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Rasmussen C, Hoffman D. Fingerprinting Organofluorine Molecules via Position-Specific Isotope Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 39023375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c02250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Organofluorine substances are found in a wide range of materials and solvents commonly used in industry and homes, as well as pharmaceuticals and pesticides. In the environment, organofluorine molecules are now recognized as an important class of anthropogenic pollutants. Fingerprinting organofluorine compounds via their carbon isotope ratios (13C/12C) is crucial for correlating molecules with their source. Here we apply a 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) technique to obtain the first position-specific carbon isotope ratios for a diverse set of organofluorine molecules. In contrast to traditional isotope ratio mass spectrometry, the 19F NMR method provides 13C/12C isotope ratios at each carbon position where a C-F bond is present, and does not require fragmentation or combustion to CO2, overcoming challenges posed by the robust C-F covalent bonds. The method was validated with 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol, and applied to analyze heptafluorobutanoic acid, 5-fluorouracil and fipronil. Results reveal distinct intramolecular carbon isotope distributions, enabling differentiation of chemically identical molecules. Notably, the NMR method accurately analyzes carbon isotopes within target molecules despite impurities. Potential applications include the detection of counterfeit products and drugs, and ultimately pollution tracking in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Rasmussen
- Institute for Geophysics, The University of Texas at Austin, J. J. Pickle Research Campus, 10601 Exploration Way, Austin, Texas 78758, United States
| | - David Hoffman
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 100 East 24th Street, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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2
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Hoffman DW, Rasmussen C. Position-specific carbon stable isotope analysis of glyphosate: isotope fingerprinting of molecules within a mixture. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:3847-3856. [PMID: 38740591 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05326-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] is a widely used herbicide and a molecule of interest in the environmental sciences, due to its global use in agriculture and its potential impact on ecosystems. This study presents the first position-specific carbon isotope (13C/12C) analyses of glyphosates from multiple sources. In contrast to traditional isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), position-specific analysis provides 13C/12C ratios at individual carbon atom positions within a molecule, rather than an average carbon isotope ratio across a mixture or a specific compound. In this work, glyphosate in commercial herbicides was analyzed with only minimal purification, using a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy method that detects 1H nuclei with bonds to either 13C or 12C, and isolates the signals of interest from other signals in the mixture. Results demonstrate that glyphosate from different sources can have significantly different intramolecular 13C/12C distributions, which were found to be spread over a wide range, with δ13C Vienna Peedee Belemnite (VPDB) values of -28.7 to -57.9‰. In each glyphosate, the carbon with a bond to the phosphorus atom was found to be depleted in 13C compared to the carbon at the C2 position, by 4 to 10‰. Aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) was analyzed for method validation; AMPA contains only a single carbon position, so the 13C/12C results provided by the NMR method could be directly compared with traditional isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The glyphosate mixtures were also analyzed by IRMS to obtain their average 13C/12C ratios, for comparison with our position-specific results. This comparison revealed that the IRMS results significantly disguise the intramolecular isotope distribution. Finally, we introduce a 31P NMR method that can provide a position-specific 13C/12C ratio for carbon positions with a C-P chemical bond, and the results obtained by 1H and 31P for C3 carbon agree with one another within their analytical uncertainty. These analytical tools for position-specific carbon isotope analysis permit the isotopic fingerprinting of target molecules within a mixture, with potential applications in a range of fields, including the environmental sciences and chemical forensics.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Hoffman
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, 100 East 24th St., Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| | - Cornelia Rasmussen
- Institute for Geophysics, The University of Texas at Austin, J. J. Pickle Research Campus, 10601 Exploration Way, Austin, TX, 78758, USA
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3
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Hoffman DW, Rasmussen C. Absolute Carbon Stable Isotope Ratio in the Vienna Peedee Belemnite Isotope Reference Determined by 1H NMR Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2022; 94:5240-5247. [PMID: 35312289 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Vienna Peedee Belemnite (VPDB) isotope reference defines the zero point of the carbon stable isotope scale that is used to describe the relative abundance of 13C and 12C. An accurate and precise characterization of this isotope reference is valuable for interlaboratory comparisons and conducting robust carbon stable isotope analyses in a vast array of fields, such as chemical forensics, (bio)geochemistry, ecology, or (astro)biology. Here, we report an absolute 13C/12C ratio for VPDB that has been obtained, for the first time, using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR). Four different NMR instruments were used to determine 13C/12C ratios in a set of glycine reference materials from the US Geological Survey (USGS64, USGS65, and USGS66) and a set of formate samples that were characterized by isotope ratios mass spectrometry (IRMS). Intercalibration of the NMR-derived 13C/12C ratios with relative abundance (δ13CVPDB) measurements from IRMS yields a value of 0.011100 for the absolute 13C/12C ratio in VPDB, with an expanded uncertainty of ±0.000026 (2σ, n = 114). This is significantly different from the value of 0.011180 that is commonly used but falls within the range of values recently revised using IRMS and infrared absorption measurements. 1H NMR was found to be an effective method for measuring absolute 13C/12C ratios due to its ability to simultaneously detect signals associated with 12C and 13C. Results provide a new and independent measure of the carbon isotope composition of VPDB, improving our understanding of this important isotope reference.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Hoffman
