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Schlüter U, Spinazzè A. Understanding the limitations and application of occupational exposure models in a REACH context. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2023; 20:336-349. [PMID: 37159939 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2023.2208188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Exposure modeling plays a significant role for regulatory organizations, companies, and professionals involved in assessing and managing occupational health risks in workplaces. One context in which occupational exposure models are particularly relevant is the REACH Regulation in the European Union (Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006). This commentary describes the models for the occupational inhalation exposure assessment of chemicals within the REACH framework, their theoretical background, applications, and limitations, as well as the latest developments and priorities for model improvement. Summing up the debate, despite its relevance and importance in the context of REACH not being in question, occupational exposure modeling needs to be improved in many respects. There is a need to reach a wide consensus on several key issues (e.g., the theoretical background and the reliability of modeling tools), to consolidate and monitor model performance and regulatory acceptance, and to align practices and policies regarding exposure modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Schlüter
- Unit "Exposure Assessment", Exposure Science, Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health-BAuA, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andrea Spinazzè
- Department of Science and High Technology, University of Insubria, Como, Italy
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2
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Stanton ML, McClelland TL, Beaty M, Ranpara A, Martin SB. Case Study: Efficacy of Engineering Controls in Mitigating Diacetyl and 2,3-Pentanedione Emissions During Coffee Grinding. Front Public Health 2022; 10:750289. [PMID: 35664098 PMCID: PMC9159804 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.750289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to elevated levels of diacetyl in flavoring and microwave popcorn production has been associated with respiratory impairment among workers including from a severe lung disease known as obliterative bronchiolitis. Laboratory studies demonstrate damage to the respiratory tract in rodents exposed to either diacetyl or the related alpha-diketone 2,3-pentanedione. Respiratory tract damage includes the development of obliterative bronchiolitis-like changes in the lungs of rats repeatedly inhaling either diacetyl or 2,3-pentanedione. In one flavored coffee processing facility, current workers who spent time in higher diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione areas had lower lung function values, while five former flavoring room workers were diagnosed with obliterative bronchiolitis. In that and other coffee roasting and packaging facilities, grinding roasted coffee beans has been identified as contributing to elevated levels of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione. To reduce worker exposures, employers can take various actions to control exposures according to the hierarchy of controls. Because elimination or substitution is not applicable to coffee production facilities not using flavorings, use of engineering controls to control exposures at their source is especially important. This work demonstrates the use of temporary ventilated enclosures around grinding equipment in a single coffee roasting and packaging facility to mitigate diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione emissions from grinding equipment to the main production space. Concentrations of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione were measured in various locations throughout the main production space as well as inside and outside of ventilated enclosures to evaluate the effect of the enclosures on exposures. Diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione concentrations outside one grinder enclosure decreased by 95 and 92%, respectively, despite ground coffee production increasing by 12%, after the enclosure was installed. Outside a second enclosure, diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione concentrations both decreased 84%, greater than the 33% decrease in ground coffee production after installation. Temporary ventilated enclosures used as engineering control measures in this study effectively reduced emissions of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione at the source in this facility. These findings motivated management to explore options with a grinding equipment manufacturer to permanently ventilate their grinders to reduce emissions of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia L Stanton
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Tia L McClelland
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Michael Beaty
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Anand Ranpara
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Stephen B Martin
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, United States
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Ribalta C, López-Lilao A, Fonseca AS, Jensen ACØ, Jensen KA, Monfort E, Viana M. Evaluation of One- and Two-Box Models as Particle Exposure Prediction Tools at Industrial Scale. TOXICS 2021; 9:201. [PMID: 34564352 PMCID: PMC8471509 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9090201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
One- and two-box models have been pointed out as useful tools for modelling indoor particle exposure. However, model performance still needs further testing if they are to be implemented as trustworthy tools for exposure assessment. The objective of this work is to evaluate the performance, applicability and reproducibility of one- and two-box models on real-world industrial scenarios. A study on filling of seven materials in three filling lines with different levels of energy and mitigation strategies was used. Inhalable and respirable mass concentrations were calculated with one- and two-box models. The continuous drop and rotating drum methods were used for emission rate calculation, and ranges from a one-at-a-time methodology were applied for local exhaust ventilation efficiency and inter-zonal air flows. When using both dustiness methods, large differences were observed for modelled inhalable concentrations but not for respirable, which showed the importance to study the linkage between dustiness and processes. Higher model accuracy (ratio modelled vs. measured concentrations 0.5-5) was obtained for the two- (87%) than the one-box model (53%). Large effects on modelled concentrations were seen when local exhausts ventilation and inter-zonal variations where parametrized in the models. However, a certain degree of variation (10-20%) seems acceptable, as similar conclusions are reached.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Ribalta
- The National Research Center for Work Environment (NRCWE), DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.S.F.); (A.C.Ø.J.); (K.A.J.)
