1
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Influence of SARS-CoV-2 on Adult Human Neurogenesis. Cells 2023; 12:cells12020244. [PMID: 36672177 PMCID: PMC9856847 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is associated with the onset of neurological and psychiatric symptoms during and after the acute phase of illness. Inflammation and hypoxia induced by SARS-CoV-2 affect brain regions essential for fine motor function, learning, memory, and emotional responses. The mechanisms of these central nervous system symptoms remain largely unknown. While looking for the causes of neurological deficits, we conducted a study on how SARS-CoV-2 affects neurogenesis. In this study, we compared a control group with a group of patients diagnosed with COVID-19. Analysis of the expression of neurogenesis markers showed a decrease in the density of neuronal progenitor cells and newborn neurons in the SARS-CoV-2 group. Analysis of COVID-19 patients revealed increased microglial activation compared with the control group. The unfavorable effect of the inflammatory process in the brain associated with COVID-19 disease increases the concentration of cytokines that negatively affect adult human neurogenesis.
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2
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Abstract
Thyroid hormone is essential for brain development and brain function in the adult. During development, thyroid hormone acts in a spatial and temporal-specific manner to regulate the expression of genes essential for normal neural cell differentiation, migration, and myelination. In the adult brain, thyroid hormone is important for maintaining normal brain function. Thyroid hormone excess, hyperthyroidism, and thyroid hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, are associated with disordered brain function, including depression, memory loss, impaired cognitive function, irritability, and anxiety. Adequate thyroid hormone levels are required for normal brain function. Thyroid hormone acts through a cascade of signaling components: activation and inactivation by deiodinase enzymes, thyroid hormone membrane transporters, and nuclear thyroid hormone receptors. Additionally, the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, with negative feedback of thyroid hormone on thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion, regulates serum thyroid hormone levels in a narrow range. Animal and human studies have shown both systemic and local reduction in thyroid hormone availability in neurologic disease and after brain trauma. Treatment with thyroid hormone and selective thyroid hormone analogs has resulted in a reduction in injury and improved recovery. This article will describe the thyroid hormone signal transduction pathway in the brain and the role of thyroid hormone in the aging brain, neurologic diseases, and the protective role when administered after traumatic brain injury. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1-21, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Yun Liu
- Department of Medicine, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Departments of Medicine and Physiology, Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Division, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Gregory A Brent
- Department of Medicine, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Departments of Medicine and Physiology, Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Division, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA
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3
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Fair SR, Julian D, Hartlaub AM, Pusuluri ST, Malik G, Summerfied TL, Zhao G, Hester AB, Ackerman WE, Hollingsworth EW, Ali M, McElroy CA, Buhimschi IA, Imitola J, Maitre NL, Bedrosian TA, Hester ME. Electrophysiological Maturation of Cerebral Organoids Correlates with Dynamic Morphological and Cellular Development. Stem Cell Reports 2020; 15:855-868. [PMID: 32976764 PMCID: PMC7562943 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2020.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral organoids (COs) are rapidly accelerating the rate of translational neuroscience based on their potential to model complex features of the developing human brain. Several studies have examined the electrophysiological and neural network features of COs; however, no study has comprehensively investigated the developmental trajectory of electrophysiological properties in whole-brain COs and correlated these properties with developmentally linked morphological and cellular features. Here, we profiled the neuroelectrical activities of COs over the span of 5 months with a multi-electrode array platform and observed the emergence and maturation of several electrophysiologic properties, including rapid firing rates and network bursting events. To complement these analyses, we characterized the complex molecular and cellular development that gives rise to these mature neuroelectrical properties with immunohistochemical and single-cell transcriptomic analyses. This integrated approach highlights the value of COs as an emerging model system of human brain development and neurological disease. CO electrophysiology can be quantified with a multi-electrode array method CO electrophysiological trajectories correlate with molecular and cellular development The neurotrophin/TRK signaling pathway is active in COs by 5 months in culture
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Affiliation(s)
- Summer R Fair
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA
| | - Dominic Julian
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA
| | - Annalisa M Hartlaub
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sai Teja Pusuluri
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Girik Malik
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; Khoury College of Computer Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Taryn L Summerfied
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Guomao Zhao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Arelis B Hester
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA
| | - William E Ackerman
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Ethan W Hollingsworth
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA
| | - Mehboob Ali
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Craig A McElroy
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Irina A Buhimschi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Jaime Imitola
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory for Neural Stem Cells and Functional Neurogenetics, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Nathalie L Maitre
- Center for Perinatal Research, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Tracy A Bedrosian
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA
| | - Mark E Hester
- The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine, Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205-2716, USA; Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.
