The cost-effectiveness of screening for chronic hepatitis B infection in the United States

A Comparative Trial of Improving Care for Underserved Asian Americans Infected with Hepatitis B Virus

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Asian Americans have the highest incidence and mortality rates of HCC among all US racial/ethnic groups. Inadequate monitoring and treatment of chronic hepatitis B contribute to poor health outcomes and increased healthcare costs among Asian Americans.

AIMS

The goal of this study is to assess the effect of a patient-led strategy on chronic hepatitis B monitoring and treatment adherence specifically among Asian Americans with culturally tailored Patient Navigator-led Intervention.

METHODS

From 2015 to 2018, 532 eligible participants living with chronic hepatitis B in the greater Philadelphia and New York city metropolitan areas were randomly assigned to either the intervention group or the control group. Generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to estimate the odds ratio (OR) for rates of doctor visits for chronic hepatitis B and rates of alanine aminotransferase testing for evidence of liver damage.

RESULTS

Intervention group had higher rates of doctor visits than the control group at both 6-month (77.22% vs. 45.75%) and 12-month assessments (90.73% vs. 60.61%). Significantly more intervention group participants received ALT testing than control group participants at 6-month (52.90% vs. 25.10%) and 12-month (75.40% vs. 46.75%) follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Culturally and linguistically appropriate intervention has strong effects on adherence to follow-up care among Asian American hepatitis B patients experiencing challenges to medication adherence and follow up care. These findings further identify opportunities for practical implementation of evidence-based intervention that could lead to reductions in disparities in chronic liver disease and liver cancer among high-risk, underserved populations.

[A comprehensive screening for hepatitis B and C as an effective means of cancer prevention and as a prerequisite for elimination of chronic viral hepatitis - Data and comments on a discussion]

Since October 2021 in Germany all people with a statutory health insurance aged 35 and older have the right to be tested once for hepatitis B and C in a general preventative examination, regardless of specific risk-factors. This is a milestone on the way of eliminating these infections and also a great contribution to cancer prevention.In the USA the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention in April 2020 recommended a one-time screening for all adults aged 18 and older in addition to testing people with known risk-factors, because a significant part of the affected population cannot be identified with risk-based screening. Corresponding CDC-Recommendations for HBV are currently elaborated. According to available Data this screening strategy combined with a vaccination for HBV is necessary in Germany too to reach the agreed elimination goals till the year of 2030. Furthermore, an offer of such a testing for all adults can be regarded as ethically imperative to prevent as many life-threatening consequences or deaths as possible by effective therapies.

Routine screening of emergency admissions at risk of chronic hepatitis (SEARCH) identifies and links hepatitis B cases to care

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Significant barriers exist with hepatitis B (HBV) case detection and effective linkage to care (LTC). The emergency department (ED) is a unique healthcare interaction where hepatitis screening and LTC could be achieved. We examined the efficacy and utility of automated ED HBV screening for Overseas Born (OB) patients.

METHODS

A novel-automated hepatitis screening service "SEARCH" (Screening Emergency Admissions at Risk of Chronic Hepatitis) was piloted at a metropolitan hospital. A retrospective and comparative analysis of hepatitis testing during the SEARCH pilot compared to a period of routine testing was conducted.

RESULTS

During the SEARCH pilot, 4778 OB patients were tested for HBV (86% of eligible patient presentations), compared with 1.9% of eligible patients during a control period of clinician-initiated testing. SEARCH detected 108 (2.3%) hepatitis B surface antigen positive patients including 20 (19%) in whom the diagnosis was new. Among 88 patients with known HBV, 57% were receiving medical care, 33% had become lost to follow-up and 10% had never received HBV care. Overall, 30/88 (34%) patients with known HBV were receiving complete guideline-based care prior to re-engagement via SEARCH. Following SEARCH, LTC was successful achieved in 48/58 (83%) unlinked patients and 19 patients were commenced on anti-viral therapy. New diagnoses of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma were made in five and one patient(s) respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Automated ED screening of OB patients is effective in HBV diagnosis, re-diagnosis and LTC. Prior to SEARCH, the majority of patients were not receiving guideline-based care.

Improving Long-Term Adherence to Monitoring/Treatment in Underserved Asian Americans with Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) through a Multicomponent Culturally Tailored Intervention: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Although Asian Americans make up 6% of the U.S. population, they account for 58% of Americans with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). Yet, adherence to monitoring and antiviral treatment guidelines among Asian American CHB patients remains suboptimal.

METHODS

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a multicomponent intervention on adherence to CHB monitoring among Asian Americans with CHB. The intervention components included virtual patient education, patient navigation, and mobile health reminders delivered by bilingual community health educators. Chi-square test and t-test were used to compare demographic characteristics and two CHB measures: CHB clinical follow-up and CHB laboratory monitoring by the time of the 12-month follow-up assessment. A generalized linear mixed-effects model (GLMM) was fitted to assess the effectiveness of the intervention.

RESULTS

The study sample consisted of 358 Chinese and Vietnamese Americans living with CHB, including 181 in the intervention group and 177 in the control group. The intervention group had a significantly higher rate of CHB clinical follow-up (86.2%) and CHB laboratory monitoring (79.0%) than did the control group (54.2% and 45.2%, respectively). Results of the GLMM showed significant intervention effects on CHB clinical follow-up (odds ratio = 7.35, 95% confidence interval = 4.06-13.33) and CHB laboratory monitoring (odds ratio = 6.60, 95% confidence interval = 3.77-11.56) at the 12-month follow-up assessment.

CONCLUSION

The multicomponent intervention was effective in improving adherence to CHB monitoring among Asian Americans. Additional implementation research is needed to better understand and apply effective interventions to other underserved populations.

Targeted antiviral treatment of hepatitis B virus in culturally and linguistically diverse populations to achieve elimination targets in Australia

The majority of Australia's hepatitis B virus (HBV) burden is borne by culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) populations, and antiviral treatment is the mainstay of intervention. Using modelling, we estimated the impact of targeted antiviral treatment scale-up and changes in migration on HBV-related mortality and HBV elimination in CALD populations in Australia. We fitted a deterministic mathematical model based on the natural history of HBV and the Australian migration effect in four CALD population groups according to country of birth. We used three antiviral treatment scale-up scenarios: baseline (9.3% coverage); intermediate (coverage of 80% of patients eligible for antiviral therapy by 2030); and optimistic (coverage of 20% of all patients living with HBV by 2022). Our model predicted that if the baseline treatment is followed between 2015 and 2030, the number of chronic HBV cases and HBV-related mortality will increase. Following the optimistic scale-up, the number of new HBV cases could be reduced by 78%, 73%, 74% and 83% in people born in Asia-Pacific, Europe, Africa and the Middle East, and Americas, respectively, between 2015 and 2030. An optimistic treatment scale-up could result in a 19.2%-24.5% reduction in HBV-related mortality and a 15%-25% reduction in HCC-related mortality in CALD populations between 2015 and 2030. In conclusion, our findings highlight that targeted antiviral treatment for CALD populations provides significant health system benefits by reducing HBV-related complications from cirrhosis and HCC. Expanded antiviral treatment programmes focusing on high-prevalence CALD populations may be an effective strategy to reduce HBV-related morbidity and mortality.

Australian consensus recommendations for the management of hepatitis B

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in Australia is nearly 1%. In certain well defined groups the prevalence is far greater, yet an estimated 27% of people living with HBV infection remain undiagnosed. Appropriate screening improves detection, increases opportunity for treatment, and ultimately reduces the significant morbidity and mortality associated with the development of liver fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS

This statement highlights important aspects of HBV infection management in Australia. There have been recent changes in nomenclature and understanding of natural history, as well as a newly defined upper limit of normal for liver tests that determine phase classification and threshold for antiviral treatment. As the main burden of hepatitis B in Australia is within migrant and Indigenous communities, early identification and management of people living with hepatitis B is essential to prevent adverse outcomes including liver cancer and cirrhosis.

