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Shi X, Zhang Y, Chen S, Du X, Zhang P, Duan X, Fang H, Liu S. Differential gene expression and immune cell infiltration in maedi-visna virus-infected lung tissues. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:534. [PMID: 38816794 PMCID: PMC11141007 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10448-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maedi-visna virus (MVV) is a lentivirus that infects monocyte/macrophage lineage cells in sheep, goats, and wild ruminants and causes pneumonia, mastitis, arthritis, and encephalitis. The immune response to MVV infection is complex, and a complete understanding of its infection and pathogenesis is lacking. This study investigated the in vivo transcriptomic patterns of lung tissues in sheep exposed to MVV using the RNA sequencing technology. RESULT The results indicated that 2,739 genes were significantly differentially expressed, with 1,643 downregulated genes and 1,096 upregulated genes. Many variables that could be unique to MVV infections were discovered. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that a significant proportion of genes was enriched in terms directly related to the immune system and biological responses to viral infections. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis revealed that the most enriched pathways were related to virus-host cell interactions and inflammatory responses. Numerous immune-related genes, including those encoding several cytokines and interferon regulatory factors, were identified in the protein-protein interaction network of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The expression of DEGs was evaluated using real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. CXCL13, CXCL6, CXCL11, CCR1, CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10, TNFSF8, TNFRSF8, IL7R, IFN-γ, CCL2, and MMP9 were upregulated. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to identify the types of immune cells that infiltrated MVV-infected tissues. B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and macrophages were the most prevalent immune cells correlated with MVV infection in the lungs. CONCLUSION Overall, the findings of this study provide a comprehensive understanding of the in vivo host response to MVV infection and offer new perspectives on the gene regulatory networks that underlie pathogenesis in natural hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaona Shi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Yufei Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Sixu Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Xiaoyue Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Pei Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Xujie Duan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Hui Fang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China
| | - Shuying Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Zhao Wu Da Road No. 306, Hohhot, 010018, China.
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Basic Veterinary Science, Hohhot, 010018, China.
- Key Laboratory of Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment Technology in Animal Disease, Ministry of Agriculture, Hohhot, 010018, China.
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Lindquist L, Kilembe W, Karita E, Price MA, Kamali A, Kaleebu P, Tang J, Allen S, Hunter E, Gilmour J, Rowland-Jones SL, Sanders EJ, Hassan AS, Esbjörnsson J. HLA-A*23 Is Associated With Lower Odds of Acute Retroviral Syndrome in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection: A Multicenter Sub-Saharan African Study. Open Forum Infect Dis 2024; 11:ofae129. [PMID: 38560608 PMCID: PMC10977907 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofae129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The role of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and killer immunoglobulin-like receptor molecules in mediating acute retroviral syndrome (ARS) during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is unclear. Among 72 sub-Saharan African adults, HLA-A*23 was associated with lower odds of ARS (adjusted odds ratio, 0.10 [95% confidence interval, .01-.48]; P = .009), which warrants further studies to explore its role on HIV-1-specific immunopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lovisa Lindquist
- Lund University Centre, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - William Kilembe
- Rwanda/Zambia HIV Research Group, Kigali, Rwanda and Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Etienne Karita
- Rwanda/Zambia HIV Research Group, Kigali, Rwanda and Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Matt A Price
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Pontiano Kaleebu
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Centre Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jianming Tang
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Susan Allen
- Rwanda/Zambia HIV Research Group, Kigali, Rwanda and Lusaka, Zambia
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric Hunter
- Rwanda/Zambia HIV Research Group, Kigali, Rwanda and Lusaka, Zambia
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jill Gilmour
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, New York, New York, USA
- Human Immunology Laboratory, International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah L Rowland-Jones
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eduard J Sanders
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Aurum Institute, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Amin S Hassan
- Lund University Centre, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Kenya Medical Research Institute/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Joakim Esbjörnsson
- Lund University Centre, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Fwambah L, Andisi C, Streatfield C, Bromell R, Hare J, Esbjörnsson J, Ndung’u T, Sanders EJ, Hassan A, Nduati E. Exposure to common infections may shape basal immunity and potentially HIV-1 acquisition amongst a high-risk population in Coastal Kenya. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1283559. [PMID: 38274822 PMCID: PMC10808675 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1283559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The impact of exposure to endemic infections on basal immunity and susceptibility to HIV-1 acquisition remains uncertain. We hypothesized that exposure to infections such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), malaria and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in high-risk individuals may modulate immunity and subsequently increase susceptibility to HIV-1 acquisition. Methods A case-control study nested in an HIV-1 negative high-risk cohort from Coastal Kenya was used. Cases were defined as volunteers who tested HIV-1 positive during follow-up and had a plasma sample collected 3 ± 2 months prior to the estimated date of HIV-1 infection. Controls were individuals who remained HIV-1 negative during the follow-up and were matched 2:1 to cases by sex, age, risk group and follow-up time. STI screening was performed using microscopic and serologic tests. HIV-1 pre-infection plasma samples were used to determined exposure to CMV and malaria using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and to quantify forty-one cytokines and soluble factors using multiplexing assays. Multiplexing data were analyzed using principal component analysis. Associations between cytokines and soluble factors with subsequent HIV-1 acquisition were determined using conditional logistic regression models. Results and discussion Overall, samples from 47 cases and 94 controls were analyzed. While exposure to malaria (p=0.675) and CMV (p=0.470) were not associated with HIV-1 acquisition, exposure to STIs was (48% [95% CI, 33.3 - 63] vs. 26% [95% CI, 17.3 - 35.9]. Ten analytes were significantly altered in cases compared to controls and were clustered into four principal components: PC1 (VEGF, MIP-1β, VEGF-C and IL-4), PC2 (MCP-1, IL-2 and IL-12p70), PC3 (VEGF-D) and PC4 (Eotaxin-3). PC1, which is suggestive of a Th2-modulatory pathway, was significantly associated with HIV-1 acquisition after controlling for STIs (adjusted odds ratio, (95% CI), p-value: 1.51 [1.14 - 2.00], p=0.004). Elevation of Th2-associated pathways may dampen responses involved in viral immunity, leading to enhanced susceptibility to HIV-1 acquisition. Immunomodulatory interventions aimed at inhibiting activation of Th2-associated pathways may be an additional strategy to STI control for HIV-1 prevention and may reduce dampening of immune responses to vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn Fwambah
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Cheryl Andisi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Claire Streatfield
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI) Human Immunology Laboratory, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Bromell
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI) Human Immunology Laboratory, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Hare
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI) Human Immunology Laboratory, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), New York, NY, United States
| | - Joakim Esbjörnsson
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Thumbi Ndung’u
- Africa Health Research Institute (AHRI), Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Pathogenesis Programme, The Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eduard J. Sanders
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- The Aurum Institute, HIV Division, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Amin S. Hassan
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Eunice Nduati
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI)/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
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GABERT R, LAMA JR, VALDEZ R, DASGUPTA S, CABELLO R, SANCHEZ H, LEON M, VALENCIA HUAMANI J, MAC RAE J, MONTALBAN E, PASALAR S, BENDER IGNACIO R, DUERR A. Acute retroviral syndrome is associated with lower CD4 + T cell nadir and delayed viral suppression, which are blunted by immediate antiretroviral therapy initiation. AIDS 2023; 37:1103-1108. [PMID: 36779502 PMCID: PMC10355282 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe the prevalence of acute retroviral syndrome (ARS) and associated findings during primary HIV, and explore the relationship of ARS to clinical, virological, and immunological outcomes within a longitudinal screen, retest and treat study that minimized ascertainment bias. DESIGN We evaluated ARS symptoms and signs among 216 persons with acute and early incident HIV within the Sabes study of timing of antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation during primary HIV in Peru. METHODS We evaluated patient reported symptoms and signs during primary HIV and used logistic regression and generalized linear models to evaluate associations with CD4 + and CD8 + T cell counts, HIV viral load, and a panel of 23 soluble markers of immune activation. RESULTS Sixty-one percent of participants had at least one ARS finding and 35% had at least 3. More ARS findings were reported in those enrolled within a month of estimated date of detectable infection (EDDI). Having more ARS signs/symptoms was associated with increased risk of CD4 + cell decrease below 350 cells/ml within the first 24 weeks, failure to suppress HIV viral load, and was most strongly associated with elevated IP-10. Immediate ART blunted effects on symptoms, CD4 + cell count and viral load, as associations were strongest in the arm that started ART after 24 weeks. Detrimental associations of ARS with CD4 + counts, and CD4 + /CD8 + ratio were not maintained at 2 or 4 years. CONCLUSIONS ARS has marked associations with short-term immunologic function and virologic suppression, which were mitigated in participants randomized to initiate ART immediately during primary infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rogelio VALDEZ
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA USA
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | | | | | - Mey LEON
- Asociación Civil Impacta Salud y Educación, Lima, Peru
| | | | - John MAC RAE
- Asociación Civil Impacta Salud y Educación, Lima, Peru
| | | | | | - Rachel BENDER IGNACIO
- University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Ann DUERR
- University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA USA
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Smith SA, Murray PM, Amancha PK, Ackerley CG, Tharp GK, Bosinger SE, Amara RR, Kelley CF. T-cell activation and B-cell interaction signatures in rectal tissues are associated with HIV replication in ex-vivo model of infection. AIDS 2022; 36:2101-2106. [PMID: 35969202 PMCID: PMC10228710 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The rectal mucosa is a critical site of HIV vulnerability. We sought to identify transcriptomic features of rectal mucosal tissue prior to exposure associated with support or restriction of HIV replication. DESIGN Rectal tissue from HIV-negative cis gender men ( n = 57) underwent concurrent RNAseq transcriptomic analyses (two biopsies/participant) and challenge with HIV in the ex-vivo explant model of infection (three biopsies challenged/participant) as part of a larger cohort study to understand the rectal mucosal immune environment among MSM. METHODS P24 was quantified in the explant supernatants over a culture period of 18 days via ELISA. Participant median p24 log area under the curve was correlated with bulk