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4
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Zamboni M, Llorens-Bobadilla E, Magnusson JP, Frisén J. A Widespread Neurogenic Potential of Neocortical Astrocytes Is Induced by Injury. Cell Stem Cell 2020; 27:605-617.e5. [PMID: 32758425 PMCID: PMC7534841 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2020.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Parenchymal astrocytes have emerged as a potential reservoir for new neurons in non-neurogenic brain regions. It is currently unclear how astrocyte neurogenesis is controlled molecularly. Here we show that Notch signaling-deficient astrocytes can generate new neurons after injury. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we found that, when Notch signaling is blocked, astrocytes transition to a neural stem cell-like state. However, only after injury do a few of these primed astrocytes unfold a neurogenic program, including a self-amplifying progenitor-like state. Further, reconstruction of the trajectories of individual cells allowed us to uncouple astrocyte neurogenesis from reactive gliosis, which occur along independent branches. Finally, we show that cortical neurogenesis molecularly recapitulates canonical subventricular zone neurogenesis with remarkable fidelity. Our study supports a widespread potential of parenchymal astrocytes to function as dormant neural stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Zamboni
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Jens Peter Magnusson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jonas Frisén
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
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5
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Weselek G, Keiner S, Fauser M, Wagenführ L, Müller J, Kaltschmidt B, Brandt MD, Gerlach M, Redecker C, Hermann A, Storch A. Norepinephrine is a negative regulator of the adult periventricular neural stem cell niche. Stem Cells 2020; 38:1188-1201. [PMID: 32473039 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The limited proliferative capacity of neuroprogenitor cells (NPCs) within the periventricular germinal niches (PGNs) located caudal of the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles together with their high proliferation capacity after isolation strongly implicates cell-extrinsic humoral factors restricting NPC proliferation in the hypothalamic and midbrain PGNs. We comparatively examined the effects of norepinephrine (NE) as an endogenous candidate regulator of PGN neurogenesis in the SVZ as well as the periventricular hypothalamus and the periaqueductal midbrain. Histological and neurochemical analyses revealed that the pattern of NE innervation of the adult PGNs is inversely associated with their in vivo NPC proliferation capacity with low NE levels coupled to high NPC proliferation in the SVZ but high NE levels coupled to low NPC proliferation in hypothalamic and midbrain PGNs. Intraventricular infusion of NE decreased NPC proliferation and neurogenesis in the SVZ-olfactory bulb system, while pharmacological NE inhibition increased NPC proliferation and early neurogenesis events in the caudal PGNs. Neurotoxic ablation of NE neurons using the Dsp4-fluoxetine protocol confirmed its inhibitory effects on NPC proliferation. Contrarily, NE depletion largely impairs NPC proliferation within the hippocampus in the same animals. Our data indicate that norepinephrine has opposite effects on the two fundamental neurogenic niches of the adult brain with norepinephrine being a negative regulator of adult periventricular neurogenesis. This knowledge might ultimately lead to new therapeutic approaches to influence neurogenesis in hypothalamus-related metabolic diseases or to stimulate endogenous regenerative potential in neurodegenerative processes such as Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grit Weselek
- Department of Neurology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.,Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Germany
| | - Silke Keiner
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany
| | - Mareike Fauser
- Department of Neurology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.,Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Lisa Wagenführ
- Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Julia Müller
- Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Barbara Kaltschmidt
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Neurobiology, University of Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Moritz D Brandt
- Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Manfred Gerlach
- Clinic for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center for Mental Health, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Redecker
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Klinikum Lippe, Lemgo, Germany
| | - Andreas Hermann
- Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Germany.,Translational Neurodegeneration Section "Albrecht-Kossel", Department of Neurology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Alexander Storch
- Department of Neurology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.,Division of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Germany
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6
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Lukaszewicz AI, Nguyen C, Melendez E, Lin DP, Teo JL, Lai KKY, Huttner WB, Shi SH, Kahn M. The Mode of Stem Cell Division Is Dependent on the Differential Interaction of β-Catenin with the Kat3 Coactivators CBP or p300. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11070962. [PMID: 31324005 PMCID: PMC6678591 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11070962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Normal long-term repopulating somatic stem cells (SSCs) preferentially divide asymmetrically, with one daughter cell remaining in the niche and the other going on to be a transient amplifying cell required for generating new tissue in homeostatic maintenance and repair processes, whereas cancer stem cells (CSCs) favor symmetric divisions. We have previously proposed that differential β-catenin modulation of transcriptional activity via selective interaction with either the Kat3 coactivator CBP or its closely related paralog p300, regulates symmetric versus asymmetric division in SSCs and CSCs. We have previously demonstrated that SSCs that divide asymmetrically per force retain one of the dividing daughter cells in the stem cell niche, even when treated with specific CBP/β-catenin antagonists, whereas CSCs can be removed from their niche via forced stochastic symmetric differentiative divisions. We now demonstrate that loss of p73 in early corticogenesis biases β-catenin Kat3 coactivator usage and enhances β-catenin/CBP transcription at the expense of β-catenin/p300 transcription. Biased β-catenin coactivator usage has dramatic consequences on the mode of division of neural stem cells (NSCs), but not neurogenic progenitors. The observed increase in symmetric divisions due to enhanced β-catenin/CBP interaction and transcription leads to an immediate increase in NSC symmetric differentiative divisions. Moreover, we demonstrate for the first time that the complex phenotype caused by the loss of p73 can be rescued in utero by treatment with the small-molecule-specific CBP/β-catenin antagonist ICG-001. Taken together, our results demonstrate the causal relationship between the choice of β-catenin Kat3 coactivator and the mode of stem cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnes I Lukaszewicz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Cu Nguyen
- Center for Molecular Pathways and Drug Discovery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Elizabeth Melendez
- Center for Molecular Pathways and Drug Discovery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - David P Lin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Jia-Ling Teo
- Center for Molecular Pathways and Drug Discovery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Keane K Y Lai
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
- Department of Pathology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden 01307, Germany
| | - Song-Hai Shi
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Michael Kahn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
- Center for Molecular Pathways and Drug Discovery, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA.