CHANGE IN MANAGEMENT AS A RESULT OF THIS GUIDELINE

These recommendations aim to raise awareness of the current management of hepatitis B in Australia. Critically, the timely identification of individuals living with hepatitis B, and where appropriate, commencement of antiviral therapy, can prevent the development of cirrhosis, HCC and mother-to-child transmission as well as hepatitis B reactivation in immunocompromised individuals. Recognising patient and viral factors that predispose to the development of cirrhosis and HCC will enable clinicians to risk-stratify and appropriately implement surveillance strategies to prevent these complications of hepatitis B.

Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of universal hepatitis B virus vaccination in Iran: a Markov model analysis

Vaccination is an essential way to prevent the transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV). Various studies have been published on the cost-effectiveness of HBV vaccination, but since the results vary according to the target population and related health outcomes, this study examined the cost-effectiveness of the universal HBV vaccination in Iran. In this economic evaluation study, a decision tree with the Markov model was used to compare the universal HBV vaccination with a strategy of non-vaccination. Health states used in the model included healthy, chronic hepatitis B, compensated cirrhosis, decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and death. Analyses were performed from a payer's perspective. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) per life-year gained, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained were calculated at a 5% annual discount rate. The sensitivity analysis was conducted using Monte Carlo simulation. Analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel and TreeAge Pro 2011 software. In 2017, the estimated cost per dose for any HBV vaccine was $3.20 USD. The universal HBV vaccination was economically advantageous compared to non-vaccination, and the estimated cost of this program per life-year and QALY gained were $6,319 and negative (-) $1,183.85 USD, respectively. Given the uncertainty of all parameters, the model remained robust and reliable. In Iran, the universal HBV vaccination strategy for both health outcomes of QALY and life-years gained was cost-effective and advantageous. The vaccination strategy saved money, increased life years and improved quality of life. Therefore, it is recommended that this program continues to be provided.

Cost-Effectiveness of One-Time Universal Screening for Chronic Hepatitis B Infection in Adults in the United States

BACKGROUND

An estimated 862,000 to 2.4 million people have chronic hepatitis B infection (CHB). Left undiagnosed and untreated CHB increases risk of death from liver cirrhosis or liver cancer. Hepatitis B screening is recommended for pregnant women and populations with increased CHB risk, but diagnosis rates remain low with only 33% of people with CHB aware of their infection.. This study aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of universal adult screening for CHB.

METHODS

We used a Markov model to calculate the costs, population health impact and cost-effectiveness of one-time universal screening and CHB monitoring and treatment compared to current practice. Sensitivity analysis was performed on model parameters to identify thresholds for cost-savings or cost-effectiveness based on willinness-to-pay of $50,000/QALY . The analysis assumed testing would be performed during routine healthcare visits, and generic tenofovir or entecavir would be dispensed for treatment. Testing costs were based on Medicare reimbursement rates.

RESULTS

At an estimated 0.24% prevalence of undiagnosed CHB, universal HBsAg screening in adults 18-69 years old is cost-saving compared with current practice if antiviral treatment drug costs remain below $894 per year. Compared with current practice, universal screening would avert an additional 7.4 cases of compensated cirrhosis, 3.3 cases of decompensated cirrhosis, 5.5 cases of hepatocellular carcinoma, 1.9 liver transplants, and 10.3 HBV related deaths at a savings of $263,000 per 100,000 adults screened.

CONCLUSION

Universal HBsAg screening of adults in the US general population for CHB is cost-effective and likely cost-saving compared to current CHB screening recommendations.

Hepatitis B seroprevalence in the U.S. military and its impact on potential screening strategies

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the contemporary epidemiology of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection among military personnel can inform potential Department of Defense (DoD) screening policy and infection and disease control strategies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HBV infection status at accession and following deployment was determined by evaluating reposed serum from 10,000 service members recently deployed to combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan in the period from 2007 to 2010. A cost model was developed from the perspective of the Department of Defense for a program to integrate HBV infection screening of applicants for military service into the existing screening program of screening new accessions for vaccine-preventable infections.

RESULTS

The prevalence of chronic HBV infection at accession was 2.3/1,000 (95% CI: 1.4, 3.2); most cases (16/21, 76%) identified after deployment were present at accession. There were 110 military service-related HBV infections identified. Screening accessions who are identified as HBV susceptible with HBV surface antigen followed by HBV surface antigen neutralization for confirmation offered no cost advantage over not screening and resulted in a net annual increase in cost of $5.78 million. However, screening would exclude as many as 514 HBV cases each year from accession.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening for HBV infection at service entry would potentially reduce chronic HBV infection in the force, decrease the threat of transfusion-transmitted HBV infection in the battlefield blood supply, and lead to earlier diagnosis and linkage to care; however, applicant screening is not cost saving. Service-related incident infections indicate a durable threat, the need for improved laboratory-based surveillance tools, and mandate review of immunization policy and practice.

Maintaining Hepatitis B Protection in Immunocompromised Pediatric Rheumatology and Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients

OBJECTIVE

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a significant public health challenge, particularly for immunocompromised patients. Our aim was to evaluate the serologic immunity in immunocompromised rheumatology and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients, assess factors for serologic nonimmunity, and evaluate their response to 1 HBV booster dose.

METHODS

Immunocompromised rheumatology and IBD patients with completed HBV screening were identified. A chart review was performed to collect demographics, clinical information, baseline HBV serology results, and serologic response to booster vaccination. Serologic nonimmunity was defined as a negative/indeterminate hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) level.

RESULTS

Among 580 patients, 71% were nonimmune. The highest portion of nonimmune patients were 11-18 years old (P = 0.004). There was no significant difference between immune and nonimmune patients with regards to diagnosis (P = 0.34), age at diagnosis (P = 0.64), duration of treatment (P = 0.07), or type of medications (P = 0.08). Sixty-two percent of those who received a booster vaccine were rescreened, and most (68%) seroconverted. In those 18 years or older, only half seroconverted.

CONCLUSION

Results of this study support the benefit of HBV screening in immunosuppressed patients. Beginning at age 11 years, most patients lacked serologic immunity to HBV. Seroconversion for most patients 11-18 years occurred after 1 booster vaccine. Thus, for immunocompromised patients without recent HBV serologic data, obtaining the HBV serology beginning at age 11 years might be considered. Those 18 years and older were least likely to seroconvert after 1 booster, indicating that they may benefit from receiving the 3-dose HBV vaccine series.

Hepatitis B Evaluation and Linkage to Care for Newly Arrived Refugees: A Multisite Quality Improvement Initiative

A quality improvement collaborative evaluated Hepatitis B virus (HBV) care for resettled refugees and identified strategies to enhance care. 682 of the 12,934 refugees from five refugee health clinics in Colorado, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania had chronic HBV. Timely care was defined relative to a HBsAg + result: staging (HBV DNA, hepatitis Be antigen, hepatitis Be antibody, alanine transaminase testing) within 14 days, comorbid infection screening (hepatitis C virus and HIV) within 14 days, and linkage to care (HBV specialist referral within 30 days and visit within 6 months). Completed labs included: HBV DNA (93%), hepatitis Be antigen (94%), hepatitis Be antibody (92%), alanine transaminase (92%), hepatitis C screening (86%), HIV screening (97%). 20% had HBV specialist referrals within 30 days; 36% were seen within 6 months. Standardized reflex HBV testing and specialist referral should be prioritized at the initial screening due to the association with timely care.