transcriptomic data (Illumina HiSeq3000) to identify associations between gene expression and p24 production. Significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified via DESeq2 analysis and analyzed with Reactome to identify pathways of interest. RESULTS In total, 183 DEG (181 upregulated, two downregulated) were associated with higher p24 accumulation in the ex-vivo challenge model, including T-cell activation, B-cell function, and chemokine DEG. Reactome analysis of the upregulated genes identified 'Adaptive Immune System', 'Cytokine Signaling in Immune System', and 'Innate Immune System' as significantly upregulated pathways. CONCLUSION For the first time, we identified rectal tissue transcriptomic signatures associated with increased p24 production utilizing an ex-vivo model. Our findings are highly relevant to HIV transmission and the early establishment of HIV reservoirs in humans, and future studies should examine the identified pathways as targets for new or improved biomedical prevention or treatment interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Abigail Smith
- Division of Infectious Disease, The Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Phillip M. Murray
- Division of Infectious Disease, The Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Praveen K. Amancha
- Division of Infectious Disease, The Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Cassie G. Ackerley
- Division of Infectious Disease, The Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Gregory K. Tharp
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Steven E. Bosinger
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rama R. Amara
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Colleen F. Kelley
- Division of Infectious Disease, The Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Decatur, GA, USA
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Alrubayyi A, Rowland-Jones S, Peppa D. Natural killer cells during acute HIV-1 infection: clues for HIV-1 prevention and therapy. AIDS 2022; 36:1903-1915. [PMID: 35851334 PMCID: PMC9612724 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Despite progress in preexposure prophylaxis, the number of newly diagnosed cases with HIV-1 remains high, highlighting the urgent need for preventive and therapeutic strategies to reduce HIV-1 acquisition and limit disease progression. Early immunological events, occurring during acute infection, are key determinants of the outcome and course of disease. Understanding early immune responses occurring before viral set-point is established, is critical to identify potential targets for prophylactic and therapeutic approaches. Natural killer (NK) cells represent a key cellular component of innate immunity and contribute to the early host defence against HIV-1 infection, modulating the pathogenesis of acute HIV-1 infection (AHI). Emerging studies have identified tools for harnessing NK cell responses and expanding specialized NK subpopulations with adaptive/memory features, paving the way for development of novel HIV-1 therapeutics. This review highlights the knowns and unknowns regarding the role of NK cell subsets in the containment of acute HIV-1 infection, and summarizes recent advances in selectively augmenting NK cell functions through prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aljawharah Alrubayyi
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London
| | | | - Dimitra Peppa
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London
- Mortimer Market Centre, Department of HIV, CNWL NHS Trust, London, UK
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Kapaata A, Balinda SN, Hare J, Leonova O, Kikaire B, Egesa M, Lubyayi L, Macharia GN, Kamali A, Gilmour J, Bagaya B, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Kaleebu P. Infection with HIV-1 subtype D among acutely infected Ugandans is associated with higher median concentration of cytokines compared to subtype A. IJID REGIONS 2022; 3:89-95. [PMID: 35755471 PMCID: PMC9205166 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijregi.2022.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 subtype D exhibited significantly higher median concentrations of cytokines IL-12/23p40 and IL-1α were associated with faster CD4+T cell count decline bFGF was associated with maintenance of CD4+ counts above 350 cells/microliter
Objective The observation that HIV-1 subtype D progresses faster to disease than subtype A prompted us to examine cytokine levels early after infection within the predominant viral subtypes that circulate in Uganda and address the following research questions: (1) Do cytokine levels vary between subtypes A1 and D? (2) Do cytokine profiles correlate with disease outcomes? Methods To address these questions, HIV-1 subtypes were determined by population sequencing of the HIV-1 pol gene and 37 plasma cytokine concentrations were evaluated using V-Plex kits on Meso Scale Discovery platform in 65 recent sero-converters. Results HIV-1 subtype D (pol) infections exhibited significantly higher median plasma concentrations of IL-5, IL-16, IL-1α, IL-7, IL-17A, CCL11 (Eotaxin-1), CXCL10 (IP-10), CCL13 (MCP-4) and VEGF-D compared to subtype A1 (pol) infections. We also found that IL-12/23p40 and IL-1α were associated with faster CD4+T cell count decline, while bFGF was associated with maintenance of CD4+ counts above 350 cells/microliter. Conclusion Our results suggest that increased production of cytokines in early HIV infection may trigger a disruption of the immune environment and contribute to pathogenic mechanisms underlying the accelerated disease progression seen in individuals infected with HIV-1 subtype D in Uganda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Kapaata
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
- Corresponding author:
| | - Sheila N. Balinda
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Jonathan Hare
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Olga Leonova
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bernard Kikaire
- Uganda Virus Research Institute
- Department of Paediatrics, College of Health sciences, Makerere university
| | - Moses Egesa
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Lawrence Lubyayi
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Gladys N. Macharia
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | - Jill Gilmour
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bernard Bagaya
- Department of Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere university
| | - Jesus F. Salazar-Gonzalez
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Pontiano Kaleebu
- Medical Research Council/Uganda Virus Research Institute & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Uganda Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
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