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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7
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Fanibunda SE, Desouza LA, Kapoor R, Vaidya RA, Vaidya VA. Thyroid Hormone Regulation of Adult Neurogenesis. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2018; 106:211-251. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2017.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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8
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Bermudez-Hernandez K, Lu YL, Moretto J, Jain S, LaFrancois JJ, Duffy AM, Scharfman HE. Hilar granule cells of the mouse dentate gyrus: effects of age, septotemporal location, strain, and selective deletion of the proapoptotic gene BAX. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 222:3147-3161. [PMID: 28314928 PMCID: PMC5601016 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1391-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The dentate gyrus (DG) principal cells are glutamatergic granule cells (GCs), and they are located in a compact cell layer. However, GCs are also present in the adjacent hilar region, but have been described in only a few studies. Therefore, we used the transcription factor prospero homeobox 1 (Prox1) to quantify GCs at postnatal day (PND) 16, 30, and 60 in a common mouse strain, C57BL/6J mice. At PND16, there was a large population of Prox1-immunoreactive (ir) hilar cells, with more in the septal than temporal hippocampus. At PND30 and 60, the size of the hilar Prox1-ir cell population was reduced. Similar numbers of hilar Prox1-expressing cells were observed in PND30 and 60 Swiss Webster mice. Prox1 is usually considered to be a marker of postmitotic GCs. However, many Prox1-ir hilar cells, especially at PND16, were not double-labeled with NeuN, a marker typically found in mature neurons. Most hilar Prox1-positive cells at PND16 co-expressed doublecortin (DCX) and calretinin, markers of immature GCs. Double-labeling with a marker of actively dividing cells, Ki67, was not detected. These results suggest that, surprisingly, a large population of cells in the hilus at PND16 are immature GCs (Type 2b and Type 3 cells). We also asked whether hilar Prox1-ir cell numbers are modifiable. To examine this issue, we conditionally deleted the proapoptotic gene BAX in Nestin-expressing cells at a time when there are numerous immature GCs in the hilus, PND2-8. When these mice were examined at PND60, the numbers of Prox1-ir hilar cells were significantly increased compared to control mice. However, deletion of BAX did not appear to change the proportion that co-expressed NeuN, suggesting that the size of the hilar Prox1-expressing population is modifiable. However, deleting BAX, a major developmental disruption, does not appear to change the proportion that ultimately becomes neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keria Bermudez-Hernandez
- New York University Langone Medical Center, 227 East 30th Street, 7th Floor, One Park Avenue, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA.
| | - Yi-Ling Lu
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Jillian Moretto
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Swati Jain
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - John J LaFrancois
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Aine M Duffy
- New York University Langone Medical Center, 227 East 30th Street, 7th Floor, One Park Avenue, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
| | - Helen E Scharfman
- New York University Langone Medical Center, 227 East 30th Street, 7th Floor, One Park Avenue, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- The Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA
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9
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Micheli L, Ceccarelli M, Gioia R, D'Andrea G, Farioli-Vecchioli S, Costanzi M, Saraulli D, Cestari V, Tirone F. Terminal Differentiation of Adult Hippocampal Progenitor Cells Is a Step Functionally Dissociable from Proliferation and Is Controlled by Tis21, Id3 and NeuroD2. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:186. [PMID: 28740463 PMCID: PMC5502263 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell proliferation and differentiation are interdependent processes. Here, we have asked to what extent the two processes of neural progenitor cell amplification and differentiation are functionally separated. Thus, we analyzed whether it is possible to rescue a defect of terminal differentiation in progenitor cells of the dentate gyrus, where new neurons are generated throughout life, by inducing their proliferation and/or their differentiation with different stimuli appropriately timed. As a model we used the Tis21 knockout mouse, whose dentate gyrus neurons, as demonstrated by us and others, have an intrinsic defect of terminal differentiation. We first tested the effect of two proliferative as well as differentiative neurogenic stimuli, one pharmacological (fluoxetine), the other cognitive (the Morris water maze (MWM) training). Both effectively enhanced the number of new dentate gyrus neurons produced, and fluoxetine also reduced the S-phase length of Tis21 knockout dentate gyrus progenitor cells and increased the rate of differentiation of control cells, but neither factor enhanced the defective rate of differentiation. In contrast, the defect of terminal differentiation was fully rescued by in vivo infection of proliferating dentate gyrus progenitor cells with retroviruses either silencing Id3, an inhibitor of neural differentiation, or expressing NeuroD2, a proneural gene expressed in terminally differentiated dentate gyrus neurons. This is the first demonstration that NeuroD2 or the silencing of Id3 can activate the differentiation of dentate gyrus neurons, complementing a defect of differentiation. It also highlights how the rate of differentiation of dentate gyrus neurons is regulated genetically at several levels and that a neurogenic stimulus for amplification of neural stem/progenitor cells may not be sufficient in itself to modify this rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Micheli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Ceccarelli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Gioia
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
| | - Giorgio D'Andrea
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Costanzi
- Department of Human Sciences, Libera Università Maria SS. Assunta (LUMSA)Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Saraulli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy.,Department of Human Sciences, Libera Università Maria SS. Assunta (LUMSA)Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Cestari
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza Università di RomaRome, Italy
| | - Felice Tirone
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Fondazione Santa Lucia (IRCCS)Rome, Italy
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10
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Hörster H, Garthe A, Walker TL, Ichwan M, Steiner B, Khan MA, lie DC, Nicola Z, Ramirez-Rodriguez G, Kempermann G. p27kip1 Is Required for Functionally Relevant Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Mice. Stem Cells 2016; 35:787-799. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.2536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Hörster
- CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden; Dresden Germany
| | - Alexander Garthe
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Dresden; Dresden Germany
| | - Tara L. Walker
- CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden; Dresden Germany
| | - Muhammad Ichwan
- CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden; Dresden Germany
| | - Barbara Steiner
- Department of Neurology; Charité University Medicine Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Muhammad Amir Khan
- Adult Neurogenesis Group, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich; Oberschleißheim Germany
| | - Dieter Chichung lie
- Institut für Biochemie, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg; Erlangen Germany
| | - Zeina Nicola
- CRTD - Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden; Dresden Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Dresden; Dresden Germany
| | - Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis, Division of Clinical Investigations; National Institute of Psychiatry “Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz”; México D.F México
| | - Gerd Kempermann
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Dresden; Dresden Germany
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11
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Stupfler B, Birck C, Séraphin B, Mauxion F. BTG2 bridges PABPC1 RNA-binding domains and CAF1 deadenylase to control cell proliferation. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10811. [PMID: 26912148 PMCID: PMC4773420 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
While BTG2 plays an important role in cellular differentiation and cancer, its precise molecular function remains unclear. BTG2 interacts with CAF1 deadenylase through its APRO domain, a defining feature of BTG/Tob factors. Our previous experiments revealed that expression of BTG2 promoted mRNA poly(A) tail shortening through an undefined mechanism. Here we report that the APRO domain of BTG2 interacts directly with the first RRM domain of the poly(A)-binding protein PABPC1. Moreover, PABPC1 RRM and BTG2 APRO domains are sufficient to stimulate CAF1 deadenylase activity in vitro in the absence of other CCR4–NOT complex subunits. Our results unravel thus the mechanism by which BTG2 stimulates mRNA deadenylation, demonstrating its direct role in poly(A) tail length control. Importantly, we also show that the interaction of BTG2 with the first RRM domain of PABPC1 is required for BTG2 to control cell proliferation. BTG2 promotes mRNA poly(A) tail shortening and regulates cellular differentiation. Here, Stupfler et al. show that the BTG2 APRO domain interacts with PABPC1 RRM1, allowing the former to recruit and stimulate the poly(A) tail shortening activity of CAF1 deadenylase and to control cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Stupfler