Improving Hepatitis B Care in the US: A Case for a New "Ryan White" Program

Chronic hepatitis B infection is common in the United States, yet only a minority of eligible people are screened, vaccinated, and receive treatment. The Ryan White HIV/AIDS program has been a key tool for ensuring that socioeconomically disadvantaged HIV-infected patients have access to care. Many of the same disease and patient attributes that make the Ryan White program necessary and effective for HIV exist in chronic hepatitis B. Thus, we believe that the current Ryan White program should be expanded to care for people with hepatitis B under similar regulations. Considering recent changes proposed to the health insurance marketplace, policymakers should strongly consider inclusion of chronic hepatitis B in the safety-net Ryan White Program.

An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of hepatitis B virus in Ethiopia

Background

Hepatitis B virus is one of the major public health concerns globally. It is highly infectious and can be transmitted from person to person through vertically or horizontally via contaminated body fluids. Despite the provision of an effective vaccine, it remains a major problem worldwide, particularly among the developing countries.

Methods

Online electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, African Index Medicus, African Journals Online, and WHO Afro Library were searched and published articles from 2010 to June 8, 2019, were considered. Both authors independently screened articles and extracted the data. Funnel-Plots and Egger’s test statistics were used to determine the presence of small-study effects and publication bias. The pooled prevalence of HBV was analyzed using the random-effects model. The possible sources of heterogeneity was analyzed through subgroup analysis, sensitivity analysis, and meta-regression.

Results

The overall pooled prevalence of HBV was 6% and among subgroups, pregnant women, healthcare workers, and HIV positive patients accounted for 5% for each group. Relatively low prevalence (4%) was obtained among blood donors. The Egger’s test statistics (p = 0.747) indicated the absence of publication bias. In addition, from the sensitivity analysis, there was no influence on the overall effect estimate while removing a single study at a time. The level of heterogeneity was reduced among pregnant women, HIV positive and studies with unknown sampling techniques. After conducting meta-regression, province, study group, screening method, and quality of papers were identified as sources of heterogeneity.

Conclusions

The overall pooled prevalence of HBV in Ethiopia was high. Strengthening and scaling up of the scope of the existing vaccination program and implementing novel approaches including screen-and-treat could be implemented to reduce the burden of the disease. Generally, the study can provide current prevalence estimate of HBV that could vital for intervention to tackle the disease.

Cost-effectiveness of Hepatitis B Virus Infection Screening and Treatment or Vaccination in 6 High-risk Populations in the United States

Background

Two million individuals with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) in the United States are at risk for premature death due to liver cancer and cirrhosis. CHB can be prevented by vaccination and controlled with treatment.

Methods

We created a lifetime Markov model to estimate the cost-effectiveness of strategies to prevent or treat CHB in 6 high-risk populations: foreign-born Asian/Pacific Islanders (API), Africa-born blacks (AbB), incarcerated, refugees, persons who inject drugs (PWID), and men who have sex with men (MSM). We studied 3 strategies: (a) screen for HBV infection and treat infected ("treatment only"), (b) screen for HBV susceptibility and vaccinate susceptible ("vaccination only"), and (c) screen for both and follow-up appropriately ("inclusive"). Outcomes were expressed in incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs), clinical outcomes, and new infections.

Results

Vaccination-only and treatment-only strategies had ICERs of $6000-$21 000 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained, respectively. The inclusive strategy added minimal cost with substantial clinical benefit, with the following costs per QALY gained vs no intervention: incarcerated $3203, PWID $8514, MSM $10 954, AbB $17 089, refugees $17 432, and API $18 009. Clinical complications dropped in the short/intermediate (1%-25%) and long (0.4%-16%) term. Findings were sensitive to age, discount rate, health state utility in immune or susceptible stages, progression rate to cirrhosis or inactive disease, and tenofovir cost. The probability of an inclusive program costing <$50 000 per QALY gained varied between 61% and 97% by population.

Conclusions

An inclusive strategy to screen and treat or vaccinate is cost-effective in reducing the burden of hepatitis B virus among all 6 high-risk, high-prevalence populations.

Cost-Effectiveness of Targeted Pharmacotherapy for Moderate to Severe Plaque Psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Newer classes of targeted drugs for moderate to severe plaque psoriasis are more effective and more expensive than older classes, posing a difficult and potentially costly decision about whether to use them as initial targeted treatments.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the clinical and economic outcomes of initial targeted treatment for the following drugs: adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab (TNFα inhibitors); apremilast (PDE4 inhibitor); ustekinumab (IL-12/23 inhibitor); and ixekizumab, secukinumab, and brodalumab (IL-17 inhibitors).

METHODS

We developed a Markov model to simulate patient outcomes as measured by quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and health care costs over a 10-year period. We assumed that patients who fail initial targeted treatment either proceed to subsequent therapy or discontinue targeted treatment. Effectiveness estimates for initial treatment were defined as improvement in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) from baseline and derived from a 2018 network meta-analysis. Wholesale acquisition drug costs were discounted by a class-specific, empirically derived rebate percentage off of 2016 costs. We conducted one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analyses to assess uncertainty in results.

RESULTS

The incremental benefits compared with no targeted treatment were, in descending order: ixekizumab 1.68 QALYs (95% credible range [CR] = 1.11-2.02), brodalumab 1.64 QALYs (95% CR = 1.08-1.98), secukinumab 1.51 QALYs (95% CR = 1.00-1.83), ustekinumab 1.43 QALYs (95% CR=0.94-1.74), infliximab 1.27 QALYs (95% CR = 0.89-1.55), adalimumab 1.15 QALYs (95% CR = 0.76-1.44), etanercept 0.97 QALYs (95% CR = 0.61-1.25), and apremilast 0.87 QALYs (95% CR = 0.52-1.17). Costs of care without targeted treatment totaled $66,451, and costs of targeted treatment ranged from $137,080 (apremilast) to $255,422 (ustekinumab). Probabilistic sensitivity analysis results indicated that infliximab and apremilast are likely to be the most cost-effective initial treatments at willingness-to-pay thresholds around $100,000 per QALY, while IL-17 drugs are more likely to be cost-effective at thresholds approaching $150,000 per QALY. Acquisition cost of the initial targeted drug and utility of clinical response were the most influential parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that initial targeted treatment with IL-17 inhibitors is the most effective treatment strategy for plaque psoriasis patients who have failed methotrexate and phototherapy. Apremilast, brodalumab, infliximab, ixekizumab, and secukinumab are cost-effective at different willingness-to-pay thresholds. Additional research is needed on whether the effectiveness of targeted agents changes when used after previously targeted agents.

DISCLOSURES

Funding for this study was contributed by the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER). Ollendorf, Chapman, Pearson, and Kumar are current employees, and Loos and Liu are former employees, of ICER, an independent organization that evaluates the evidence on the value of health care interventions, which is funded by grants from the Laura and John Arnold Foundation, Blue Shield of California Foundation, and the California HealthCare Foundation. ICER's annual policy summit is supported by dues from Aetna, AHIP, Anthem, Alnylam, AstraZeneca, Blue Shield of California, Cambia Health Solutions and MedSavvy, CVS Caremark, Editas, Express Scripts, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care, Health Care Service Corporation, OmedaRx, United Healthcare, Johnson & Johnson, Kaiser Permanente, Premera Blue Cross, Merck, National Pharmaceutical Council, Takeda, Pfizer, Novartis, Lilly, Humana, Prime Therapeutics, Sanofi, and Spark Therapeutics. Linder owns stock in Amgen, Biogen, and Eli Lilly; has contingent value rights in Sanofi Genzyme (related to alemtuzumab for multiple sclerosis); has received grant support from Astellas Pharma not related to this study and Clintrex, which was supported by AstraZeneca on an unrelated topic; and has received an honorarium from the Society of Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) as part of the SHEA Antimicrobial Stewardship Research Workshop Planning Committee, an educational activity supported by Merck. No other authors have potential conflicts of interest.