| | - Ana López-Lilao
- Institute of Ceramic Technology (ITC)-AICE, Campus Universitario Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12006 Castellón, Spain; (A.L.-L.); (E.M.)
| | - Ana Sofia Fonseca
- The National Research Center for Work Environment (NRCWE), DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.S.F.); (A.C.Ø.J.); (K.A.J.)
| | | | - Keld Alstrup Jensen
- The National Research Center for Work Environment (NRCWE), DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.S.F.); (A.C.Ø.J.); (K.A.J.)
| | - Eliseo Monfort
- Institute of Ceramic Technology (ITC)-AICE, Campus Universitario Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, 12006 Castellón, Spain; (A.L.-L.); (E.M.)
| | - Mar Viana
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
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Furxhi I, Koivisto AJ, Murphy F, Trabucco S, Del Secco B, Arvanitis A. Data Shepherding in Nanotechnology. The Exposure Field Campaign Template. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:1818. [PMID: 34361203 PMCID: PMC8308211 DOI: 10.3390/nano11071818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate the realization process of a pragmatic approach on developing a template for capturing field monitoring data in nanomanufacturing processes. The template serves the fundamental principles which make data scientifically Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR principles), as well as encouraging individuals to reuse it. In our case, the data shepherds' (the guider of data) template creation workflow consists of the following steps: (1) Identify relevant stakeholders, (2) Distribute questionnaires to capture a general description of the data to be generated, (3) Understand the needs and requirements of each stakeholder, (4) Interactive simple communication with the stakeholders for variables/descriptors selection, and (5) Design of the template and annotation of descriptors. We provide an annotated template for capturing exposure field campaign monitoring data, and increase their interoperability, while comparing it with existing templates. This paper enables the data creators of exposure field campaign data to store data in a FAIR way and helps the scientific community, such as data shepherds, by avoiding extensive steps for template creation and by utilizing the pragmatic structure and/or the template proposed herein, in the case of a nanotechnology project (Anticipating Safety Issues at the Design of Nano Product Development, ASINA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Irini Furxhi
- Transgero Limited, Cullinagh, Newcastle West, V42V384 Limerick, Ireland;
- Department of Accounting and Finance, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Antti Joonas Koivisto
- Air Pollution Management, Willemoesgade 16, st tv, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
- ARCHE Consulting, Liefkensstraat 35D, B-9032 Wondelgem, Belgium
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, PL 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Finbarr Murphy
- Transgero Limited, Cullinagh, Newcastle West, V42V384 Limerick, Ireland;
- Department of Accounting and Finance, Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick, V94T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Sara Trabucco
- Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC) Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy; (S.T.); (B.D.S.)
| | - Benedetta Del Secco
- Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (CNR-ISAC) Via Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy; (S.T.); (B.D.S.)
| | - Athanasios Arvanitis
- Environmental Informatics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
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Viitanen AK, Kallonen K, Kukko K, Kanerva T, Saukko E, Hussein T, Hämeri K, Säämänen A. Technical control of nanoparticle emissions from desktop 3D printing. INDOOR AIR 2021; 31:1061-1071. [PMID: 33647162 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Material extrusion (ME) desktop 3D printing is known to strongly emit nanoparticles (NP), and the need for risk management has been recognized widely. Four different engineering control measures were studied in real-life office conditions by means of online NP measurements and indoor aerosol modeling. The studied engineering control measures were general ventilation, local exhaust ventilation (LEV), retrofitted enclosure, and retrofitted enclosure with LEV. Efficiency between different control measures was compared based on particle number and surface area (SA) concentrations from which SA concentration was found to be more reliable. The study found out that for regular or long-time use of ME desktop 3D printers, the general ventilation is not sufficient control measure for NP emissions. Also, the LEV with canopy hood attached above the 3D printer did not control the emission remarkably and successful position of the hood in relation to the nozzle was found challenging. Retrofitted enclosure attached to the LEV reduced the NP emissions 96% based on SA concentration. Retrofitted enclosure is nearly as efficient as enclosure attached to the LEV (reduction of 89% based on SA concentration) but may be considered more practical solution than enclosure with LEV.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimmo Kallonen
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Helsinki Institute of Physics (HIP), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kirsi Kukko
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Tomi Kanerva
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Tareq Hussein
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Physics, School of Science, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Kaarle Hämeri
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Arto Säämänen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