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7104, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U964, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Catherine Birck
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7104, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U964, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Bertrand Séraphin
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7104, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U964, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Fabienne Mauxion
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR7104, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U964, 67404 Illkirch, France.,Université de Strasbourg, 67404 Illkirch, France
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12
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Liu L, Shen P, He T, Chang Y, Shi L, Tao S, Li X, Xun Q, Guo X, Yu Z, Wang J. Noise induced hearing loss impairs spatial learning/memory and hippocampal neurogenesis in mice. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20374. [PMID: 26842803 PMCID: PMC4740884 DOI: 10.1038/srep20374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hearing loss has been associated with cognitive decline in the elderly and is considered to be an independent risk factor for dementia. One of the most common causes for acquired sensorineural hearing loss is exposure to excessive noise, which has been found to impair learning ability and cognitive performance in human subjects and animal models. Noise exposure has also been found to depress neurogenesis in the hippocampus. However, the effect is mainly attributed to the oxidant stress of noise on the cognitive brain. In the present study, young adult CBA/CAJ mice (between 1.5 and 2 months of age) were briefly exposed a high sound level to produce moderate-to-severe hearing loss. In both the blood and hippocampus, only transient oxidative stress was observed after noise exposure. However, a deficit in spatial learning/memory was revealed 3 months after noise exposure. Moreover, the deficit was correlated with the degree of hearing loss and was associated with a decrease in neurogenesis in the hippocampus. We believe that the observed effects were likely due to hearing loss rather than the initial oxidant stress, which only lasted for a short period of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijie Liu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Pei Shen
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Tingting He
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Ying Chang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Lijuan Shi
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Shan Tao
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Xiaowei Li
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Qingying Xun
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China
| | - Xiaojing Guo
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China.,Children's medical center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiping Yu
- School of Human Communication Disorders, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, Nanjing China.,School of Human Communication Disorders, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
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13
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Farioli-Vecchioli S, Tirone F. Control of the Cell Cycle in Adult Neurogenesis and its Relation with Physical Exercise. Brain Plast 2015; 1:41-54. [PMID: 29765834 PMCID: PMC5928538 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-150013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the adult brain the neurogenesis is mainly restricted to two neurogenic regions: newly generated neurons arise at the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricle and at the subgranular zone of the hippocampal subregion named the dentate gyrus. The hippocampus is involved in learning and memory paradigms and the generation of new hippocampal neurons has been hypothesized to be a pivotal form of plasticity involved in the process. Moreover the dysregulation of hippocampal adult neurogenesis has been recognized and could anticipate several varieties of brain disease such as Alzheimer disease, epilepsy and depression. Over the last few decades numerous intrinsic, epigenetic and environmental factors have been revealed to deeply influence the process of adult neurogenesis, although the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Growing evidence indicates that physical exercise represents one of the main extrinsic factor able to profoundly increase hippocampal adult neurogenesis, by altering neurochemistry and function of newly generated neurons. The present review surveys how neurogenesis can be modulated by cell cycle kinetics and highlights the putative role of the cell cycle length as a key component of the beneficial effect of running for hippocampal adult neurogenesis, both in physiological conditions and in the presence of defective neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Felice Tirone
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
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14
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Beckervordersandforth R, Zhang CL, Lie DC. Transcription-Factor-Dependent Control of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2015; 7:a018879. [PMID: 26430216 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a018879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Adult-generated dentate granule neurons have emerged as major contributors to hippocampal plasticity. New neurons are generated from neural stem cells through a complex sequence of proliferation, differentiation, and maturation steps. Development of the new neuron is dependent on the precise temporal activity of transcription factors, which coordinate the expression of stage-specific genetic programs. Here, we review current knowledge in transcription factor-mediated regulation of mammalian neural stem cells and neurogenesis and will discuss potential mechanisms of how transcription factor networks, on one hand, allow for precise execution of the developmental sequence and, on the other hand, allow for adaptation of the rate and timing of adult neurogenesis in response to complex stimuli. Understanding transcription factor-mediated control of neuronal development will provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying neurogenesis-dependent plasticity in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Beckervordersandforth
- Institute of Biochemistry, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Chun-Li Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390
| | - Dieter Chichung Lie
- Institute of Biochemistry, Emil Fischer Center, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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15
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Micheli L, Ceccarelli M, Farioli-Vecchioli S, Tirone F. Control of the Normal and Pathological Development of Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells by the PC3/Tis21/Btg2 and Btg1 Genes. J Cell Physiol 2015; 230:2881-90. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Micheli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology; National Research Council; Fondazione S.Lucia Rome Italy
| | - Manuela Ceccarelli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology; National Research Council; Fondazione S.Lucia Rome Italy
| | - Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology; National Research Council; Fondazione S.Lucia Rome Italy
| | - Felice Tirone
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology; National Research Council; Fondazione S.Lucia Rome Italy
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16
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Whitfield JF, Chiarini A, Dal Prà I, Armato U, Chakravarthy B. The Possible Roles of the Dentate Granule Cell's Leptin and Other Ciliary Receptors in Alzheimer's Neuropathology. Cells 2015; 4:253-74. [PMID: 26184316 PMCID: PMC4588035 DOI: 10.3390/cells4030253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dentate-gyral granule cells in the hippocampus plus dentate gyrus memory-recording/retrieving machine, unlike most other neurons in the brain, are continuously being generated in the adult brain with the important task of separating overlapping patterns of data streaming in from the outside world via the entorhinal cortex. This "adult neurogenesis" is driven by tools in the mature granule cell's cilium. Here we report our discovery of leptin's LepRb receptor in this cilium. In addition, we discuss how ciliary LepRb signaling might be involved with ciliary p75NTR and SSTR3 receptors in adult neurogenesis and memory formation as well as attenuation of Alzheimer's neuropathology by reducing the production of its toxic amyloid-β-derived drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Whitfield
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
| | - Anna Chiarini
- Histology & Embryology Unit, Department of Life & Reproduction Sciences, University of Verona Medical School, 8 Strada Le Grazie, Verona, Venetia 37134, Italy.
