological concentrations of GHB require the presence and activation of GABA(B) receptors. The evidence for this was obtained by pharmacological antagonism of GABA(B) receptors with CGP54626 and by RNA interference (RNAi)-induced knockdown of the GABA(B(1)) receptor subtype. Both procedures inhibited the behavioral effects of GHB. GHB pretreatment diminished the behavioral response to subsequent GHB injections; i.e., it triggered GHB tolerance, but did not produce ethanol tolerance. On the other hand, ethanol pretreatment produced both ethanol and GHB tolerance. It appears that in spite of many similarities between ethanol and GHB, the primary sites of their action may differ and that recently cloned putative GHB receptors may participate in actions of GHB that are not mediated by GABA(B) receptors. These receptors do not have a Drosophila orthologue. Whether Drosophila express a different GHB receptor should be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Dimitrijevic
- The Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, MC912, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- O Carter Snead
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, and the Division of Neurology and the Brain and Behavior Research Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Addolorato G, Abenavoli L, Leggio L, Gasbarrini G. How many cravings? Pharmacological aspects of craving treatment in alcohol addiction: a review. Neuropsychobiology 2005; 51:59-66. [PMID: 15741745 DOI: 10.1159/000084161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, craving has increasingly been considered an important target for the treatment of patients with alcohol problems, and several drugs able to interfere with the neurotransmitters involved in craving mechanisms have been experimented. However, different subtypes of patients could have different mechanisms at the basis of alcohol craving. In this review, the main drugs currently used in the treatment of patients with alcohol problems are described. A hypothesis of pharmacological treatment of the different types of craving is also discussed.
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Carter LP, Chen W, Wu H, Mehta AK, Hernandez RJ, Ticku MK, Coop A, Koek W, France CP. Comparison of the behavioral effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and its 4-methyl-substituted analog, gamma-hydroxyvaleric acid (GHV). Drug Alcohol Depend 2005; 78:91-9. [PMID: 15769562 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2004] [Revised: 09/28/2004] [Accepted: 10/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a metabolite of GABA, is a drug of abuse and a therapeutic. The illicit use of GHB precursors and analogs reportedly has increased worldwide. Gamma-hydroxyvaleric (GHV) is a 4-methyl-substituted analog of GHB that reportedly is abused and is marketed as a dietary supplement and replacement for GHB. The purpose of these studies was to compare the pharmacological and behavioral profiles of GHV and GHB. In radioligand binding studies, GHV completely displaced [(3)H]NCS-382 with approximately 2-fold lower affinity than GHB and did not markedly displace [(3)H]GABA from GABA(B) receptors at a 20-fold larger concentration. In drug discrimination procedures, GHV did not share discriminative stimulus effects with GHB or baclofen. GHV shared other behavioral effects with GHB, such as sedation, catalepsy, and ataxia, although larger doses of GHV were required to produce these effects. Lethality (50%) was observed after the largest dose of GHV (5600mg/kg), a dose that produced less-than-maximal catalepsy and ataxia. To the extent that large doses of GHV might be taken to in an attempt to produce GHB-like effects (e.g., hypnosis) GHV toxicity may pose a greater public health concern than GHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence P Carter
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, Mail Code 7764, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA
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Carter LP, Wu H, Chen W, Matthews MM, Mehta AK, Hernandez RJ, Thomson JA, Ticku MK, Coop A, Koek W, France CP. Novel gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) analogs share some, but not all, of the behavioral effects of GHB and GABAB receptor agonists. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 313:1314-23. [PMID: 15769868 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.104.077578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a therapeutic for narcolepsy and a drug of abuse, has several mechanisms of action that involve GHB and GABA(B) receptors, metabolism to GABA, and modulation of dopaminergic signaling. The aim of these studies was to examine the role of GHB and GABA(B) receptors in the behavioral effects of GHB. Three approaches were used to synthesize GHB analogs that bind selectively to GHB receptors and are not metabolized to GABA-active compounds. Radioligand binding assays identified UMB86 (4-hydroxy-4-napthylbutanoic acid, sodium salt), UMB72 [4-(3-phenylpropyloxy)butyric acid, sodium salt], UMB73 (4-benzyloxybutyric acid, sodium salt), 2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, 3-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (3-HPA), and 4-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyric acid as compounds that displace [(3)H]NCS-382 [5-[(3)H]-(2E)-(5-hydroxy-5,7,8,9-tetrahydro-6H-benzo[a][7] annulen-6-ylidene) ethanoic acid] from GHB receptors at concentrations that do not markedly affect [(3)H]GABA binding to GABA(B) receptors. In rats and pigeons, GHB discriminative stimulus effects were not mimicked or attenuated by UMB86, UMB72, or 3-HPA up to doses that decreased responding. In mice, GHB, GHB precursors (gamma-butyrolactone and 1,4-butanediol) and GABA(B) receptor agonists [SKF97541 [3-aminopropyl(methyl)phosphinic acid hydrochloride] and baclofen] dose-dependently produced hypolocomotion, catalepsy, ataxia, and loss of righting. The GABA(B) receptor antagonist CGP35348 (3-aminopropyl(diethoxymethyl)phosphinic acid) attenuated catalepsy and ataxia that was observed after GHB and GABA(B) receptor agonists SKF97541 and baclofen. UMB86, UMB72, UMB73, and 3-HPA, like GHB, produced hypolocomotion, ataxia, and loss of righting; however, catalepsy was never observed with these compounds, which is consistent with the cataleptic effects of GHB being mediated by GABA(B) receptors. Ataxia that was observed with UMB86, UMB72, UMB73, and 3-HPA was not antagonized by CGP35348, suggesting that ataxia induced by these analogs is not mediated by GABA(B) receptors and might involve GHB receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence P Carter
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 78229-3900, USA
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Wong CGT, Chan KFY, Gibson KM, Snead OC. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: neurobiology and toxicology of a recreational drug. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 23:3-20. [PMID: 15298489 DOI: 10.2165/00139709-200423010-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a short-chain fatty acid that occurs naturally in mammalian brain where it is derived metabolically from gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. GHB was synthesised over 40 years ago and its presence in the brain and a number of aspects of its biological, pharmacological and toxicological properties have been elucidated over the last 20-30 years. However, widespread interest in this compound has arisen only in the past 5-10 years, primarily as a result of the emergence of GHB as a major recreational drug and public health problem in the US. There is considerable evidence that GHB may be a neuromodulator in the brain. GHB has multiple neuronal mechanisms including activation of both the gamma-aminobutyric acid type B (GABA(B)) receptor, and a separate GHB-specific receptor. This complex GHB-GABA(B) receptor interaction is probably responsible for the protean pharmacological, electroencephalographic, behavioural and toxicological effects of GHB, as well as the perturbations of learning and memory associated with supra-physiological concentrations of GHB in the brain that result from the exogenous administration of this drug in the clinical context of GHB abuse, addiction and withdrawal. Investigation of the inborn error of metabolism succinic semialdehyde deficiency (SSADH) and the murine model of this disorder (SSADH knockout mice), in which GHB plays a major role, may help dissect out GHB- and GABA(B) receptor-mediated mechanisms. In particular, the mechanisms that are operative in the molecular pathogenesis of GHB addiction and withdrawal as well as the absence seizures observed in the GHB-treated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Guin Ting Wong
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Hicks AR, Kapusta DR, Varner KJ. Mechanisms Underlying the Sympathomimetic Cardiovascular Responses Elicited by γ-Hydroxybutyrate. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2004; 44:631-8. [PMID: 15550780 DOI: 10.1097/00005344-200412000-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is generally thought to be a central nervous system depressant; however, GHB also has sympathomimetic cardiovascular actions. Radio telemetry was used to record the cardiovascular responses elicited by GHB (180-1000 mg/kg IV) in conscious rats. GHB elicited increases in mean arterial pressure (MAP) (24 +/- 3 to 60 +/- 5 mm Hg) lasting from 28 +/- 8 to 227 +/- 37 minutes. GHB (560 and 1000 mg/kg IV) also elicited a prolonged tachycardic response (85 +/- 23 and 95 +/- 22 bpm). The hypertension and tachycardia elicited by GHB (560 mg/kg) were reversed by the intravenous and intracerebroventricular administration of the GABAb receptor antagonist CGP 35348. CGP 35348 also reversed GHB-mediated increases in renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). Administration of the purported GHB receptor antagonist NCS-382 reversed the increase in heart rate but not the pressor response elicited by GHB in telemetered rats. These data indicate that the intravenous administration of GHB markedly increases MAP, heart rate, and RSNA in conscious rats via activation of central GABAb receptors. In addition, GHB receptors appear to selectively mediate the increase in heart rate elicited by large doses of GHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alissa R Hicks