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Urbanus J, Henschel O, Li Q, Marsh D, Money C, Noij D, van de Sandt P, van Rooij J, Wormuth M. The ECETOC-Targeted Risk Assessment Tool for Worker Exposure Estimation in REACH Registration Dossiers of Chemical Substances-Current Developments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17228443. [PMID: 33202685 PMCID: PMC7697447 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17228443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: The ECETOC Targeted Risk Assessment (TRA) tool is widely used for estimation of worker exposure levels in the development of dossiers for REACH registration of manufactured or imported chemical substances in Europe. A number of studies have been published since 2010 in which the exposure estimates of the tool are compared with workplace exposure measurement results and in some instances an underestimation of exposure was reported. The quality and results of these studies are being reviewed by ECETOC. (2) Methods: Original exposure measurement data from published comparison studies for which six or more data points were available for each workplace scenario and a TRA estimate had been developed to create a curated database to examine under what conditions and for which applications the tool is valid or may need adaptation. (3) Results: The published studies have been reviewed for completeness and clarity and TRA estimates have been constructed based on the available information, following a set of rules. The full review findings are expected to be available in the course of 2021. (4) Conclusions: The ECETOC TRA tool developers periodically review the validity and limitations of their tool, in line with international recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Urbanus
- Shell Health Risk Science Team, Belgian Shell N.V., B-1000 Brussels, Belgium
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32-497-515446
| | - Oliver Henschel
- Corporate Health Management, BASF SE, 67056 Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany;
| | - Qiang Li
- Clariant Produkte (Deutschland) GmbH, 65843 Sulzbach am Taunus, Germany;
| | - Dave Marsh
- ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences Inc, ExxonMobil, Leatherhead KT22 8UX, UK;
| | - Chris Money
- Cynara Consulting, Brockenhurst SO42 7RX, UK;
| | - Dook Noij
- In Personal Capacity, Formerly Dow Global Industrial Hygiene Expertise Centre, 4531 EB Terneuzen, The Netherlands;
| | - Paul van de Sandt
- Shell Health Risk Science Team, Shell International B.V., 2596 HR The Hague, The Netherlands;
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Ohlander J, Kromhout H, van Tongeren M. Interventions to Reduce Exposures in the Workplace: A Systematic Review of Intervention Studies Over Six Decades, 1960-2019. Front Public Health 2020; 8:67. [PMID: 32211368 PMCID: PMC7075246 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Reducing occupational ill-health from chemical and biological agents is realized primarily through the mitigation and elimination of hazardous exposures. Despite evidence of declining exposure in European and North-American workplaces, comprehensive studies of the effectiveness of workplace interventions for reducing hazardous exposure and associated work-related ill-health seem rare. We reviewed occupational intervention studies targeting exposure to chemical and biological agents, and determined trends in frequency and quality of such studies. Methods: We searched Embase, Medline, and Web of Science for peer-reviewed original articles on occupational intervention studies published 1960-2019, aimed at reducing workers' exposure to dusts, gases, fumes, or liquids of chemical, biological, or mineral nature, or workers' risks for associated health outcomes. The frequency of articles, intervention types, intervention endpoints, and study quality of published intervention studies between 1960 and 2019 and according to 10-year intervals were analyzed. Results: Of 3,663 retrieved articles, 146 intervention studies were identified and reviewed, of which 63 concerned control measures, 43 behavioral change, 28 use of personal protective equipment, and 12 workplace policies. Intervention endpoints were occupational exposures (73%), health outcomes (22%), and a combination of both (5%). Of reviewed studies, 38% involved a control group, 16% randomized the intervention, 86% were planned interventions, and 86% compared exposure or health outcomes pre and post intervention. Over time the number of intervention studies identified in this search increased from none during 1960-1969 to ~60 during 2000-2009 and 2010-2019, respectively. The study quality improved over time, with no studies during 1960-1989 that complied with the highest quality criteria. During 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 16 and 12% of studies, respectively, were judged to be of highest quality. Conclusion: Despite an improvement over the last six decades in the frequency and quality of intervention studies targeting exposure to chemicals and biological agents, the absolute number of intervention studies remains low, particularly when considering only high quality studies. Occupational exposure to chemical and biological agents is still causing excessive disease in workforces worldwide. To reduce occupational ill-health caused by these exposures, it is important to expand the evidence on (cost-)effectiveness and transferability of interventions to reduce exposure and health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Ohlander
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Hans Kromhout
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Martie van Tongeren
- Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Fonseca AS, Kuijpers E, Kling KI, Levin M, Koivisto AJ, Nielsen SH, Fransman W, Fedutik Y, Jensen KA, Koponen IK. Particle release and control of worker exposure during laboratory-scale synthesis, handling and simulated spills of manufactured nanomaterials in fume hoods. JOURNAL OF NANOPARTICLE RESEARCH : AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FORUM FOR NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2018; 20:48. [PMID: 29497347 PMCID: PMC5820406 DOI: 10.1007/s11051-018-4136-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Fume hoods are one of the most common types of equipment applied to reduce the potential of particle exposure in laboratory environments. A number of previous studies have shown particle release during work with nanomaterials under fume hoods. Here, we assessed laboratory workers' inhalation exposure during synthesis and handling of CuO, TiO2 and ZnO in a fume hood. In addition, we tested the capacity of a fume hood to prevent