| | - Ilaria Dal Prà
- Histology & Embryology Unit, Department of Life & Reproduction Sciences, University of Verona Medical School, 8 Strada Le Grazie, Verona, Venetia 37134, Italy.
| | - Ubaldo Armato
- Histology & Embryology Unit, Department of Life & Reproduction Sciences, University of Verona Medical School, 8 Strada Le Grazie, Verona, Venetia 37134, Italy.
| | - Balu Chakravarthy
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada.
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17
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Kapoor R, Fanibunda SE, Desouza LA, Guha SK, Vaidya VA. Perspectives on thyroid hormone action in adult neurogenesis. J Neurochem 2015; 133:599-616. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richa Kapoor
- Department of Biological Sciences; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Mumbai India
| | - Sashaina E. Fanibunda
- Department of Biological Sciences; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Mumbai India
| | - Lynette A. Desouza
- Department of Biological Sciences; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Mumbai India
| | - Suman K. Guha
- Department of Biological Sciences; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Mumbai India
| | - Vidita A. Vaidya
- Department of Biological Sciences; Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; Mumbai India
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18
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Yamada T, Minoda R, Miwa T, Ise M, Takeda H, Yumoto E. Neurogenesis of the spiral ganglion cells in the cochlea requires the transcriptional cofactor TIS21. Neurosci Lett 2014; 584:265-9. [PMID: 25451728 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms controlling the proliferation and differentiation of spiral ganglion cells (SGCs) in the inner ear are still largely unknown. TIS21 is a transcriptional cofactor that shows antiproliferative, antiapoptotic, and prodifferentiative effects on neural progenitor cells. To investigate the function of TIS21 during SGC development, we analyzed SGC neurogenesis from embryonic day 13.5 (E13.5) to postnatal day 4 (P4) in Tis21-GFP knock-in mice, in which the protein-encoding exon of the Tis21 gene was replaced by EGFP. Through E13.5 to P4, we found fewer SGCs in homozygous Tis21-GFP knock-in mice than in wild-type mice. Our results suggest that TIS21 is required for development of SGCs. Deleting Tis21 may affect progenitor cells or neuroblasts at the beginning of cochlear-vestibular ganglion formation and would consequently lead to a decrease in the number of SGCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao Yamada
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Ryosei Minoda
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan.
| | - Toru Miwa
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Momoko Ise
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Hiroki Takeda
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Eiji Yumoto
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kumamoto University, Graduate School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Honjo Chuouku, Kumamoto city, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
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19
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Araújo GLL, Araújo JAM, Schroeder T, Tort ABL, Costa MR. Sonic hedgehog signaling regulates mode of cell division of early cerebral cortex progenitors and increases astrogliogenesis. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:77. [PMID: 24653675 PMCID: PMC3949322 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The morphogen Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) plays a critical role in the development of different tissues. In the central nervous system, SHH is well known to contribute to the patterning of the spinal cord and separation of the brain hemispheres. In addition, it has recently been shown that SHH signaling also contributes to the patterning of the telencephalon and establishment of adult neurogenic niches. In this work, we investigated whether SHH signaling influences the behavior of neural progenitors isolated from the dorsal telencephalon, which generate excitatory neurons and macroglial cells in vitro. We observed that SHH increases proliferation of cortical progenitors and generation of astrocytes, whereas blocking SHH signaling with cyclopamine has opposite effects. In both cases, generation of neurons did not seem to be affected. However, cell survival was broadly affected by blockade of SHH signaling. SHH effects were related to three different cell phenomena: mode of cell division, cell cycle length and cell growth. Together, our data in vitro demonstrate that SHH signaling controls cell behaviors that are important for proliferation of cerebral cortex progenitors, as well as differentiation and survival of neurons and astroglial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geissy L L Araújo
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte Natal, Brazil
| | - Jessica A M Araújo
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte Natal, Brazil
| | - Timm Schroeder
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Cell Systems Dynamics, ETH Zurich Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adriano B L Tort
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte Natal, Brazil
| | - Marcos R Costa
- Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte Natal, Brazil
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20
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DeBoer EM, Rasin MR. Nucleoside analog labeling of neural stem cells and their progeny. Methods Mol Biol 2013; 1018:21-37. [PMID: 23681614 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-444-9_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Nucleoside analog pulse labeling is an important technique which can assess the birthdate, cell cycle maintenance, or cycling rates of cells during development. This method has evolved over several decades of use and is now applied to a multitude of tissue subtypes and systems. The methodology in this chapter covers the classic uses for analog pulse labeling as well as their use in conjunction with the newly characterized technique of in utero electroporation (IUE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Michael DeBoer
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA
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21
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Aprea J, Prenninger S, Dori M, Ghosh T, Monasor LS, Wessendorf E, Zocher S, Massalini S, Alexopoulou D, Lesche M, Dahl A, Groszer M, Hiller M, Calegari F. Transcriptome sequencing during mouse brain development identifies long non-coding RNAs functionally involved in neurogenic commitment. EMBO J 2013; 32:3145-60. [PMID: 24240175 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2013.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcriptome analysis of somatic stem cells and their progeny is fundamental to identify new factors controlling proliferation versus differentiation during tissue formation. Here, we generated a combinatorial, fluorescent reporter mouse line to isolate proliferating neural stem cells, differentiating progenitors and newborn neurons that coexist as intermingled cell populations during brain development. Transcriptome sequencing revealed numerous novel long non-coding (lnc)RNAs and uncharacterized protein-coding transcripts identifying the signature of neurogenic commitment. Importantly, most lncRNAs overlapped neurogenic genes and shared with them a nearly identical expression pattern suggesting that lncRNAs control corticogenesis by tuning the expression of nearby cell fate determinants. We assessed the power of our approach by manipulating lncRNAs and protein-coding transcripts with no function in corticogenesis reported to date. This led to several evident phenotypes in neurogenic commitment and neuronal survival, indicating that our study provides a remarkably high number of uncharacterized transcripts with hitherto unsuspected roles in brain development. Finally, we focussed on one lncRNA, Miat, whose manipulation was found to trigger pleiotropic effects on brain development and aberrant splicing of Wnt7b. Hence, our study suggests that lncRNA-mediated alternative splicing of cell fate determinants controls stem-cell commitment during neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieta Aprea
