Individual Variability in Functional Organization of the Human and Monkey Auditory Cortex

Functional connectivity of the auditory cortex in women with trauma-related disorders who hear voices

BACKGROUND

'Voice-hearing' (VH) is a transdiagnostic experience that is common in trauma-related disorders (trauma-D). However, the neural substrates underlying trauma-related VH remain largely unexplored. While auditory perceptual dysfunction is among the abnormalities implicated in schizophrenia VH, whether VH in trauma-D also involves auditory perceptual alterations is unknown.

METHODS

We investigated auditory cortex (AC)-related functional connectivity (FC) in n=65 women with trauma-D related to childhood abuse with varying severities of VH. Using a novel, computationally-driven and individual-specific method of functionally parcellating the brain, we calculated the FC of two distinct AC subregions-Heschl's gyrus (HG, corresponding to primary AC) and lateral superior temporal gyrus (lSTG, in non-primary AC)- with both the cerebrum and cerebellum. We then measured the association between VH severity and FC using leave-one-out cross validation within the cerebrum, and voxel-wise multiple regression analyses in the cerebellum.

RESULTS

We found that VH severity positively correlated with left lSTG-frontoparietal network FC, while it negatively correlated with FC between left lSTG and both cerebral and cerebellar representations of the default mode network. VH severity was not predicted by FC of left HG or right AC subregions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings point to altered interactions between auditory perceptual processing and higher-level processes related to self-reference and executive functioning. This is the first study to show alterations in auditory cortical connectivity in trauma-related VH. While VH in trauma-D appears to be mediated by brain networks that are also implicated in schizophrenia VH, the results suggest a unique mechanism that could distinguish VH in trauma-D.

Personalised functional imaging-guided multitarget continuous theta burst stimulation for post-stroke aphasia: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS), a form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), targeting the language network in the right hemisphere of post-stroke aphasia (PSA) patients shows promising results in clinical trials. However, existing PSA studies have focused on single-target rTMS, leaving unexplored the potential benefits of multitarget brain stimulation. Consequently, there is a need for a randomised clinical trial aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of cTBS targeting on multiple critical nodes in the language network for PSA.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This is a prospective, multicentre, double-blind, two-arm parallel-group, sham-controlled randomised trial. The study will include a total of 60 participants who will be randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the active cTBS group or the sham cTBS group. Using precision resting-state functional MRI for each participant, we will map personalised language networks and design personalised targets in the inferior frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus and superior frontal gyrus. Participants will undergo a 3-week cTBS intervention targeting the three personalised targets, coupled with speech and language therapy. The primary outcome is the change in the Western Aphasia Battery-Revised aphasia quotient score among participants after a 3-week treatment. Secondary outcomes include Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination severity ratings, Token Test and the Chinese-version of the Stroke and Aphasia Quality of Life Scale 39-generic version.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study has been approved by the ethics committees of Affiliated Hospital of Hebei University, Hebei General Hospital and Affiliated Hospital of Chengde Medical University. The findings of this study will be reported in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The study has been registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05957445).

Individual connectivity-based parcellations reflect functional properties of human auditory cortex

Neuroimaging studies of the functional organization of human auditory cortex have focused on group-level analyses to identify tendencies that represent the typical brain. Here, we mapped auditory areas of the human superior temporal cortex (STC) in 30 participants by combining functional network analysis and 1-mm isotropic resolution 7T functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Two resting-state fMRI sessions, and one or two auditory and audiovisual speech localizer sessions, were collected on 3-4 separate days. We generated a set of functional network-based parcellations from these data. Solutions with 4, 6, and 11 networks were selected for closer examination based on local maxima of Dice and Silhouette values. The resulting parcellation of auditory cortices showed high intraindividual reproducibility both between resting state sessions (Dice coefficient: 69-78%) and between resting state and task sessions (Dice coefficient: 62-73%). This demonstrates that auditory areas in STC can be reliably segmented into functional subareas. The interindividual variability was significantly larger than intraindividual variability (Dice coefficient: 57%-68%, p<0.001), indicating that the parcellations also captured meaningful interindividual variability. The individual-specific parcellations yielded the highest alignment with task response topographies, suggesting that individual variability in parcellations reflects individual variability in auditory function. Connectional homogeneity within networks was also highest for the individual-specific parcellations. Furthermore, the similarity in the functional parcellations was not explainable by the similarity of macroanatomical properties of auditory cortex. Our findings suggest that individual-level parcellations capture meaningful idiosyncrasies in auditory cortex organization.