particle release to laboratory air during simulated spillage of different powders (silica fume, zirconia TZ-3Y and TiO2). Airborne particle concentrations were measured in near field, far field, and in the breathing zone of the worker. Handling CuO nanoparticles increased the concentration of small particles (< 58 nm) inside the fume hood (up to 1 × 105 cm-3). Synthesis, handling and packaging of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles did not result in detectable particle release to the laboratory air. Simulated powder spills showed a systematic increase in the particle concentrations inside the fume hood with increasing amount of material and drop height. Despite powder spills were sometimes observed to eject into the laboratory room, the spill events were rarely associated with notable release of particles from the fume hood. Overall, this study shows that a fume hood generally offers sufficient exposure control during synthesis and handling of nanomaterials. An appropriate fume hood with adequate sash height and face velocity prevents 98.3% of particles release into the surrounding environment. Care should still be made to consider spills and high cleanliness to prevent exposure via resuspension and inadvertent exposure by secondary routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana S. Fonseca
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Eelco Kuijpers
- TNO, Risk Analysis for Products in Development, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Kirsten I. Kling
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marcus Levin
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Antti J. Koivisto
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Signe H. Nielsen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - W. Fransman
- TNO, Risk Analysis for Products in Development, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Yijri Fedutik
- PlasmaChem GmbH, Schwarzschildstr 10, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Keld A. Jensen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ismo K. Koponen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment (NRCWE), Lerso Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Bluemlein K, Elend M, Meijster T, Margary A, Tibaldi R, Hahn S, Hesse S. Solvent Transfer-Efficiency of Risk Management Measures. Ann Work Expo Health 2017; 62:112-123. [PMID: 29165553 PMCID: PMC6788583 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxx090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of laboratory simulations were conducted in order to determine the airborne protection that might be afforded by different combinations of workplace exposure controls typically encountered when handling volatile solvents (e.g. solvent transfer). These conditions, referred to as risk management measures (RMMs) under the Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals Regulation (REACH), are typically described using standard phrases in safety data sheets [and specifically those of the European Phrase Catalogue (EUPhraC)]. Ethanol was used as a model compound and its emissions were monitored continuously with a portable IR spectrometer at 3000 cm−1. The average emission reduction performance of the investigated RMMs (e.g. containment, extract ventilation, drum pump) exceeded 90%. They present suitable ways to reduce airborne solvent exposure in a workplace and confirmed the initial expectations derived at by the European Solvents Industry Group (ESIG) and the European Centre For Ecotoxicology and toxicology of Chemicals (ECETOC) Targeted Risk Assessment (TRA) model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Manfred Elend
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Germany
| | - Tim Meijster
- Shell Health, Shell International B.V., Risk Science Team, The Netherlands
| | - Alison Margary
- Shell Health, Shell International Ltd, Risk Science Team, UK
| | | | - Stefan Hahn
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Germany
| | - Susanne Hesse
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Germany
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Ganser GH, Hewett P. Models for nearly every occasion: Part II - Two box models. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2017; 14:58-71. [PMID: 27869550 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2016.1213393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The "well-mixed room" two box models are often used to predict near and far field concentrations for a specific task, but are limited to scenarios where local exhaust controls are not used. In Part II of this series, new two box models are presented that permit local controls that either exhaust to the outside or return filtered air to the workspace. Additional models are presented that also allow for the recirculation of a filtered portion of the general ventilation flowrate. During the concentration increase phase the emission rate is assumed to be relatively constant. Both steady state and transient equations were developed for each scenario. An additional factor, representing the fraction of time that the substance is being emitted during a task or set of tasks, was added to the standard and new steady state models. This simple modification permits the easy calculation of the average near and far field concentrations for cyclic and irregular emission patterns, provided the starting and ending concentrations are identical (e.g., zero or near zero) or the cumulative task time is long (e.g., two or more task cycles to a full shift, depending upon the number of room air changes per task). Additional variables are introduced with the new models, such as the efficiency of a local control to immediately capture freshly generated contaminant and the filtration efficiency whenever filtered exhaust is returned to the workspace. Many of the model variables are knowable (e.g., room volume and ventilation rate). Others can be approximated using manufacturer specifications or published values (e.g., filtration efficiency). A structured procedure for calibrating a model to a work scenario is presented that can be applied to both continuous and cyclic processes. The "calibration" procedure generates estimates of all of the unknown model variables, including the generation rate and the effective near field flowrate (which takes into account potentially complex near field air currents as well as any thermal plumes created by a hot process).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary H Ganser