- DFG-Research Center and Cluster of Excellence for Regenerative Therapies, Dresden, Germany
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22
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Tirone F, Farioli-Vecchioli S, Micheli L, Ceccarelli M, Leonardi L. Genetic control of adult neurogenesis: interplay of differentiation, proliferation and survival modulates new neurons function, and memory circuits. Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:59. [PMID: 23734097 PMCID: PMC3653098 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Within the hippocampal circuitry, the basic function of the dentate gyrus is to transform the memory input coming from the enthorinal cortex into sparse and categorized outputs to CA3, in this way separating related memory information. New neurons generated in the dentate gyrus during adulthood appear to facilitate this process, allowing a better separation between closely spaced memories (pattern separation). The evidence underlying this model has been gathered essentially by ablating the newly adult-generated neurons. This approach, however, does not allow monitoring of the integration of new neurons into memory circuits and is likely to set in motion compensatory circuits, possibly leading to an underestimation of the role of new neurons. Here we review the background of the basic function of the hippocampus and of the known properties of new adult-generated neurons. In this context, we analyze the cognitive performance in mouse models generated by us and others, with modified expression of the genes Btg2 (PC3/Tis21), Btg1, Pten, BMP4, etc., where new neurons underwent a change in their differentiation rate or a partial decrease of their proliferation or survival rate rather than ablation. The effects of these modifications are equal or greater than full ablation, suggesting that the architecture of circuits, as it unfolds from the interaction between existing and new neurons, can have a greater functional impact than the sheer number of new neurons. We propose a model which attempts to measure and correlate the set of cellular changes in the process of neurogenesis with the memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felice Tirone
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council, Fondazione Santa LuciaRome, Italy
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23
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Giannakopoulou A, Grigoriadis N, Bekiari C, Lourbopoulos A, Dori I, Tsingotjidou AS, Michaloudi H, Papadopoulos GC. Acute inflammation alters adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a multiple sclerosis mouse model. J Neurosci Res 2013; 91:890-900. [PMID: 23606574 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Neural precursor cells (NPCs) located in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus (DG) give rise to thousands of new cells every day, mainly hippocampal neurons, which are integrated into existing neuronal circuits. Aging and chronic degenerative disorders have been shown to impair hippocampal neurogenesis, but the consequence of inflammation is somewhat controversial. The present study demonstrates that the inflammatory environment prevailing in the brain of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mice enhances the proliferation of NPCs in SGZ of the dorsal DG and alters the proportion between radial glial cells and newborn neuroblasts. The injection protocol of the cell cycle marker bromodeoxyuridine and the immunohistochemical techniques that were employed revealed that the proliferation of NPCs is increased approximately twofold in the SGZ of the dorsal DG of EAE mice, at the acute phase of the disease. However, although EAE animals exhibited significant higher percentage of newborn radial-glia-like NPCs, the mean percentage of newborn neuroblasts rather was decreased, indicating that the robust NPCs proliferation is not followed by a proportional production of newborn neurons. Significant positive correlations were detected between the number of proliferating cells in the SGZ and the clinical score or degree of brain inflammation of diseased animals. Finally, enhanced neuroproliferation in the acute phase of EAE was not found to trigger compensatory apoptotic mechanisms. The possible causes of altered neurogenesis observed in this study emphasize the need to understand more precisely the mechanisms regulating adult neurogenesis under both normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Giannakopoulou
- Laboratory of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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24
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Overall RW, Paszkowski-Rogacz M, Kempermann G. The mammalian adult neurogenesis gene ontology (MANGO) provides a structural framework for published information on genes regulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48527. [PMID: 23139788 PMCID: PMC3489671 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is not a single phenotype, but consists of a number of sub-processes, each of which is under complex genetic control. Interpretation of gene expression studies using existing resources often does not lead to results that address the interrelatedness of these processes. Formal structure, such as provided by ontologies, is essential in any field for comprehensive interpretation of existing knowledge but, until now, such a structure has been lacking for adult neurogenesis. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We have created a resource with three components 1. A structured ontology describing the key stages in the development of adult hippocampal neural stem cells into functional granule cell neurons. 2. A comprehensive survey of the literature to annotate the results of all published reports on gene function in adult hippocampal neurogenesis (257 manuscripts covering 228 genes) to the appropriate terms in our ontology. 3. An easy-to-use searchable interface to the resulting database made freely available online. The manuscript presents an overview of the database highlighting global trends such as the current bias towards research on early proliferative stages, and an example gene set enrichment analysis. A limitation of the resource is the current scope of the literature which, however, is growing by around 100 publications per year. With the ontology and database in place, new findings can be rapidly annotated and regular updates of the database will be made publicly available. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The resource we present allows relevant interpretation of gene expression screens in terms of defined stages of postnatal neuronal development. Annotation of genes by hand from the adult neurogenesis literature ensures the data are directly applicable to the system under study. We believe this approach could also serve as an example to other fields in a 'bottom-up' community effort complementing the already successful 'top-down' approach of the Gene Ontology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupert W. Overall