Verbal memory network mapping in individual patients predicts postoperative functional impairments

Verbal memory decline is a significant concern following temporal lobe surgeries in patients with epilepsy, emphasizing the need for precision presurgical verbal memory mapping to optimize functional outcomes. However, the inter-individual variability in functional networks and brain function-structural dissociations pose challenges when relying solely on group-level atlases or anatomical landmarks for surgical guidance. Here, we aimed to develop and validate a personalized functional mapping technique for verbal memory using precision resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and neurosurgery. A total of 38 patients with refractory epilepsy scheduled for surgical interventions were enrolled and 28 patients were analyzed in the study. Baseline 30-min rs-fMRI scanning, verbal memory and language assessments were collected for each patient before surgery. Personalized verbal memory networks (PVMN) were delineated based on preoperative rs-fMRI data for each patient. The accuracy of PVMN was assessed by comparing post-operative functional impairments and the overlapping extent between PVMN and surgical lesions. A total of 14 out of 28 patients experienced clinically meaningful declines in verbal memory after surgery. The personalized network and the group-level atlas exhibited 100% and 75.0% accuracy in predicting postoperative verbal memory declines, respectively. Moreover, six patients with extra-temporal lesions that overlapped with PVMN showed selective impairments in verbal memory. Furthermore, the lesioned ratio of the personalized network rather than the group-level atlas was significantly correlated with postoperative declines in verbal memory (personalized networks: r = -0.39, p = .038; group-level atlas: r = -0.19, p = .332). In conclusion, our personalized functional mapping technique, using precision rs-fMRI, offers valuable insights into individual variability in the verbal memory network and holds promise in precision verbal memory network mapping in individuals.

Personalized brain MRI revealed distinct functional and anatomical disruptions in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and Alzheimer's disease

AIMS

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a lethal neurodegenerative disorder, which leads to a rapidly progressive dementia. This study aimed to examine the cortical alterations in CJD, changes in these brain characteristics over time, and the differences between CJD and Alzheimer's disease (AD) that show similar clinical manifestations.

METHODS

To obtain reliable, subject-specific functional measures, we acquired 24 min of resting-state fMRI data from each subject. We applied an individual-based approach to characterize the functional brain organization of 10 patients with CJD, 8 matched patients with AD, and 8 normal controls. We measured cortical atrophy as well as disruption in resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and then investigated longitudinal brain changes in a subset of CJD patients.

RESULTS

CJD was associated with widespread cortical thinning and weakened rsFC. Compared with AD, CJD showed distinct atrophy patterns and greater disruptions in rsFC. Moreover, the longitudinal data demonstrated that the progressive cortical thinning and disruption in rsFC mainly affected the association rather than the primary cortex in CJD.

CONCLUSIONS

CJD shows unique anatomical and functional disruptions in the cerebral cortex, distinct from AD. Rapid progression of CJD affects both the cortical thickness and rsFC in the association cortex.

Individual variability in functional connectivity of human auditory cortex

Individual variability in functional connectivity underlies individual differences in cognition and behaviors, yet its association with functional specialization in the auditory cortex remains elusive. Using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from the Human Connectome Project, this study was designed to investigate the spatial distribution of auditory cortex individual variability in its whole-brain functional network architecture. An inherent hierarchical axis of the variability was discerned, which radiates from the medial to lateral orientation, with the left auditory cortex demonstrating more pronounced variations than the right. This variability exhibited a significant correlation with the variations in structural and functional metrics in the auditory cortex. Four auditory cortex subregions, which were identified from a clustering analysis based on this variability, exhibited unique connectional fingerprints and cognitive maps, with certain subregions showing specificity to speech perception functional activation. Moreover, the lateralization of the connectional fingerprint exhibited a U-shaped trajectory across the subregions. These findings emphasize the role of individual variability in functional connectivity in understanding cortical functional organization, as well as in revealing its association with functional specialization from the activation, connectome, and cognition perspectives.