Screening for hepatitis D and PEG-Interferon over Tenofovir enhance general hepatitis control efforts in Brazil

Background

Hepatitis D virus (HDV), which requires the presence of hepatitis B virus (HBV), is a deadly yet neglected disease that rapidly leads to liver cancer and disease-induced mortality. This co-dependence creates complex transmission dynamics that make it difficult to predict the efficacy of interventions aimed at HBV and/or HDV control in endemic regions, such as certain municipalities of Brazil, where up to 65% of HBV-infected persons are co-infected.

Methodology

We created a mathematical model that captures the joint transmission dynamics of HBV and HDV, incorporating mother-to-child, sexual and household transmission. With an aim to minimize the number of total infections and disease-induced mortality in 2027, we then determined optimal strategies for Brazil and its sub-regions under a constrained budget, which was dynamically allocated among HBV and HDV screening, HBV and HDV treatment, HBV newborn and adult vaccination, and awareness programs. Three treatment options were considered, namely: Tenofovir, PEGylated-Interferon, and nucleic acid polymers (NAP).

Results

The additional cost of HDV screening and the use of a more expensive PEGylated-Interferon are offset by not wasting resources on treating co-infected persons with Tenofovir. The introductory price of NAP treatment must be less than $16,000 per course to become competitive with Tenofovir and PEGylated-Interferon in Brazil.

Conclusion

Additional screening for HDV is beneficial, even in a low HBV and HDV endemic regions of Brazil. We recommend PEGylated-Interferon, wherever possible, for both HBV and HDV. If PEGylated-Interferon is not available in abundance, PEGylated-Interferon for co-infections and 4-year Tenofovir treatment for mono-infections is recommended.

The Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Screening for and Vaccination Against Hepatitis B Virus among Migrants in the EU/EEA: A Systematic Review

Migrants from hepatitis B virus (HBV) endemic countries to the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) comprise 5.1% of the total EU/EEA population but account for 25% of total chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) infection. Migrants from high HBV prevalence regions are at the highest risk for CHB morbidity. These migrants are at risk of late detection of CHB complications; mortality and onwards transmission. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of CHB screening and vaccination programs among migrants to the EU/EEA. We found no RCTs or direct evidence evaluating the effectiveness of CHB screening on morbidity and mortality of migrants. We therefore used a systematic evidence chain approach to identify studies relevant to screening and prevention programs; testing, treatment, and vaccination. We identified four systematic reviews and five additional studies and guidelines that reported on screening and vaccination effectiveness. Studies reported that vaccination programs were highly effective at reducing the prevalence of CHB in children (RR 0.07 95% CI 0.04 to 0.13) following vaccination. Two meta-analyses of therapy for chronic HBV infection found improvement in clinical outcomes and intermediate markers of disease. We identified nine studies examining the cost-effectiveness of screening for CHB: a strategy of screening and treating CHB compared to no screening. The median acceptance of HB screening was 87.4% (range 32.3–100%). Multiple studies highlighted barriers to and the absence of effective strategies to ensure linkage of treatment and care for migrants with CHB. In conclusion, screening of high-risk children and adults and vaccination of susceptible children, combined with treatment of CHB infection in migrants, are promising and cost-effective interventions, but linkage to treatment requires more attention.

High rates of chronic HBV genotype E infection in a group of migrants in Italy from West Africa: Virological characteristics associated with poor immune clearance

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype E almost exclusively occurs in African people, and its presence is more commonly associated with the development of chronic HBV (CHB) infection. Moreover, an epidemiological link has been found between the distribution of HBV genotype E infection and African countries with high incidences of hepatocellular carcinoma. As part of a programme for the health assessment of migrants, we evaluated 358 young African subjects for HBV infection; 58.1% (208/358) were positive for an HBV marker, and 54 (25.5%) had CHB. Eighty-one percent of the CHB subjects were infected with HBV genotype E, with a median serum HBV-DNA of 3.2 (IQR: 2.7-3.6) logIU/ml. All patients had high serum HBsAg titres (10,899 [range 5,359-20,272] IU/ml), and no correlation was found between HBsAg titres and HBV-DNA plasma levels. RT sequence analysis showed the presence of a number of immune escape mutations: strains from all of the patients had a serine at HBsAg position 140; 3 also had T116N, Y100C, and P142L+S143L substitutions; and 1 had a G112R substitution. Six (18%) patients had stop-codons at position 216. In 5 of the 9 (26.5%) CHB patients, ultrasound liver biopsy, quantification of total intrahepatic HBV-DNA and cccDNA, and RT/HBsAg sequencing were performed. The median (IQR) total intrahepatic HBV-DNA was 766 (753-1139) copies/1000 cells, and the median (IQR) cccDNA was 17 (10-27) copies/1000 cells. Correlations were observed for both total intrahepatic HBV-DNA and cccDNA with serum HBV-DNA, while no correlation was found for the HBsAg titres. A difference of 2.5/1,000 nucleotides was found in the HBsAg sequences obtained from plasma and from liver tissue, with 3 cases of possible viral anatomical compartmentalization. In conclusion, a high rate of CHB infection due to the E genotype was demonstrated in a group of immigrants from Western Africa. An analysis of the viral strains obtained showed the virological characteristics of immune escape, which may be the cause of viral replication persistence. Moreover, a fair percentage of stop codon mutations were found. The lack of correlation between HBsAg titres and plasma or intrahepatic HBV-DNA found in these subjects suggests a pathway of virus production that is not linked to HBsAg secretion. Studies with a larger number of patients with CHB due to the E genotype are advisable to corroborate these observations.

A Pilot Program Integrating Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Screening into an Outpatient Endoscopy Unit Improves HBV Screening Among an Ethnically Diverse Safety-Net Hospital

BACKGROUND

Safety-net hospitals are enriched in ethnic minorities and provide opportunities for high-impact hepatitis B virus (HBV) screening.

AIM

We aim to evaluate the impact of a pilot program integrating HBV screening into outpatient endoscopy among urban safety-net populations.

METHODS

From July 2015 to May 2017, consecutive adults undergoing outpatient endoscopy were prospectively assessed for HBV screening eligibility using US Preventative Services Task Force guidelines. Rates of prior HBV screening were assessed, and those eligible but not screened were offered HBV testing. Multivariate logistic regression models evaluated predictors of test acceptance among eligible patients.

RESULTS

Among 1557 patients (47.1% male, 69.4% foreign born), 65.1% were eligible for HBV screening, among which 24.5% received prior screening. In our pilot screening program in the endoscopy unit, 91.4% (n = 855) of eligible patients accepted HBV testing. However, only 55.3% (n = 415) of those that accepted actually completed HBV testing. While there was a trend toward higher rates of test acceptance among African-Americans compared to non-Hispanic whites (OR 3.31, 95% CI 0.96-11.38, p = 0.06), no other sex-specific or race/ethnicity-specific disparities in HBV test acceptance were observed. Among those who completed HBV testing, we identified 10 new patients with chronic HBV (2.4% prevalence). Only 24.5% of eligible patients received prior HBV screening among our cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Our pilot program integrating HBV screening into outpatient endoscopy successfully tested an additional 415 patients, improving overall HBV screening from 24.5 to 75.6%. Integrating HBV testing into non-traditional settings has potential to bridge the gap in HBV screening among safety-net systems.

Epidemiology of chronic hepatitis B virus in Ireland using routinely collected surveillance and administrative data, 2004-2014

BACKGROUND

Ireland has a low prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection; however, there are limited recently published epidemiological data. This study aimed to describe the epidemiology of chronic HBV in Ireland between 2004 and 2014 using routine surveillance data and identify and interrogate additional data sources in Ireland to complement the interpretation of HBV surveillance data.