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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Gerak LR, Hicks AR, Winsauer PJ, Varner KJ. Interaction between 1,4-butanediol and ethanol on operant responding and the cardiovascular system. Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 506:75-82. [PMID: 15588627 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.10.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2004] [Revised: 10/18/2004] [Accepted: 10/20/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The current studies characterized the rate-decreasing and cardiovascular responses produced by 1,4-butanediol administered alone and in combination with ethanol to test the hypothesis that these effects resulted from the degradation of 1,4-butanediol to gamma-hydroxybutyrate. One group of rats responded under a fixed-ratio 20 schedule of food presentation; ethanol and 1,4-butanediol dose-dependently decreased response rates. Ethanol administered in combination with 1,4-butanediol attenuated the rate-decreasing effects of 1,4-butanediol without altering the potency of ethanol. In separate groups of conscious rats, radio telemetry was used to record mean arterial pressure and heart rate. In contrast to its depressant effects on schedule-controlled responding, 1,4-butanediol increased mean arterial pressure and heart rate; these increases were attenuated by ethanol. Thus, the behavioral and cardiovascular actions of 1,4-butanediol are similar to those elicited by gamma-hydroxybutyrate. The ability of ethanol to attenuate the behavioral and cardiovascular effects of 1,4-butanediol indicates that these effects require the conversion of 1,4-butanediol to gamma-hydroxybutyrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R Gerak
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 1901 Perdido St., New Orleans, LA 70112-1393, USA.
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Odagaki Y, Yamauchi T. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid, unlike gamma-aminobutyric acid, does not stimulate Gi/Go proteins in rat brain membranes. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2004; 94:89-98. [PMID: 14748852 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2004.pto940206.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid is a naturally occurring substance that may act as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator to elicit several biological effects. Although the existence of a specific gamma-hydroxybutyric acid receptor has been postulated, the receptor protein itself has not been cloned yet. The current study was designed to elucidate whether gamma-hydroxybutyric acid receptors are functionally coupled with heterotrimeric G-proteins, especially Gi/Go family, by means of high-affinity GTPase activity and guanosine 5'-O-(3-[35S]thiotriphosphate) ([35S]GTPgammaS) binding assays in rat brain membranes. The stimulatory effects of GABAB receptor activation were always determined in parallel as a positive control. The selective GABAB receptor agonist (+/-)-baclofen stimulated the high-affinity GTPase activity in cerebral cortical, hippocampal, and striatal membranes, whereas gamma-hydroxybutyric acid was inactive up to 1 mM in these brain regions. The optimum assay conditions for [35S]GTPgammaS binding to detect a receptor-mediated activation of G-proteins at the greatest signal to noise ratio were then probed as to the concentrations of constituents in the assay mixture (GDP, MgCl2, and NaCl) and incubation period. Even under such an optimized experimental condition, [35S]GTPgammaS binding was not altered by gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in the membranes prepared from cerebral cortex or hippocampus. On the other hand, the specific [35S]GTPgammaS binding was increased by GABAB receptor agonists in a concentration-dependent manner, which was competitively inhibited by CGP54626, a selective GABAB receptor antagonist. These results indicate that gamma-hydroxybutyric acid receptors, if any, are not associated with G-proteins, at least Gi/Go family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Odagaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Saitama Medical School, Saitama, Japan.