- a Department of Mathematics , West Virginia University , Morgantown , West Virginia
| | - Paul Hewett
- b Exposure Assessment Solutions, Inc. , Morgantown , West Virginia
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11
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Kromhout H. Hygiene Without Numbers. ANNALS OF OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE 2016; 60:403-4. [PMID: 26759168 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mev096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hans Kromhout
- Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
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12
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van Deurssen E, Meijster T, Oude Hengel KM, Boessen R, Spaan S, Tielemans E, Heederik D, Pronk A. Effectiveness of a Multidimensional Randomized Control Intervention to Reduce Quartz Exposure Among Construction Workers. ANNALS OF OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE 2015; 59:959-71. [DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mev037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Radnoff D, Todor MS, Beach J. Exposure to crystalline silica at Alberta work sites: review of controls. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2015; 12:393-403. [PMID: 25625185 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2015.1009987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
From 2009 to 2013, Alberta Jobs, Skills, Training, and Labour (JSTL) conducted a project to evaluate exposure to crystalline silica and assess controls to protect workers. Information on exposure results has been previously reported; this article discusses the data collected on workplace controls. Information on work site controls was collected during exposure assessments consisting of qualitative information on controls in place and used by workers at the time of the assessments. Where there was sufficient data, the information was further analyzed to evaluate the impact of a particular control. While many types of controls were observed, they were not always effective or in use. The control available most often was respiratory protective equipment (RPE). Generally, when respirators were used, they were correctly selected for the level of measured exposure. However, not all workers who were potentially overexposed wore respirators at the time of the assessments. When the use of respirators was taken into account, about one-third of workers were still potentially exposed over the Alberta occupational exposure limit. The industries with the highest levels of exposure tended to be those with the most unprotected workers. Issues were identified with the use of improper work practices such as dry cleaning methods, lack of documented work procedures, poor housekeeping, and lack of training which may have contributed to worker exposure levels. There is a wide range in the efficacy of controls, particularly engineering controls. Most of the literature focuses on engineering controls; however administrative controls also play a role in reducing worker exposure. Data collected in this work indicated that simple changes to work procedures and behavior (such as improved housekeeping) may be effective, low-cost ways to reduce workplace exposure. More study is required to evaluate the impact and efficacy of administrative controls such as housekeeping and training. Employers must select and evaluate controls in the context of overall workplace health and safety programs and ensure that they are supported by supervision, good work practices. and training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Radnoff
- a Safe, Fair and Healthy Workplaces, Alberta Jobs, Skills, Training and Labour , Edmonton , Alberta , Canada
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Golsteijn L, Huizer D, Hauck M, van Zelm R, Huijbregts MAJ. Including exposure variability in the life cycle impact assessment of indoor chemical emissions: the case of metal degreasing. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2014; 71:36-45. [PMID: 24972247 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The present paper describes a method that accounts for variation in indoor chemical exposure settings and accompanying human toxicity in life cycle assessment (LCA). Metal degreasing with dichloromethane was used as a case study to show method in practice. We compared the human toxicity related to the degreasing of 1m(2) of metal surface in different exposure scenarios for industrial workers, professional users outside industrial settings, and home consumers. The fraction of the chemical emission that is taken in by exposed individuals (i.e. the intake fraction) was estimated on the basis of operational conditions (e.g. exposure duration), and protective measures (e.g. local exhaust ventilation). The introduction of a time-dependency and a correction for protective measures resulted in reductions in the intake fraction of up to 1.5 orders of magnitude, compared to application of existing, less advanced models. In every exposure scenario, the life cycle impacts for human toxicity were mainly caused by indoor exposure to metal degreaser (>60%). Emissions released outdoors contributed up to 22% of the life cycle impacts for human toxicity, and the production of metal degreaser contributed up to 19%. These findings illustrate that human toxicity from indoor chemical exposure should not be disregarded in LCA case studies. Particularly when protective measures are taken or in the case of a short duration (1h or less), we recommend the use of our exposure scenario-specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Golsteijn
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Daan Huizer
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Caesar Consult Nijmegen, PO Box 31070, 6503 CB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Mara Hauck
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rosalie van Zelm
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Mark A J Huijbregts