METHODS

Routinely collected passive surveillance data of notified cases of HBV infection were collated for 2004-2014. Additional data sources relating to primary liver cancer and cirrhosis were collated, including hospital discharge data (2005-2013), diagnoses of primary liver cancer (2004-2013), and deaths (2007-2014). Publicly available immigration (2004-2014) data were also collated.

RESULTS

Between 2004 and 2014, a total of 7463 notifications of HBV were made in Ireland; the majority (91%) were classified as chronic cases. Notifications peaked in 2008 and decreased until 2013. Hospital discharges, new cancer registrations, and deaths from primary liver cancer and hospital discharges from cirrhosis have increased each year.

DISCUSSION

The epidemiology of HBV in Ireland mirrors immigration patterns. Without a coordinated screening and care programme for priority populations, particularly for immigrants from high prevalence countries, it is likely that hospitalisations and deaths from HBV-attributable cirrhosis and primary liver cancer will continue to rise, with considerable associated public health expense.

Diagnostic accuracy of serological diagnosis of hepatitis C and B using dried blood spot samples (DBS): two systematic reviews and meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

Dried blood spots (DBS) are a convenient tool to enable diagnostic testing for viral diseases due to transport, handling and logistical advantages over conventional venous blood sampling. A better understanding of the performance of serological testing for hepatitis C (HCV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) from DBS is important to enable more widespread use of this sampling approach in resource limited settings, and to inform the 2017 World Health Organization (WHO) guidance on testing for HBV/HCV.

METHODS

We conducted two systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the diagnostic accuracy of HCV antibody (HCV-Ab) and HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) from DBS samples compared to venous blood samples. MEDLINE, EMBASE, Global Health and Cochrane library were searched for studies that assessed diagnostic accuracy with DBS and agreement between DBS and venous sampling. Heterogeneity of results was assessed and where possible a pooled analysis of sensitivity and specificity was performed using a bivariate analysis with maximum likelihood estimate and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). We conducted a narrative review on the impact of varying storage conditions or limits of detection in subsets of samples. The QUADAS-2 tool was used to assess risk of bias.

RESULTS

For the diagnostic accuracy of HBsAg from DBS compared to venous blood, 19 studies were included in a quantitative meta-analysis, and 23 in a narrative review. Pooled sensitivity and specificity were 98% (95%CI:95%-99%) and 100% (95%CI:99-100%), respectively. For the diagnostic accuracy of HCV-Ab from DBS, 19 studies were included in a pooled quantitative meta-analysis, and 23 studies were included in a narrative review. Pooled estimates of sensitivity and specificity were 98% (CI95%:95-99) and 99% (CI95%:98-100), respectively. Overall quality of studies and heterogeneity were rated as moderate in both systematic reviews.

CONCLUSION

HCV-Ab and HBsAg testing using DBS compared to venous blood sampling was associated with excellent diagnostic accuracy. However, generalizability is limited as no uniform protocol was applied and most studies did not use fresh samples. Future studies on diagnostic accuracy should include an assessment of impact of environmental conditions common in low resource field settings. Manufacturers also need to formally validate their assays for DBS for use with their commercial assays.

Economic evaluations of HBV testing and treatment strategies and applicability to low and middle-income countries

Background

Many people living with chronic HBV infection remain undiagnosed until later stages of disease. Increasing testing and treatment rates form part of the strategy to respond to the WHO goal of eliminating viral hepatitis as a public health threat by 2030. However, achieving these ambitious targets is dependent on finding effective and cost-effective methods of scale up strategies. The aim of this study was to undertake a narrative review of the literature on economic evaluations of testing and treatment for HBV infection, to help inform the development of the 2017 WHO Hepatitis Testing Guidelines.

Methods

We undertook a focussed literature review for economic evaluations on testing for HBV accompanied by antiviral treatment. The search was carried out in Pubmed and included only articles published after 2000 and written in English. We narratively synthesise the results and discuss the key drivers of cost-effectiveness and their applicability to low and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Results

Nine published studies were included in this review, only one of which was performed in a low or middle-income setting in West Africa. Eight studies were performed in high-income settings, seven among high risk groups and one among the general population. The studies were heterogeneous in many respects including the population and testing strategy under consideration, model structure and baselines parameters, willingness to pay thresholds and outcome measures used. However, most studies found HBV testing and treatment to be cost-effective, even at low HBsAg prevalence levels.

Conclusions

Currently economic evaluations of HBV testing and treatment strategies in LMICs is lacking, therefore limiting the ability to provide formal recommendations on the basis of cost-effectiveness alone. Further implementation research is needed in order to help guide national policy planning.

Hepatitis B in patients with hematological diseases: An update

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation (HBVr) in patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy is still a hot topic worldwide. Its prevention and management still represents a challenge for specialists dealing with immunosuppressed patients. Aim of this paper is to provide a critical review of the relevant information emerged in the recent literature regarding HBV reactivation following immunosuppressive treatments for oncohematological tumors. A computerized literature search in MEDLINE was performed using appropriate terms arrangement, including English-written literature only or additional relevant articles. Articles published only in abstract form and case reports not giving considerable news were excluded. Clinical manifestation of HBVr can be manifold, ranging from asymptomatic self-limiting anicteric hepatitis to life-threatening fulminant liver failure. In clusters of patients adverse outcomes are potentially predictable. Clinicians should be aware of the inherent risk of HBVr among the different virological categories (active carriers, occult HBV carriers and inactive carriers, the most intriguing category), and classes of immunosuppressive drugs. We recommend that patients undergoing immunosuppressive treatments for hematological malignancies should undergo HBV screening. In case of serological sign(s) of current or past infection with the virus, appropriate therapeutic or preventive strategies are suggested, according to both virological categories, risk of HBVr by immunosuppressive drugs and liver status. Either antiviral drug management and surveillance and pre-emptive approach are examined, commenting the current international recommendations about this debated issue.

Strategies for the prevention of perinatal hepatitis B transmission in a marginalized population on the Thailand-Myanmar border: a cost-effectiveness analysis

Background

Data on the cost effectiveness of hepatitis B virus (HBV) screening and vaccination strategies for prevention of vertical transmission of HBV in resource limited settings is sparse.

Methods

A decision tree model of HBV prevention strategies utilised data from a cohort of 7071 pregnant women on the Thailand-Myanmar border using a provider perspective. All options included universal HBV vaccination for newborns in three strategies: (1) universal vaccination alone; (2) universal vaccination with screening of women during antenatal visits with rapid diagnostic test (RDT) plus HBV immune globulin (HBIG) administration to newborns of HBV surface antigen positive women; and (3) universal vaccination with screening of women during antenatal visits plus HBIG administration to newborns of women testing HBV e antigen positive by confirmatory test. At the time of the study, the HBIG after confirmatory test strategy was used. The costs in United States Dollars (US$), infections averted and incremental cost effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were calculated and sensitivity analyses were conducted. A willingness to pay threshold of US$1200 was used.

Results

The universal HBV vaccination was the least costly option at US$4.33 per woman attending the clinic. The HBIG after (RDT) strategy had an ICER of US$716.78 per infection averted. The HBIG after confirmatory test strategy was not cost-effective due to extended dominance. The one-way sensitivity analysis showed that while the transmission parameters and cost of HBIG had the biggest impact on outcomes, the HBIG after confirmatory test only became a cost-effective option when a low test cost was used or a high HBIG cost was used. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis showed that HBIG after RDT had an 87% likelihood of being cost-effective as compared to vaccination only at a willingness to pay threshold of US$1200.

Conclusions

HBIG following confirmatory test is not a cost-effective strategy for preventing vertical transmission of HBV in the Thailand-Myanmar border population. By switching to HBIG following rapid diagnostic test, perinatal infections will be reduced by nearly one third. This strategy may be applicable to similar settings for marginalized populations where the confirmatory test is not logistically possible.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2660-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Monetary conversion factors for economic evaluations of substance use disorders

AIMS

Estimating the economic consequences of substance use disorders (SUDs) is important for evaluating existing programs and new interventions. Policy makers in particular must weigh program effectiveness with scalability and sustainability considerations in deciding which programs to fund with limited resources. This study provides a comprehensive list of monetary conversion factors for a broad range of consequences, services, and outcomes, which can be used in economic evaluations of SUD interventions (primarily in the United States), including common co-occurring conditions such as HCV and HIV.