- CRTD – Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Maciej Paszkowski-Rogacz
- UCC – University Cancer Center, Medical Faculty, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Gerd Kempermann
- CRTD – Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- DZNE, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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25
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Kapoor R, Desouza LA, Nanavaty IN, Kernie SG, Vaidya VA. Thyroid hormone accelerates the differentiation of adult hippocampal progenitors. J Neuroendocrinol 2012; 24:1259-71. [PMID: 22497336 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2012.02329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Disrupted thyroid hormone function evokes severe physiological consequences in the immature brain. In adulthood, although clinical reports document an effect of thyroid hormone status on mood and cognition, the molecular and cellular changes underlying these behavioural effects are poorly understood. More recently, the subtle effects of thyroid hormone on structural plasticity in the mature brain, in particular on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, have come to be appreciated. However, the specific stages of adult hippocampal progenitor development that are sensitive to thyroid hormone are not defined. Using nestin-green fluorescent protein reporter mice, we demonstrate that thyroid hormone mediates its effects on hippocampal neurogenesis by influencing Type 2b and Type 3 progenitors, although it does not alter proliferation of either the Type 1 quiescent progenitor or the Type 2a amplifying neural progenitor. Thyroid hormone increases the number of doublecortin (DCX)-positive Type 3 progenitors, and accelerates neuronal differentiation into both DCX-positive immature neurones and neuronal nuclei-positive granule cell neurones. Furthermore, we show that this increase in neuronal differentiation is accompanied by a significant induction of specific transcription factors involved in hippocampal progenitor differentiation. In vitro studies using the neurosphere assay support a direct effect of thyroid hormone on progenitor development because neurospheres treated with thyroid hormone are shifted to a more differentiated state. Taken together, our results indicate that thyroid hormone mediates its neurogenic effects via targeting Type 2b and Type 3 hippocampal progenitors, and suggests a role for proneural transcription factors in contributing to the effects of thyroid hormone on neuronal differentiation of adult hippocampal progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Kapoor
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
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Farioli-Vecchioli S, Micheli L, Saraulli D, Ceccarelli M, Cannas S, Scardigli R, Leonardi L, Cinà I, Costanzi M, Ciotti MT, Moreira P, Rouault JP, Cestari V, Tirone F. Btg1 is Required to Maintain the Pool of Stem and Progenitor Cells of the Dentate Gyrus and Subventricular Zone. Front Neurosci 2012; 6:124. [PMID: 22969701 PMCID: PMC3431174 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 08/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Btg1 belongs to a family of cell cycle inhibitory genes. We observed that Btg1 is highly expressed in adult neurogenic niches, i.e., the dentate gyrus and subventricular zone (SVZ). Thus, we generated Btg1 knockout mice to analyze the role of Btg1 in the process of generation of adult new neurons. Ablation of Btg1 causes a transient increase of the proliferating dentate gyrus stem and progenitor cells at post-natal day 7; however, at 2 months of age the number of these proliferating cells, as well as of mature neurons, greatly decreases compared to wild-type controls. Remarkably, adult dentate gyrus stem and progenitor cells of Btg1-null mice exit the cell cycle after completing the S phase, express p53 and p21 at high levels and undergo apoptosis within 5 days. In the SVZ of adult (two-month-old) Btg1-null mice we observed an equivalent decrease, associated to apoptosis, of stem cells, neuroblasts, and neurons; furthermore, neurospheres derived from SVZ stem cells showed an age-dependent decrease of the self-renewal and expansion capacity. We conclude that ablation of Btg1 reduces the pool of dividing adult stem and progenitor cells in the dentate gyrus and SVZ by decreasing their proliferative capacity and inducing apoptosis, probably reflecting impairment of the control of the cell cycle transition from G1 to S phase. As a result, the ability of Btg1-null mice to discriminate among overlapping contextual memories was affected. Btg1 appears, therefore, to be required for maintaining adult stem and progenitor cells quiescence and self-renewal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, National Research Council Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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Kurumaji A, Nishikawa T. An anxiogenic drug, FG 7142, induced an increase in mRNA of Btg2 and Adamts1 in the hippocampus of adult mice. Behav Brain Funct 2012; 8:43. [PMID: 22913326 PMCID: PMC3541064 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-8-43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Anxiety and stress-related disorders are among the most common psychiatric disorders. The hippocampus is a crucial brain area involved in the neural circuits of the pathophysiology of anxiety and stress-related disorders, and GABA is one of most important neurotransmitters related to these disorders. An anxiogenic drug and a pharmacological stressor, FG7142 (N-methyl-ß-carboline-3-carboxamide), produces anxiety in humans and experimental animals, acting at the benzodiazepine sites of the GABAA receptors as a partial inverse agonist. This drug as well as immobilization stress produced an increased mRNA in a number of genes, e.g., Btg2 and Adamsts1, in the cortex of rodents. The present study was carried out to clarify the effect of the anxiogenic drug on the gene expressions in the hippocampus and to obtain a new insight into the GABAergic system involved in the pathophysiology of the disorders. Method We examined the effects of FG7142 on the gene expression of Btg2 and Adamts1 in the hippocampus of mice using a quantitative RT-PCR method as well as an in situ hybridization method. Results The intraperitoneal administration of FG7142 at a dose of 20 mg/kg, but not 10 mg/kg, induced a statistically significant increase in the hippocampal mRNA of both genes in adult mice (postnatal days 56), being blocked by co-administrations of flumazenil (twice of 10 mg/kg, i.p.), an antagonist at the benzodiazepine binding site, while FG7142 failed to produce any change in the gene expressions in infant mice (postnatal days 8). In addition, the in situ hybridization experiment demonstrated an upregulation of the gene expressions restricted to the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in adult mice. Conclusions The present study suggests a functional coupling between the GABAergic system and the transcriptional regulation of the two genes (Btg2 and Adamsts1) in the hippocampus of adult mice, which may play a role in the brain function related to anxiety and stress such as memory of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akeo Kurumaji
- Section of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan.