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Brancucci A, Berretta N, Mercuri NB, Francesconi W. Presynaptic modulation of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29:537-43. [PMID: 14603269 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The regulation of GABA release from the inhibitory input to dopamine cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) plays a key role in different reward-related behaviors. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has therapeutical properties in various psychiatric disorders, especially in alcohol abuse. GHB is also used as a drug of abuse, which induces sedation and euphoria. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we studied the effects of GHB on GABA release in the SNc by recording spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) in brain slices of 21- to 25-day-old rats. We found that GHB depressed the frequency and amplitude of sIPSCs, while the frequency and the amplitude of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs), recorded in the presence of TTX, were not affected. However, in the presence of high extracellular potassium (15 mM), which increases the contribution of voltage-dependent calcium channels, GHB induced a reduction in the frequency of the mIPSCs without any effect on their amplitude. All of these effects were GABA(B)-independent and they were blocked by the GHB receptor antagonist NCS-382. The present results indicate that GHB inhibits spontaneous inhibitory synaptic transmission recorded from dopaminergic neurons in the SNc likely by reducing voltage-dependent calcium influx involved in presynaptic GABA release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Brancucci
- Dipartimento di Fisiologia e Biochimica 'G Moruzzi', Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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Pathway-specific action of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in sensory thalamus and its relevance to absence seizures. J Neurosci 2004. [PMID: 14673012 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-36-11469.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The systemic injection of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) elicits spike and wave discharges (SWDs), the EEG hallmark of absence seizures, and represents a well established, widely used pharmacological model of this nonconvulsive epilepsy. Despite this experimental use of GHB, as well as its therapeutic use in narcolepsy and its increasing abuse, however, the precise cellular mechanisms underlying the different pharmacological actions of this drug are still unclear. Because sensory thalamic nuclei play a key role in the generation of SWDs and sleep rhythms, and because direct injection of GHB in the ventrobasal (VB) thalamus elicits SWDs, we investigated GHB effects on corticothalamic EPSCs and GABAergic IPSCs in VB thalamocortical (TC) neurons. GHB (250 microm-10 mm) reversibly decreased the amplitude of electrically evoked EPSCs and GABAA IPSCs via activation of GABAB receptors; however, approximately 60% of the IPSCs were insensitive to low (250 microm-1.0 mm) GHB concentrations. The putative GHB receptor antagonist NSC 382 applied alone had a number of unspecific effects, whereas it either had no action on, or further increased, the GHB-elicited effects on synaptic currents. Low GHB concentrations (250 microm) were also effective in increasing absence-like intrathalamic oscillations evoked by cortical afferent stimulation. These results indicate that low concentrations of GHB, similar to the brain concentrations that evoke SWDs in vivo, differentially affect excitatory and inhibitory synaptic currents in TC neurons and promote absence-like intrathalamic oscillations. Furthermore, the present data strengthen previous suggestions on the GHB mechanism of sleep promotion and will help focus future studies on the cellular mechanisms underlying its abuse.
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Abstract
There has been increasing attention in the United States to problems of abuse of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), with some evidence for problems in other parts of the world as well. In vitro and animal research show that, while GHB shares some properties with abused central nervous system depressant drugs, it has unique aspects of its pharmacology as well, including actions at a specific neural receptor which probably mediates many of its effects. Abuse potential assessment of GHB using standard animal models has not yielded a picture of a highly abusable substance, but little human testing has yet been done. Very little systematic data exist on tolerance and dependence with GHB, but both have been seen in human users. Quantitative data on the prevalence of GHB abuse is incomplete, but various qualitative measures indicate that a mini-epidemic of abuse began in the late 1980s and continues to the present. GHB is often included with the group of 'club drugs', and can be used as an intoxicant. It also has been used as a growth promoter and sleep aid and has been implicated in cases of 'date rape', usually in combination with alcohol. Undoubtedly the easy availability of GHB and some of its precursors has contributed to its popularity. Recent changes in the control status of GHB in the US may reduce its availability with as yet unknown consequences for the scope of the public health problem. Drug abuse experts need to familiarize themselves with GHB as possibly representing a new type of drug abuse problem with some unique properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Nicholson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.
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McDaniel CH, Miotto KA. Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and gamma butyrolactone (GBL) withdrawal: five case studies. J Psychoactive Drugs 2001; 33:143-9. [PMID: 11476261 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2001.10400479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
There is little medical information available about gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) or gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) dependence or withdrawal. In this study the authors treated and reviewed multiple cases of GHB and GBL withdrawal in high-dose users. Five patients during nine hospitalizations were treated for GHB or GBL withdrawal. The authors describe a spectrum of GHB or GBL withdrawal from mild to severe and discuss medications used for treatment. They conclude that patients with GHB or GBL withdrawal may present with agitated psychosis, delirium, and autonomic instability. In this sample, relapse to GHB or GBL use occurred soon after treatment of withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- C H McDaniel
- ULCA Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, California 90024, USA
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