METHODS

Economic measures were selected from standardized clinical assessment instruments that are used in randomized clinical trials and other research studies (e.g., quasi-experimental community-based projects) to evaluate the impact of SUD interventions. National datasets were also reviewed for additional SUD-related consequences, services, and outcomes. Monetary conversion factors were identified through a comprehensive literature review of published articles as well as targeted searches of other sources such as government reports.

RESULTS

Eight service/consequence/outcome domains were identified containing more than sixty monetizable measures of medical and behavioral health services, laboratory services, SUD treatment, social services, productivity outcomes, disability outcomes, criminal activity and criminal justice services, and infectious diseases consequences. Unit-specific monetary conversion factors are reported, along with upper and lower bound estimates, whenever possible.

CONCLUSIONS

Having an updated and standardized source of monetary conversion factors will facilitate and improve future economic evaluations of interventions targeting SUDs and other risky behaviors. This exercise should be repeated periodically as new sources of data become available to maintain the timeliness, comprehensiveness, and quality of these estimates.

Testing and Linking Foreign-Born People with Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection to Care at Nine U.S. Programs, 2012-2014

OBJECTIVE

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection continues to be a public health threat in the United States. As many as 2.2 million people are infected, approximately 70% of whom are foreign-born, and fewer than one-third are aware of their infection. We launched an HBV testing and linkage-to-care initiative among foreign-born people.

METHODS

As part of the Hepatitis Testing and Linkage to Care (HepTLC) initiative, which promoted viral hepatitis B and hepatitis C screening, posttest counseling, and linkage to care at 34 U.S. sites, nine U.S. programs in seven states conducted HBV screening from October 2012 to September 2014. The nine programs partnered with health-care centers and community-based organizations to recruit foreign-born people recommended for HBV testing. We assessed patient characteristics, region of origin, risk factors, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) status, and referral to medical care.

RESULTS

Of 23,144 participants tested for HBV, 1,317 (5.7%) were HBsAg positive. Of these, the median age was 47 years, 1,205 (91%) had at least one risk factor for HBV infection, 1,117 (85%) received posttest counseling, 1,098 (83%) were referred to care, and 606 (46%) attended a first medical appointment. The proportion of HBsAg-positive participants by region of origin included Africa (10%, 206/2,129), Western Pacific (6%, 616/9,673), Eastern Mediterranean (5%, 174/3,337), Southeast Asia (5%, 191/3,891), South America (2%, 6/252), Eastern Europe (2%, 6/262), and North America (1%, 17/1,936).

CONCLUSION

Community-based HBV testing initiatives can identify substantial numbers of people with chronic HBV infection, inform them of their infection status, and provide posttest counseling and linkage to care. However, strategies are needed to improve linkage to HBV-directed medical care for foreign-born individuals living with chronic HBV infection.

Early Identification and Linkage to Care of Foreign-Born People with Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection, Multnomah County, Oregon, 2012-2014

OBJECTIVE

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a global health concern, with a large proportion of high-risk individuals unaware of their infection status. People born in countries with medium to high endemicity of HBV should be tested and linked to care. We describe a program that improved identification and linkage to care for refugees and immigrants at the Multnomah County Health Department in Oregon.

METHODS

We instituted outreach clinics and community referrals and expanded refugee screening to identify foreign-born people at risk for HBV. We obtained data from electronic health records and electronic laboratory reporting, including patient demographics, hepatitis B testing variables, vaccination history, and-for positive cases-risk-factor and linkage-to-care data. All results were entered into an Internet-based data collection tool. For this analysis, we only used results for testing performed from October 2012 through June 2014.

RESULTS

We screened 2,087 foreign-born people for HBV infection and identified 77 (4%) people with positive results. HBV infection prevalence varied by site, with 7% of HBV-positive people identified through the outreach and voucher program and 3% identified through refugee screening. Of the 77 people testing positive for HBV, 72 (94%) were successfully linked to care, of whom 68 (94%) attended their first follow-up visit.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of a culturally competent screening program among immigrants and refugees in Multnomah County improved case finding and subsequent linkage to care.

Markov modeling in hepatitis B screening and linkage to care

Background

With up to 240 million people chronically infected with hepatitis B worldwide, including an estimated 2 million in the United States, widespread screening is needed to link the infected to care and decrease the possible consequences of untreated infection, including liver cancer, cirrhosis and death. Screening is currently fraught with challenges in both the developed and developing world. New point-of-care tests may have advantages over standard-of-care tests in terms of cost-effectiveness and linkage to care. Stochastic modeling is applied here for relative utility assessment of point-of-care tests and standard-of-care tests for screening.

Methods

We analyzed effects of point-of-care versus standard-of-care testing using Markov models for disease progression in individual patients. Simulations of large cohorts with distinctly quantified models permitted the assessment of particular screening schemes. The validity of the trends observed is supported by sensitivity analyses for the simulation parameters.

Results

Increased utilization of point-of-care screening was shown to decrease hepatitis B-related mortalities and increase life expectancy at low projected expense.

Conclusions

The results suggest that standard-of-care screening should be substituted by point-of-care tests resulting in improved linkage to care and decrease in long-term complications.

Cost-effectiveness of EOB-MRI for Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Japan

PURPOSE

The objective of the study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of gadoxetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (EOB-MRI) in the diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in Japan compared with extracellular contrast media-enhanced MRI (ECCM-MRI) and contrast media-enhanced computed tomography (CE-CT) scanning.

METHODS

A 6-stage Markov model was developed to estimate lifetime direct costs and clinical outcomes associated with EOB-MRI. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, along with clinical data on HCC survival, recurrence, treatment patterns, costs, and health state utility values, were derived from predominantly Japanese publications. Parameters unavailable from publications were estimated in a Delphi panel of Japanese clinical experts who also confirmed the structure and overall approach of the model. Sensitivity analyses, including one-way, probabilistic, and scenario analyses, were conducted to account for uncertainty in the results.

FINDINGS

Over a lifetime horizon, EOB-MRI was associated with lower direct costs (¥2,174,869) and generated a greater number of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) (9.502) than either ECCM-MRI (¥2,365,421, 9.303 QALYs) or CE-CT (¥2,482,608, 9.215 QALYs). EOB-MRI was superior to the other diagnostic strategies considered, and this finding was robust over sensitivity and scenario analyses. A majority of the direct costs associated with HCC in Japan were found to be costs of treatment. The model results revealed the superior cost-effectiveness of the EOB-MRI diagnostic strategy compared with ECCM-MRI and CE-CT.

IMPLICATIONS

EOB-MRI could be the first-choice imaging modality for medical care of HCC among patients with hepatitis or liver cirrhosis in Japan. Widespread implementation of EOB-MRI could reduce health care expenditures, particularly downstream treatment costs, associated with HCC.

Screening for Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Individuals with type 2 diabetes are at heightened risk for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which gives rise to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cirrhosis. Yet, current guidelines do not recommend screening for NASH among these high-risk patients. Using a simulation model, we assessed the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of screening diabetic patients for NASH.

METHODS

A Markov model was constructed to compare two management strategies for 50-year-olds with diabetes. In the No Screening strategy, patients do not undergo screening, although NASH may be diagnosed incidentally over their lifetime. In the NASH Screening strategy, all patients receive a one-time screening ultrasound. Individuals with fatty infiltration on ultrasound then have a liver biopsy, and those found to have NASH receive medical therapy, which decreases progression to cirrhosis. Endpoints evaluated included quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained, costs, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs).