Individual differences in the neural architecture in semantic processing

Neural mechanisms underlying semantic processing have been extensively studied by using functional magnetic resonance imaging, nevertheless, the individual differences of it are yet to be unveiled. To further our understanding of functional and anatomical brain organization underlying semantic processing to the level of individual humans, we used out-of-scanner language behavioral data, T1, resting-state, and story comprehension task-evoked functional image data in the Human Connectome Project, to investigate individual variability in the task-evoked semantic processing network, and attempted to predict individuals' language skills based on task and intrinsic functional connectivity of highly variable regions, by employing a machine-learning framework. Our findings first confirmed that individual variability in both functional and anatomical markers were heterogeneously distributed throughout the semantic processing network, and that the variability increased towards higher levels in the processing hierarchy. Furthermore, intrinsic functional connectivities among these highly variable regions were found to contribute to predict individual reading decoding abilities. The contributing nodes in the overall network were distributed in the left superior, inferior frontal, and temporo-parietal cortices. Our results suggested that the individual differences of neurobiological markers were heterogeneously distributed in the semantic processing network, and that neurobiological markers of highly variable areas are not only linked to individual variability in language skills, but can predict language skills at the individual level.

Individual differences in the language task-evoked and resting-state functional networks

The resting state functional network is highly variable across individuals. However, inter-individual differences in functional networks evoked by language tasks and their comparison with resting state are still unclear. To address these two questions, we used T1 anatomical data and functional brain imaging data of resting state and a story comprehension task from the Human Connectome Project (HCP) to characterize functional network variability and investigate the uniqueness of the functional network in both task and resting states. We first demonstrated that intrinsic and task-induced functional networks exhibited remarkable differences across individuals, and language tasks can constrain inter-individual variability in the functional brain network. Furthermore, we found that the inter-individual variability of functional networks in two states was broadly consistent and spatially heterogeneous, with high-level association areas manifesting more significant variability than primary visual processing areas. Our results suggested that the functional network underlying language comprehension is unique at the individual level, and the inter-individual variability architecture of the functional network is broadly consistent in language task and resting state.

Personalized functional imaging-guided rTMS on the superior frontal gyrus for post-stroke aphasia: A randomized sham-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Aphasia affects approximately one-third of stroke patients and yet its rehabilitation outcomes are often unsatisfactory. More effective strategies are needed to promote recovery.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to examine the efficacy and safety of the theta-burst stimulation (TBS) on the language area in the superior frontal gyrus (SFG) localized by personalized functional imaging, in facilitating post-stroke aphasia recovery.

METHODS

This randomized sham-controlled trial uses a parallel design (intermittent TBS [iTBS] in ipsilesional hemisphere vs. continuous TBS [cTBS] in contralesional hemisphere vs. sham group). Participants had aphasia symptoms resulting from their first stroke in the left hemisphere at least one month prior. Participants received three-week speech-language therapy coupled with either active or sham stimulation applied to the left or right SFG. The primary outcome was the change in Western Aphasia Battery-Revised (WAB-R) aphasia quotient after the three-week treatment. The secondary outcome was WAB-R aphasia quotient improvement after one week of treatment.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven patients were screened between January 2021 and January 2022, 45 of whom were randomized and 44 received intervention (15 in each active group, 14 in sham). Both iTBS (estimated difference = 14.75, p < 0.001) and cTBS (estimated difference = 13.43, p < 0.001) groups showed significantly greater improvement than sham stimulation after the 3-week intervention and immediately after one week of treatment (p's < 0.001). The adverse events observed were similar across groups. A seizure was recorded three days after the termination of the treatment in the iTBS group.

CONCLUSION

The stimulation showed high efficacy and SFG is a promising stimulation target for post-stroke language recovery.

Cortical depth profiles of auditory and visual 7 T functional MRI responses in human superior temporal areas

Invasive neurophysiological studies in nonhuman primates have shown different laminar activation profiles to auditory vs. visual stimuli in auditory cortices and adjacent polymodal areas. Means to examine the underlying feedforward vs. feedback type influences noninvasively have been limited in humans. Here, using 1-mm isotropic resolution 3D echo-planar imaging at 7 T, we studied the intracortical depth profiles of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) signals to brief auditory (noise bursts) and visual (checkerboard) stimuli. BOLD percent-signal-changes were estimated at 11 equally spaced intracortical depths, within regions-of-interest encompassing auditory (Heschl's gyrus, Heschl's sulcus, planum temporale, and posterior superior temporal gyrus) and polymodal (middle and posterior superior temporal sulcus) areas. Effects of differing BOLD signal strengths for auditory and visual stimuli were controlled via normalization and statistical modeling. The BOLD depth profile shapes, modeled with quadratic regression, were significantly different for auditory vs. visual stimuli in auditory cortices, but not in polymodal areas. The different depth profiles could reflect sensory-specific feedforward versus cross-sensory feedback influences, previously shown in laminar recordings in nonhuman primates. The results suggest that intracortical BOLD profiles can help distinguish between feedforward and feedback type influences in the human brain. Further experimental studies are still needed to clarify how underlying signal strength influences BOLD depth profiles under different stimulus conditions.