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Dhaliwal J, Lagace DC. Visualization and genetic manipulation of adult neurogenesis using transgenic mice. Eur J Neurosci 2011; 33:1025-36. [PMID: 21395845 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07600.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Many laboratories have focused efforts on the creation of transgenic mouse models to study adult neurogenesis. In the last decade several constitutive reporter, as well as inducible transgenic lines have been published that allowed for visualization, tracking and alteration of specific neurogenic cell populations in the adult brain. Given the popularity of this approach, multiple mouse lines are available, and this review summarizes the differences in the basic techniques that have been used to create these mice, highlighting the different constructs and reporter proteins used, as well as the strengths and limitations of each of these models. Representative examples from the literature demonstrate some of the diverse and seminal findings that have come to fruition through the laborious, yet highly rewarding work of creating transgenic mouse lines for adult neurogenesis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagroop Dhaliwal
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Manns M, Leske O, Gottfried S, Bichler Z, Lafenêtre P, Wahle P, Heumann R. Role of neuronal ras activity in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition. Front Neurosci 2011; 5:18. [PMID: 21427796 PMCID: PMC3052750 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2011.00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain is modulated by various signals like growth factors, hormones, neuropeptides, and neurotransmitters. All of these factors can (but not necessarily do) converge on the activation of the G protein Ras. We used a transgenic mouse model (synRas mice) expressing constitutively activated G12V-Harvey Ras selectively in differentiated neurons to investigate the possible effects onto neurogenesis. H-Ras activation in neurons attenuates hippocampal precursor cell generation at an early stage of the proliferative cascade before neuronal lineage determination occurs. Therefore it is unlikely that the transgenically activated H-Ras in neurons mediates this effect by a direct, intracellular signaling mechanism. Voluntary exercise restores neurogenesis up to wild type level presumably mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Reduced neurogenesis is linked to impairments in spatial short-term memory and object recognition, the latter can be rescued by voluntary exercise, as well. These data support the view that new cells significantly increase complexity that can be processed by the hippocampal network when experience requires high demands to associate stimuli over time and/or space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Manns
- Biopsychology, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty for Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum Bochum, Germany
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Simpson JM, Gil-Mohapel J, Pouladi MA, Ghilan M, Xie Y, Hayden MR, Christie BR. Altered adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the YAC128 transgenic mouse model of Huntington disease. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 41:249-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Farioli-Vecchioli S, Saraulli D, Costanzi M, Leonardi L, Cinà I, Micheli L, Nutini M, Longone P, Oh SP, Cestari V, Tirone F. Impaired terminal differentiation of hippocampal granule neurons and defective contextual memory in PC3/Tis21 knockout mice. PLoS One 2009; 4:e8339. [PMID: 20020054 PMCID: PMC2791842 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult hippocampus has been implicated in neural plasticity and memory, but the molecular mechanisms controlling the proliferation and differentiation of newborn neurons and their integration into the synaptic circuitry are still largely unknown. To investigate this issue, we have analyzed the adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a PC3/Tis21-null mouse model. PC3/Tis21 is a transcriptional co-factor endowed with antiproliferative and prodifferentiative properties; indeed, its upregulation in neural progenitors has been shown to induce exit from cell cycle and differentiation. We demonstrate here that the deletion of PC3/Tis21 causes an increased proliferation of progenitor cells in the adult dentate gyrus and an arrest of their terminal differentiation. In fact, in the PC3/Tis21-null hippocampus postmitotic undifferentiated neurons accumulated, while the number of terminally differentiated neurons decreased of 40%. As a result, PC3/Tis21-null mice displayed a deficit of contextual memory. Notably, we observed that PC3/Tis21 can associate to the promoter of Id3, an inhibitor of proneural gene activity, and negatively regulates its expression, indicating that PC3/Tis21 acts upstream of Id3. Our results identify PC3/Tis21 as a gene required in the control of proliferation and terminal differentiation of newborn neurons during adult hippocampal neurogenesis and suggest its involvement in the formation of contextual memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Farioli-Vecchioli
- Institute of Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Saraulli
- Institute of Neuroscience, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, Italy
- LUMSA University, Faculty of Educational Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Costanzi
- Institute of Neuroscience, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, Italy
- LUMSA University, Faculty of Educational Science, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Leonardi
- Institute of Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Irene Cinà
- Institute of Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Micheli
- Institute of Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Michele Nutini
- Molecular Neurobiology Unit, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | | | - S. Paul Oh
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Vincenzo Cestari
- Institute of Neuroscience, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, Italy
- LUMSA University, Faculty of Educational Science, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail: (FT); (VC)
| | - Felice Tirone
- Institute of Neurobiology and Molecular Medicine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Fondazione S.Lucia, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail: (FT); (VC)
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