RESULTS

Screening for NASH decreased the number of individuals who developed cirrhosis by 12.9 % and resulted in an 11.9 % decrease in liver-related deaths. However, screening resulted in 0.02 fewer QALYs, due to the disutility associated with treatment, and was therefore dominated by the No Screening strategy. When the model excluded this quality-of-life decrement, screening became cost-effective, at an ICER of $42,134 per QALY.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening for NASH may improve liver-related outcomes, but is not cost-effective at present, due to side effects of therapy. As better tolerated treatments for NASH become available, even with modest efficacy, screening for NASH will become cost-effective.

Hepatitis B: Screening, Awareness, and the Need to Treat

Despite the availability of an effective hepatitis B vaccine, the global prevalence has not substantially declined, and significant barriers remain to screening and care.

Cost-Effectiveness of HBV and HCV Screening Strategies--A Systematic Review of Existing Modelling Techniques

Introduction

Studies evaluating the cost-effectiveness of screening for Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) are generally heterogeneous in terms of risk groups, settings, screening intervention, outcomes and the economic modelling framework. It is therefore difficult to compare cost-effectiveness results between studies. This systematic review aims to summarise and critically assess existing economic models for HBV and HCV in order to identify the main methodological differences in modelling approaches.

Methods

A structured search strategy was developed and a systematic review carried out. A critical assessment of the decision-analytic models was carried out according to the guidelines and framework developed for assessment of decision-analytic models in Health Technology Assessment of health care interventions.

Results

The overall approach to analysing the cost-effectiveness of screening strategies was found to be broadly consistent for HBV and HCV. However, modelling parameters and related structure differed between models, producing different results. More recent publications performed better against a performance matrix, evaluating model components and methodology.

Conclusion

When assessing screening strategies for HBV and HCV infection, the focus should be on more recent studies, which applied the latest treatment regimes, test methods and had better and more complete data on which to base their models. In addition to parameter selection and associated assumptions, careful consideration of dynamic versus static modelling is recommended. Future research may want to focus on these methodological issues. In addition, the ability to evaluate screening strategies for multiple infectious diseases, (HCV and HIV at the same time) might prove important for decision makers.

Hepatitis B among Asian Americans: Prevalence, progress, and prospects for control

After tobacco use, chronic hepatitis B (CHB) viral infections are the most important cause of cancer globally in that 1 out of 3 individuals have been infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Though infection rates are low (< 1%) in the United States, Asian Americans who comprise about 6% of the population experience about 60% of the CHB burden. This paper reviews the magnitude of hepatitis B (HBV) burden among Asian Americans and the progress being made to mitigate this burden, primarily through localized, community-based efforts to increase screening and vaccination among Asian American children, adolescents, and adults. This review brings to light that despite the numerous community-based screening efforts, a vast majority of Asian Americans have not been screened and that vaccination efforts, particularly for adults, are sub-optimal. Greater efforts to integrate screenings by providers within existing healthcare systems are urged. Evidence-based strategies are offered to implement CDC's three major recommendations to control and prevent hepatitis B through targeted screening and enhanced vaccination efforts.

Screening of imported infectious diseases among asymptomatic sub-Saharan African and Latin American immigrants: a public health challenge

Migrants from developing countries are usually young and healthy but several studies report they may harbor asymptomatic infections for prolonged periods. Prevalence of infections were determined for asymptomatic immigrants from Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa who ettended to a European Tropical Medicine Referral Center from 2000 to 2009. A systematic screening protocol for selected infections was used. Data from 317 sub-Saharan Africans and 383 Latin Americans were analyzed. Patients were mostly young (mean age 29 years); there were significantly more males among sub-Saharan Africans (83% versus 31.6%) and pre-consultation period was longer for Latin Americans (5 versus 42 months). Diagnoses of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), chronic hepatitis B and C virus infection, and latent tuberculosis were significantly more frequent in sub-Saharan Africans (2.3% versus 0.3%; 14% versus 1.6%; 1.3 versus 0%; 71% versus 32.1%). There were no significant differences in prevalence for syphilis and intestinal parasites. Malaria and schistosomiasis prevalence in sub-Saharan Africans was 4.6% and 5.9%, respectively, and prevalence of Chagas disease in Latin Americans was 48.5%. Identifying and treating asymptomatic imported infectious diseases may have an impact both for the individual concerned and for public health. Based on these results, a systematic screening protocol for asymptomatic immigrants is proposed.

Cost-benefit comparison of two proposed overseas programs for reducing chronic Hepatitis B infection among refugees: is screening essential?

BACKGROUND

Refugees are at an increased risk of chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection because many of their countries of origin, as well as host countries, have intermediate-to-high prevalence rates. Refugees arriving to the US are also at risk of serious sequelae from chronic HBV infection because they are not routinely screened for the virus overseas or in domestic post-arrival exams, and may live in the US for years without awareness of their infection status.

METHODS

A cohort of 26,548 refugees who arrived in Minnesota and Georgia during 2005-2010 was evaluated to determine the prevalence of chronic HBV infection. This prevalence information was then used in a cost-benefit analysis comparing two variations of a proposed overseas program to prevent or ameliorate the effects of HBV infection, titled 'Screen, then vaccinate or initiate management' (SVIM) and 'Vaccinate only' (VO). The analyses were performed in 2013. All values were converted to US 2012 dollars.

RESULTS

The estimated six year period-prevalence of chronic HBV infection was 6.8% in the overall refugee population arriving to Minnesota and Georgia and 7.1% in those ≥6 years of age. The SVIM program variation was more cost beneficial than VO. While the up-front costs of SVIM were higher than VO ($154,084 vs. $73,758; n=58,538 refugees), the SVIM proposal displayed a positive net benefit, ranging from $24 million to $130 million after only 5 years since program initiation, depending on domestic post-arrival screening rates in the VO proposal.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic HBV infection remains an important health problem in refugees resettling to the United States. An overseas screening policy for chronic HBV infection is more cost-beneficial than a 'Vaccination only' policy. The major benefit drivers for the screening policy are earlier medical management of chronic HBV infection and averted lost societal contributions from premature death.

Disease burden of chronic hepatitis B among immigrants in Canada

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection among immigrants to North America ranges from 2% to 15%, 40% of whom develop advanced liver disease. Screening for hepatitis B surface antigen is not recommended for immigrants.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the disease burden of CHB among immigrants in Canada using Markov cohort models comparing a cohort of immigrants with CHB versus a control cohort of immigrants without CHB.

METHODS

Markov cohort models were used to estimate life years, quality-adjusted life years and lifetime direct medical costs (adjusted to 2008 Canadian dollars) for a cohort of immigrants with CHB living in Canada in 2006, and an age-matched control cohort of immigrants without CHB living in Canada in 2006. Parameter values were derived from the published literature.

RESULTS

At the baseline estimate, the model suggested that the cohort of immigrants with CHB lost an average of 4.6 life years (corresponding to 1.5 quality-adjusted life years), had an increased average of $24,249 for lifetime direct medical costs, and had a higher lifetime risk for decompensated cirrhosis (12%), hepatocellular carcinoma (16%) and need for liver transplant (5%) when compared with the control cohort.

DISCUSSION

Results of the present study showed that the socio-economic burden of CHB among immigrants living in Canada is substantial. Governments and health systems need to develop policies that promote early recognition of CHB and raise public awareness regarding hepatitis B to extend the lives of infected immigrants.

Assessment of HBV preventive services in a medically underserved Asian and Pacific Islander population using provider and patient data

BACKGROUND

Hepatitis B (HBV) represents a significant health disparity among medically underserved Asian and Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (API) populations. Studies evaluating adherence to HBV screening and vaccination guidelines in this population are limited.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate HBV screening and vaccination practices using both provider self-report and patient records.