Preserved functional organization of human auditory cortex in individuals missing one temporal lobe from infancy

Human cortical responses to natural sounds, measured with fMRI, can be approximated as the weighted sum of a small number of canonical response patterns (components), each having interpretable functional and anatomical properties. Here, we asked whether this organization is preserved in cases where only one temporal lobe is available due to early brain damage by investigating a unique family: one sibling born without a left temporal lobe, another without a right temporal lobe, and a third anatomically neurotypical. We analyzed fMRI responses to diverse natural sounds within the intact hemispheres of these individuals and compared them to 12 neurotypical participants. All siblings manifested the neurotypical auditory responses in their intact hemispheres. These results suggest that the development of the auditory cortex in each hemisphere does not depend on the existence of the other hemisphere, highlighting the redundancy and equipotentiality of the bilateral auditory system.

Environmental neuroscience linking exposome to brain structure and function underlying cognition and behavior

Individual differences in human brain structure, function, and behavior can be attributed to genetic variations, environmental exposures, and their interactions. Although genome-wide association studies have identified many genetic variants associated with brain imaging phenotypes, environmental exposures associated with these phenotypes remain largely unknown. Here, we propose that environmental neuroscience should pay more attention on exploring the associations between lifetime environmental exposures (exposome) and brain imaging phenotypes and identifying both cumulative environmental effects and their vulnerable age windows during the life course. Exposome-neuroimaging association studies face several challenges including the accurate measurement of the totality of environmental exposures varied in space and time, the highly correlated structure of the exposome, and the lack of standardized approaches for exposome-wide association studies. By agnostically scanning the effects of environmental exposures on brain imaging phenotypes and their interactions with genomic variations, exposome-neuroimaging association analyses will improve our understanding of causal factors associated with individual differences in brain structure and function as well as their relations with cognitive abilities and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Auditory-limbic-cerebellum interactions and cognitive impairments in noise-induced hearing loss

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the neural substrate of hearing loss-related central nervous system in rats and its correlation with cognition.

METHODS

We identified the neural mechanism for these debilitating abnormalities by inducing a bilateral hearing loss animal model using intense broadband noise (122 dB of broadband noise for 2 h) and used the Morris water maze test to characterize the behavioral changes at 6 months post-noise exposure. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was conducted to clarify disrupted functional network using bilateral auditory cortex (ACx) as a seed. Structural diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was applied to illustrate characteristics of fibers in ACx and hippocampus. Pearson correlation was computed behavioral tests and other features.

RESULTS

A deficit in spatial learning/memory, body weight, and negative correlation between them was observed. Functional connectivity revealed weakened coupling within the ACx and inferior colliculus, lateral lemniscus, the primary motor cortex, the olfactory tubercle, hippocampus, and the paraflocculus lobe of the cerebellum. The fiber number and mean length of ACx and different hippocampal subregions were also damaged in hearing loss rats.

CONCLUSION

A new model of auditory-limbic-cerebellum interactions accounting for noise-induced hearing loss and cognitive impairments is proposed.

Effects of individualized brain anatomies and EEG electrode positions on inferred activity of the primary auditory cortex

Due to its high temporal resolution and non-invasive nature, electroencephalography (EEG) is considered a method of great value for the field of auditory cognitive neuroscience. In performing source space analyses, localization accuracy poses a bottleneck, which precise forward models based on individualized attributes such as subject anatomy or electrode locations aim to overcome. Yet acquiring anatomical images or localizing EEG electrodes requires significant additional funds and processing time, making it an oftentimes inaccessible asset. Neuroscientific software offers template solutions, on which analyses can be based. For localizing the source of auditory evoked responses, we here compared the results of employing such template anatomies and electrode positions versus the subject-specific ones, as well as combinations of the two. All considered cases represented approaches commonly used in electrophysiological studies. We considered differences between two commonly used inverse solutions (dSPM, sLORETA) and targeted the primary auditory cortex; a notoriously small cortical region that is located within the lateral sulcus, thus particularly prone to errors in localization. Through systematical comparison of early evoked component metrics and spatial leakage, we assessed how the individualization steps impacted the analyses outcomes. Both electrode locations as well as subject anatomies were found to have an effect, which though varied based on the configuration considered. When comparing the inverse solutions, we moreover found that dSPM more consistently benefited from individualization of subject morphologies compared to sLORETA, suggesting it to be the better choice for auditory cortex localization.