- Radboud University Nijmegen, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Oude Hengel KM, van Deurssen E, Meijster T, Tielemans E, Heederik D, Pronk A. 'Relieved Working' study: systematic development and design of an intervention to decrease occupational quartz exposure at construction worksites. BMC Public Health 2014; 14:760. [PMID: 25069393 PMCID: PMC4133610 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Occupational quartz exposure continues to be a serious hazard in the construction industry. Until now, evidence-based interventions aimed at reducing quartz exposure are scarce. The aim of this study was to systematically develop an intervention and to describe the study to evaluate its effectiveness. Methods/Design The intervention was developed according to the principles of the Intervention Mapping protocol, meaning that evidence from the literature was combined with information collected from stakeholders (e.g., construction workers, managers and researchers). The intervention aimed to integrate technical, behavioural and organizational factors. The intervention consists of two plenary meetings for all employers within the company, and individual visits at construction worksites, including specific intervention materials. Additionally, a demonstration session regarding control measures was organized for all managers. The effectiveness of the intervention will be evaluated in a cluster randomized controlled trial among eight construction companies, with measurements at baseline and follow-up. Outcome measures are personal respirable dust and quartz exposure by means of exposure assessment, and behavioural and organizational determinants which will be assessed by means of questionnaires. Additionally, a process evaluation will shed light on whether the intervention (does not) works, and, if so, the reasons for this. Discussion Applying Intervention Mapping in the development of an intervention to reduce occupational quartz exposure was useful, as different stakeholders provided input for the intervention as well as the implementation strategy. Therefore, the feasibility of the intervention has been enhanced, as it appeals to construction workers and managers and will not unduly interfere with the ongoing construction work. Trial registration number NTR4586 (May 7th 2014).
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Oude Hengel
- Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research TNO, P,O, Box 718, 2130 AS Hoofddorp, The Netherlands.
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Quartz and Respirable Dust in the Dutch Construction Industry: A Baseline Exposure Assessment as Part of a Multidimensional Intervention Approach. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 58:724-38. [DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meu021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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McNally K, Warren N, Fransman W, Entink RK, Schinkel J, van Tongeren M, Cherrie JW, Kromhout H, Schneider T, Tielemans E. Advanced REACH Tool: a Bayesian model for occupational exposure assessment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 58:551-65. [PMID: 24665110 PMCID: PMC4053932 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/meu017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a Bayesian model for the assessment of inhalation exposures in an occupational setting; the methodology underpins a freely available web-based application for exposure assessment, the Advanced REACH Tool (ART). The ART is a higher tier exposure tool that combines disparate sources of information within a Bayesian statistical framework. The information is obtained from expert knowledge expressed in a calibrated mechanistic model of exposure assessment, data on inter- and intra-individual variability in exposures from the literature, and context-specific exposure measurements. The ART provides central estimates and credible intervals for different percentiles of the exposure distribution, for full-shift and long-term average exposures. The ART can produce exposure estimates in the absence of measurements, but the precision of the estimates improves as more data become available. The methodology presented in this paper is able to utilize partially analogous data, a novel approach designed to make efficient use of a sparsely populated measurement database although some additional research is still required before practical implementation. The methodology is demonstrated using two worked examples: an exposure to copper pyrithione in the spraying of antifouling paints and an exposure to ethyl acetate in shoe repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin McNally
- 1.Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL), Harpur Hill, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 9JN, UK
| | - Nicholas Warren
- 1.Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL), Harpur Hill, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 9JN, UK
| | | | | | | | - Martie van Tongeren
- 3.Center for Human Exposure Science, Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Research Avenue North, Riccarton, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - John W Cherrie
- 3.Center for Human Exposure Science, Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Research Avenue North, Riccarton, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Hans Kromhout
- 4.Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Environmental Epidemiology Division, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Schneider
- 5.National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