DESIGN

Medical records for 20,574 API adults were reviewed retrospectively and primary care providers were surveyed to evaluate rates and adherence to HBV screening and vaccination guidelines.

PARTICIPANTS

The study included primary care providers and their adult API patients in the San Francisco safety-net healthcare system.

MAIN MEASURES

Patient, practice, and provider factors, as well as HBV screening and vaccination practices, were assessed using provider survey constructs and patient laboratory and clinical data. Generalized linear mixed models and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with recommended HBV screening and vaccination.

KEY RESULTS

The mean age of patients was 52 years, and 63.4 % of patients were female. Only 61.5 % underwent HBV testing, and 47.4 % of HBV-susceptible patients were vaccinated. Of 148 (44.8 %) responding providers, most were knowledgeable and had a favorable attitude towards screening, but 43.2 % were unfamiliar with HBV guidelines. HBV screening was positively associated with favorable provider attitude score (OR per unit 1.80, 95 % CI 1.18-2.74) and negatively associated with female patient sex (OR 0.82, 95 % CI 0.73-0.92), a higher number of clinic patients per week (OR per 20 patients 0.46, 95 % CI 0.28-0.76), and provider barrier score (OR per unit 0.45, 95 % CI 0.24-0.87). HBV vaccination was negatively associated with provider barrier score (OR per unit 0.48, 95 % CI 0.25-0.91).

CONCLUSIONS

Rates of HBV screening and vaccination of API patients in this safety-net system are suboptimal, and provider factors play a significant role. Efforts to cultivate positive attitudes among providers and expand healthcare system resources to reduce provider barriers to HBV care are warranted.

Using stool antigen to screen for Helicobacter pylori in immigrants and refugees from high prevalence countries is relatively cost effective in reducing the burden of gastric cancer and peptic ulceration

OBJECTIVES

Refugees and immigrants from developing countries settling in industrialised countries have a high prevalence of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). Screening these groups for H. pylori and use of eradication therapy to reduce the future burden of gastric cancer and peptic ulcer disease is not currently recommended in most countries. We investigated whether a screening and eradication approach would be cost effective in high prevalence populations.

METHODS

Nine different screening and follow-up strategies for asymptomatic immigrants from high H. pylori prevalence areas were compared with the current approach of no screening. Cost effectiveness comparisons assumed population prevalence's of H. pylori of 25%, 50% or 75%. The main outcome measure was the net cost for each cancer prevented for each strategy. Total costs of each strategy and net costs including savings from reductions in ulcers and gastric cancer were also calculated.

RESULTS

Stool antigen testing with repeat testing after treatment was the most cost effective approach relative to others, for each prevalence value. The net cost per cancer prevented with this strategy was US$111,800 (assuming 75% prevalence), $132,300 (50%) and $193,900 (25%). A test and treat strategy using stool antigen remained relatively cost effective, even when the prevalence was 25%.

CONCLUSIONS

H. pylori screening and eradication can be an effective strategy for reducing rates of gastric cancer and peptic ulcers in high prevalence populations and our data suggest that use of stool antigen testing is the most cost effective approach.

Chronic hepatitis B in 2014: great therapeutic progress, large diagnostic deficit

This review analyzes progress and limitations of diagnosis, screening, and therapy of patients with chronic hepatitis B infection. A literature review was carried out by framing the study questions. Vaccination in early childhood has been introduced in most countries and reduces the infection rate. Treatment of chronic hepatitis B can control viral replication in most patients today. It reduces risks for progression and may reverse liver fibrosis. The treatment effect on development of hepatocellular carcinoma is less pronounced when cirrhosis is already present. Despite the success of vaccination and therapy chronic hepatitis B remains a problem since many infected patients do not know of their disease. Although all guidelines recommend screening in high risk groups such as migrants, these suggestions have not been implemented. In addition, the performance of hepatocellular cancer surveillance under real-life conditions is poor. The majority of people with chronic hepatitis B live in resource-constrained settings where effective drugs are not available. Despite the success of vaccination and therapy chronic hepatitis B infection remains a major problem since many patients do not know of their disease. The problems in diagnosis and screening may be overcome by raising awareness, promoting partnerships, and mobilizing resources.

Hepatitis B virus: Where do we stand and what is the next step for eradication?

Hepatitis B (HB) virus (HBV) infection, which causes liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, is endemic worldwide. Hepatitis B vaccines became commercially available in the 1980s. The World Health Organization recommended the integration of the HB vaccine into the national immunisation programs in all countries. HBV prevention strategies are classified into three groups: (1) universal vaccination alone; (2) universal vaccination with screening of pregnant women plus HB immune globulin (HBIG) at birth; and (3) selective vaccination with screening of pregnant women plus HBIG at birth. Most low-income countries have adopted universal vaccine programs without screening of pregnant women. However, HB vaccines are not widely used in low-income countries. The Global Alliance for Vaccine and Immunization was launched in 2000, and by 2012, the global coverage of a three-dose HB vaccine had increased to 79%. The next challenges are to further increase the coverage rate, close the gap between recommendations and routine practices, approach high-risk individuals, screen and treat chronically infected individuals, and prevent breakthrough infections. To eradicate HBV infections, strenuous efforts are required to overcome socioeconomic barriers to the HB vaccine; this task is expected to take several decades to complete.

Cost-effectiveness of testing hepatitis B-positive pregnant women for hepatitis B e antigen or viral load

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the cost-effectiveness of testing pregnant women with hepatitis B (hepatitis B surface antigen [HBsAg]-positive) for hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) or hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA, and administering maternal antiviral prophylaxis if indicated, to decrease breakthrough perinatal HBV transmission from the U.S. health care perspective.

METHODS

A Markov decision model was constructed for a 2010 birth cohort of 4 million neonates to estimate the cost-effectiveness of two strategies: testing HBsAg-positive pregnant women for 1) HBeAg or 2) HBV load. Maternal antiviral prophylaxis is given from 28 weeks of gestation through 4 weeks postpartum when HBeAg is positive or HBV load is high (10 copies/mL or greater). These strategies were compared with the current recommendation. All neonates born to HBsAg-positive women received recommended active-passive immunoprophylaxis. Effects were measured in quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and all costs were in 2010 U.S. dollars.

RESULTS

The HBeAg testing strategy saved $3.3 million and 3,080 QALYs and prevented 486 chronic HBV infections compared with the current recommendation. The HBV load testing strategy cost $3 million more than current recommendation, saved 2,080 QALYs, and prevented 324 chronic infections with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $1,583 per QALY saved compared with the current recommendations. The results remained robust over a wide range of assumptions.

CONCLUSION

Testing HBsAg-positive pregnant women for HBeAg or HBV load followed by maternal antiviral prophylaxis if HBeAg-positive or high viral load to reduce perinatal hepatitis B transmission in the United States is cost-effective.

A validation of the use of names to screen for risk of chronic hepatitis B in Victoria, Australia, 2001 to 2010

The burden of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is increasing in Australia, particularly in those born in the Asia-Pacific region, and nearly half are undiagnosed. Primary care clinicians have a key role in diagnosing CHB, however identification of patients at risk is hindered by lack of awareness and limited information on country of birth in patient records. This study evaluates the potential of a validated list of names associated with Asian country of birth as a screening tool to predict risk of CHB, by comparing it with surveillance records for all people diagnosed with CHB or salmonellosis in Victoria from 2001 to 2010, and analysed using standard screening tools. Name list match was associated with CHB notification, with over 60% of cases having one name matching the list (sensitivity), and nearly one third matching both given name and surname; less than 15% and 2% of salmonellosis notifications matched for one name and both names, respectively (false positives). These results show that more than half of notified cases of CHB would have been identified by this name list, and that it could be used in support of initiatives to improve diagnosis of patients with diseases associated with country of birth when limited information is available.