A precise language network revealed by the independent component-based lesion mapping in post-stroke aphasia

Brain lesion mapping studies have provided the strongest evidence regarding the neural basis of cognition. However, it remained a problem to identify symptom-specific brain networks accounting for observed clinical and neuroanatomical heterogeneity. Independent component analysis (ICA) is a statistical method that decomposes mixed signals into multiple independent components. We aimed to solve this issue by proposing an independent component-based lesion mapping (ICLM) method to identify the language network in patients with moderate to severe post-stroke aphasia. Lesions were first extracted from 49 patients with post-stroke aphasia as masks applied to fMRI data in a cohort of healthy participants to calculate the functional connectivity (FC) within the masks and non-mask brain voxels. ICA was further performed on a reformatted FC matrix to extract multiple independent networks. Specifically, we found that one of the lesion-related independent components (ICs) highly resembled classical language networks. Moreover, the damaged level within the language-related lesioned network is strongly associated with language deficits, including aphasia quotient, naming, and auditory comprehension scores. In comparison, none of the other two traditional lesion mapping methods found any regions responsible for language dysfunction. The language-related lesioned network extracted with the ICLM method showed high specificity in detecting aphasia symptoms compared with the performance of resting ICs and classical language networks. In total, we detected a precise language network in patients with aphasia and proved its efficiency in the relationship with language symptoms. In general, our ICLM could successfully identify multiple lesion-related networks from complicated brain diseases, and be used as an effective tool to study brain-behavior relationships and provide potential biomarkers of particular clinical behavioral deficits.

Anatomical and functional connectivity support the existence of a salience network node within the caudal ventrolateral prefrontal cortex

Three large-scale networks are considered essential to cognitive flexibility: the ventral and dorsal attention (VANet and DANet) and salience (SNet) networks. The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) is a known component of the VANet and DANet, but there is a gap in the current knowledge regarding its involvement in the SNet. Herein, we used a translational and multimodal approach to demonstrate the existence of a SNet node within the vlPFC. First, we used tract-tracing methods in non-human primates (NHP) to quantify the anatomical connectivity strength between different vlPFC areas and the frontal and insular cortices. The strongest connections were with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and anterior insula (AI) - the main cortical SNet nodes. These inputs converged in the caudal area 47/12, an area that has strong projections to subcortical structures associated with the SNet. Second, we used resting-state functional MRI (rsfMRI) in NHP data to validate this SNet node. Third, we used rsfMRI in the human to identify a homologous caudal 47/12 region that also showed strong connections with the SNet cortical nodes. Taken together, these data confirm a SNet node in the vlPFC, demonstrating that the vlPFC contains nodes for all three cognitive networks: VANet, DANet, and SNet. Thus, the vlPFC is in a position to switch between these three networks, pointing to its key role as an attentional hub. Its additional connections to the orbitofrontal, dorsolateral, and premotor cortices, place the vlPFC at the center for switching behaviors based on environmental stimuli, computing value, and cognitive control.

Fast cortical surface reconstruction from MRI using deep learning

Reconstructing cortical surfaces from structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a prerequisite for surface-based functional and anatomical image analyses. Conventional algorithms for cortical surface reconstruction are computationally inefficient and typically take several hours for each subject, causing a bottleneck in applications when a fast turnaround time is needed. To address this challenge, we propose a fast cortical surface reconstruction (FastCSR) pipeline by leveraging deep machine learning. We trained our model to learn an implicit representation of the cortical surface in volumetric space, termed the “level set representation”. A fast volumetric topology correction method and a topology-preserving surface mesh extraction procedure were employed to reconstruct the cortical surface based on the level set representation. Using 1-mm isotropic T1-weighted images, the FastCSR pipeline was able to reconstruct a subject’s cortical surfaces within 5 min with comparable surface quality, which is approximately 47 times faster than the traditional FreeSurfer pipeline. The advantage of FastCSR becomes even more apparent when processing high-resolution images. Importantly, the model demonstrated good generalizability in previously unseen data and showed high test–retest reliability in cortical morphometrics and anatomical parcellations. Finally, FastCSR was robust to images with compromised quality or with distortions caused by lesions. This fast and robust pipeline for cortical surface reconstruction may facilitate large-scale neuroimaging studies and has potential in clinical applications wherein brain images may be compromised.