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Verbeek J, Ivanov I. Essential Occupational Safety and Health Interventions for Low- and Middle-income Countries: An Overview of the Evidence. Saf Health Work 2013; 4:77-83. [PMID: 23961329 PMCID: PMC3732143 DOI: 10.1016/j.shaw.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is still a considerable burden of occupational diseases and injuries in the world. It is not well known which interventions can effectively reduce the exposures at work that cause this burden. The objective of this article is to summarize evidence from systematic reviews of interventions to prevent occupational diseases and injuries. We included systematic reviews of interventions to reduce the incidence of work-related cancer, dust-related diseases, occupational asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, noiseinduced hearing loss, back pain, and occupational injuries. We searched Medline and Embase with predefined search strategies to locate systematic reviews of these interventions. We found 23 systematic reviews of which the results are also applicable to low- and middle income countries. Effective measures to reduce exposure leading to work-related cancer, dust-related diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, noise, and injuries are available. However, better implementation of these measures is needed. Regulation, enforcement of regulation, and incentives for employers are effective interventions to achieve this goal. There is evidence that feedback and rewards for workers help in reducing occupational injuries. There is no evidence in many studies that back pain can be prevented. Personal protective equipment technically has the potential to reduce exposure but this is difficult to put into effect. There is no evidence in the studies regarding the effectiveness of education and training, preventive drugs, or health examinations. There is evidence that the implementation of technical measures enforced by regulation can prevent occupational diseases and injuries. For other interventions such as education or health examinations, there is no evidence that supports their effectiveness. More systematic reviews are needed in the area of injury prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jos Verbeek
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Cochrane Occupational Safety and Health Review Group, Kuopio, Finland
- Corresponding author. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Cochrane Occupational Safety and Health Review Group, PO Box 310, 70101 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Ivan Ivanov
- Interventions for Healthy Environments, Department of Public Health and Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
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Van Duuren-Stuurman B, Vink SR, Verbist KJM, Heussen HGA, Brouwer DH, Kroese DED, Van Niftrik MFJ, Tielemans E, Fransman W. Stoffenmanager Nano version 1.0: a web-based tool for risk prioritization of airborne manufactured nano objects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 56:525-41. [PMID: 22267129 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Stoffenmanager Nano (version 1.0) is a risk-banding tool developed for employers and employees to prioritize health risks occurring as a result of exposure to manufactured nano objects (MNOs) for a broad range of worker scenarios and to assist implementation of control measures to reduce exposure levels. In order to prioritize the health risks, the Stoffenmanager Nano combines the available hazard information of a substance with a qualitative estimate of potential for inhalation exposure. The development of the Stoffenmanager Nano started with a review of the available literature on control banding. Input parameters for the hazard assessment of MNOs were selected based on the availability of these parameters in, for instance, Safety Data Sheets or product information sheets. The conceptual exposure model described by Schneider et al. (2011) was used as the starting point for exposure banding. During the development of the Stoffenmanager Nano tool, the precautionary principle was applied to deal with the uncertainty regarding hazard and exposure assessment of MNOs. Subsequently, the model was converted into an online tool (http://nano.stoffenmanager.nl), tested, and reviewed by a number of companies. In this paper, we describe the Stoffenmanager Nano. This tool offers a practical approach for risk prioritization in exposure situations where quantitative risk assessment is currently not possible. Updates of this first version are anticipated as more data become available in the future.
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Koppisch D, Schinkel J, Gabriel S, Fransman W, Tielemans E. Use of the MEGA exposure database for the validation of the Stoffenmanager model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 56:426-39. [PMID: 22064766 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This paper explores the usefulness of the exposure database MEGA for model validation and evaluates the capability of two Stoffenmanager model equations (i.e. handling of powders/granules and machining) to estimate workers exposure to inhalable dust. METHODS For the task groups, 'handling of powders and granules' (handling) and 'machining of wood and stone' (machining) measurements were selected from MEGA and grouped in scenarios depending on task, product, and control measures. The predictive capability of the model was tested by calculating the relative bias of the single measurements and the correlation between geometric means (GMs) for scenarios. The conservatism of the model was evaluated by checking if the percentage of measurement values above the 90th percentile estimate was ≤10%. RESULTS From 22 596 personal measurements on inhalable dust within MEGA, 390 could be selected for handling and 1133 for machining. The relative bias for the task groups was -25 and 68%, respectively, the percentage of measurements with a higher result than the estimated 90th percentile 11 and 7%. Correlations on a scenario level were good for both model equations as well for the GM (handling: r(s) = 0.90, n = 15 scenarios; machining: r(s) = 0.84, n = 22 scenarios) as for the 90th percentile (handling: r(s) = 0.79; machining: r(s) = 0.76). CONCLUSIONS The MEGA database could be used for model validation, although the presented analyses have learned that improvements in the database are necessary for modelling purposes in the future. For a substantial amount of data, contextual information on exposure determinants in addition to basic core information is stored in this database. The relative low bias, the good correlation, and the level of conservatism of the tested model show that the Stoffenmanager can be regarded as a useful Tier 1 model for the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals legislation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Koppisch
- Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA), Sankt Augustin, Germany.
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Advanced REACH Tool (ART): Overview of Version 1.0 and Research Needs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 55:949-56. [DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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van Tongeren M, Fransman W, Spankie S, Tischer M, Brouwer D, Schinkel J, Cherrie JW, Tielemans E. Advanced REACH Tool: Development and Application of the Substance Emission Potential Modifying Factor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 55:980-8. [DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martie van Tongeren
- Institute of Occupational Medicine, Research Avenue North, Riccarton, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK. martie.van.tongeren@
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Fransman W, Van Tongeren M, Cherrie JW, Tischer M, Schneider T, Schinkel J, Kromhout H, Warren N, Goede H, Tielemans E. Advanced Reach Tool (ART): development of the mechanistic model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 55:957-79. [PMID: 22003239 DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mer083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes the development of the mechanistic model within a collaborative project, referred to as the Advanced REACH Tool (ART) project, to develop a tool to model inhalation exposure for workers sharing similar operational conditions across different industries and locations in Europe. The ART mechanistic model is based on a conceptual framework that adopts a source receptor approach, which describes the transport of a contaminant from the source to the receptor and defines seven independent principal modifying factors: substance emission potential, activity emission potential, localized controls, segregation, personal enclosure, surface contamination, and dispersion. ART currently differentiates between three different exposure types: vapours, mists, and dust (fumes, fibres, and gases are presently excluded). Various sources were used to assign numerical values to the multipliers to each modifying factor. The evidence used to underpin this assessment procedure was based on chemical and physical laws. In addition, empirical data obtained from literature were used. Where this was not possible, expert elicitation was applied for the assessment procedure. Multipliers for all modifying factors were peer reviewed by leading experts from industry, research institutes, and public authorities across the globe. In addition, several workshops with experts were organized to discuss the proposed exposure multipliers. The mechanistic model is a central part of the ART tool and with advancing knowledge on exposure, determinants will require updates and refinements on a continuous basis, such as the effect of worker behaviour on personal exposure, 'best practice' values that describe the maximum achievable effectiveness of control measures, the intrinsic emission potential of various solid objects (e.g. metal, glass, plastics, etc.), and extending the applicability domain to certain types of exposures (e.g. gas, fume, and fibre exposure).
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McDonnell PE, Cherrie JW, Sleeuwenhoek A, Gilles A, Coggins MA. Refinement and validation of an exposure model for the pharmaceutical industry. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING : JEM 2011; 13:641-648. [PMID: 21264393 DOI: 10.1039/c0em00523a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Assessment of worker's exposure is becoming increasingly critical in the pharmaceutical industry as drugs of higher potency are being manufactured. The batch nature of operations often makes it difficult to obtain sufficient numbers of exposure measurements and occupational exposure models may be useful tools in the exposure assessment process. This paper aims to describe further refinement and validation of an existing deterministic occupational exposure model to predict airborne exposure of workers in this industry. METHODS Workplace exposure assessment data (n = 381) containing all the contextual information required for the exposure model were collated from a multinational pharmaceutical company. The measured exposure levels ranged from 5 × 10⁻⁷ to 200 mg m⁻³ for largely task based samples, and included a range of handling activities, local control measures and abnormal operating conditions. Model input parameters for local control measures and handling activities were refined to reflect pharmaceutical situations. RESULTS The refined exposure model resulted in good correlations between the log-transformed model predictions and the actual measured data for the overall dataset (r(s) = 0.61, n = 381, p < 0.001) and at scenario level (r(s) = 0.69, n = 48, p < 0.001). The model overestimated scenarios with measured exposure levels < 0.1 mg m⁻³ (r(s) = 0.69, bias = 0.71, n = 46, p < 0.001), and underestimated scenarios with higher measured concentrations ( > 0.1 mg m⁻³) (r(s) = 0.59, bias = -4.9, n = 33, p < 0.001). Including information on the refined sub-parameters improved the correlations, suggesting the uncertainty in the model parameters was partly responsible for the bias. CONCLUSION Further scientific data from the pharmaceutical industry on model input parameters, particularly on the efficacy of local control measures, may help improve the accuracy of the model predictions. The refined exposure model appears to be a useful exposure assessment screening tool for the pharmaceutical industry.
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