Personalized fMRI delineates functional regions preserved within brain tumors

Objective

Methods

Results

Interpretation

Complementing canonical fMRI with functional Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping (fQSM) in modern neuroimaging research

Functional Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping (fQSM) allows for the quantitative measurement of time-varying magnetic susceptibility across cortical and subcortical brain structures with a potentially higher spatial specificity than conventional fMRI. While the usefulness of fQSM with General Linear Model and "On/Off" paradigms has been assessed, little is known about the potential applications and limitations of this technique in more sophisticated experimental paradigms and analyses, such as those currently used in modern neuroimaging. To thoroughly characterize fQSM activations, here we used 7T MRI, tonotopic mapping, as well as univariate (i.e., GLM and population Receptive Field) and multivariate (Representational Similarity Analysis; RSA) analyses. Although fQSM detected less tone-responsive voxels than fMRI, they were more consistently localized in gray matter. Also, the majority of active gray matter voxels exhibited negative fQSM response, signaling the expected oxyhemoglobin increase, whereas positive fQSM activations were mainly in white matter. Though fMRI- and fQSM-based tonotopic maps were overall comparable, the representation of frequency tunings in tone-sensitive regions was significantly more balanced for fQSM. Lastly, RSA revealed that frequency information from the auditory cortex could be successfully retrieved by using either methods. Overall, fQSM produces complementary results to conventional fMRI, as it captures small-scale variations in the activation pattern which inform multivariate measures. Although positive fQSM responses deserve further investigation, they do not impair the interpretation of contrasts of interest. The quantitative nature of fQSM, its spatial specificity and the possibility to simultaneously acquire canonical fMRI support the use of this technique for longitudinal and multicentric studies and pre-surgical mapping.

Global waves synchronize the brain's functional systems with fluctuating arousal

We propose and empirically support a parsimonious account of intrinsic, brain-wide spatiotemporal organization arising from traveling waves linked to arousal. We hypothesize that these waves are the predominant physiological process reflected in spontaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signal fluctuations. The correlation structure ("functional connectivity") of these fluctuations recapitulates the large-scale functional organization of the brain. However, a unifying physiological account of this structure has so far been lacking. Here, using fMRI in humans, we show that ongoing arousal fluctuations are associated with global waves of activity that slowly propagate in parallel throughout the neocortex, thalamus, striatum, and cerebellum. We show that these waves can parsimoniously account for many features of spontaneous fMRI signal fluctuations, including topographically organized functional connectivity. Last, we demonstrate similar, cortex-wide propagation of neural activity measured with electrocorticography in macaques. These findings suggest that traveling waves spatiotemporally pattern brain-wide excitability in relation to arousal.

Dissociable Auditory Cortico-Cerebellar Pathways in the Human Brain Estimated by Intrinsic Functional Connectivity

The cerebellum, a structure historically associated with motor control, has more recently been implicated in several higher-order auditory-cognitive functions. However, the exact functional pathways that mediate cerebellar influences on auditory cortex (AC) remain unclear. Here, we sought to identify auditory cortico-cerebellar pathways based on intrinsic functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging. In contrast to previous connectivity studies that principally consider the AC as a single functionally homogenous unit, we mapped the cerebellar connectivity across different parts of the AC. Our results reveal that auditory subareas demonstrating different levels of interindividual functional variability are functionally coupled with distinct cerebellar regions. Moreover, auditory and sensorimotor areas show divergent cortico-cerebellar connectivity patterns, although sensorimotor areas proximal to the AC are often functionally grouped with the AC in previous connectivity-based network analyses. Lastly, we found that the AC can be functionally segmented into highly similar subareas based on either cortico-cerebellar or cortico-cortical functional connectivity, suggesting the existence of multiple parallel auditory cortico-cerebellar circuits that involve different subareas of the AC. Overall, the present study revealed multiple auditory cortico-cerebellar pathways and provided a fine-grained map of AC subareas, indicative of the critical role of the cerebellum in auditory processing and multisensory integration.