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, College of Natural Science, University of Texas at Austin, 100 East 24th St., Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Cornelia Rasmussen
- University of Texas Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, 10601 Exploration Way, Austin, Texas 78758, United States
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4
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Chan KQ, Stewart C, Chester N, Hamzah SH, Yusof A. The effect of Eurycoma Longifolia on the regulation of reproductive hormones in young males. Andrologia 2021; 53:e14001. [PMID: 33559971 DOI: 10.1111/and.14001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Eurycoma longifolia supplementation increases testosterone levels in humans via activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and/or the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis mainly in older adults and nonhealthy populations. This study aimed to assess the impact of Eurycoma longifolia on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes in healthy young males since this might promote functional testosterone prowess. Thirty-two males (24.4 ± 4.7 years; 1.74 ± 0.07 m; 73.7 ± 8.4 kg) in a placebo-controlled, double-blind, matched-paired study received 600 mg/day Eurycoma longifolia or placebo for two weeks. Blood analysis using repeated measures analysis of variance showed significant interaction and time effects for testosterone (F1,30 = 9.04, p = .005), free testosterone (F1,30 = 7.13, p = .012) and estradiol (F1,30 = 8.07, p = .008) levels in favour of the treatment group, while luteinising hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and sexual hormone-binding globulin did not. The lack of changes in luteinising hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels suggests that a lesser role played by Eurycoma longifolia in activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in the young adults. The raised testosterone level may be due to a greater rate of hormone production via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The supplementation of Eurycoma longifolia for two weeks demonstrates steroidogenic effects on young men were dose-related. Consequently, the raised testosterone following Eurycoma longifolia supplementations could benefit muscle and strength gain in young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Quin Chan
- Department of Sport Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Jalan Genting Kelang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Claire Stewart
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Neil Chester
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sareena H Hamzah
- Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Ashril Yusof
- Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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5
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Hoffman DW, Rasmussen C. Position-Specific Carbon Stable Isotope Ratios by Proton NMR Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2019; 91:15661-15669. [PMID: 31697494 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Carbon stable isotopes provide insights into the origin and synthesis pathway of an organic molecule, and hence, contribute information that is fundamental to understanding chemical, physiological, and ecological processes. Organic carbon 13C/12C isotope ratios are commonly obtained as whole-molecule averages or as measurements of bulk samples. In contrast, position-specific isotope analysis (PSIA) provides isotope ratios for the individual carbons within a molecule, providing additional information that is masked by traditional analytical techniques. Here we introduce a 1H NMR method for determining position-specific 13C/12C ratios within organic molecules. A peak shape superposition procedure is used to bypass the need for traditional peak integration, by exploiting relationships among the shapes of 1H and 13C satellite peaks in 1H NMR spectra. The method also has a significant sensitivity advantage over NMR methods that utilize direct detection of 13C. Furthermore, we demonstrate that isotope standard materials (such as those obtainable from U.S. Geological Survey) are indispensable in calibrating an NMR instrument, in order to obtain accurate isotope ratio results. Our analytical approach was applied to organic molecules of different complexity and origin, including ethanols, propionic acids, and thymidine. Results verify that chemically identical molecules from different sources can have different intramolecular isotope distributions; hence position-specific 13C/12C ratios provide an isotopic fingerprint of an organic molecule. Position-specific information for the nucleoside thymidine, where five of eight carbon positions were measured, is significant because its complexity would make it a difficult target for PSIA by mass spectrometry. The 1H NMR method is complementary to other methods of PSIA, and will make 13C/12C PSIA employable to a wider range of organic molecules.
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6
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Handelsman DJ, Bermon S. Detection of testosterone doping in female athletes. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1566-1571. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Stéphane Bermon
- International Association of Athletics Federations Monaco and Université Côte d'Azur, LAMHESS Nice France
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7
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Tobias HJ, Jones A, Spanjers C, Bowers L, Brenna JT. Low Temperature Catalytic Combustion Reactors for High Precision Carbon Isotope Measurements in Gas Chromatography Combustion Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2019; 91:2901-2907. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b05043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Herbert J. Tobias
- Dell Pediatric Research Institute, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, 1400 Barbara Jordan Boulevard, Austin, Texas 78723, United States
| | - Andrew Jones
- Activated Research Company, 7561 Corporate Way, Eden Prairie, Minnesota 55344, United States
| | - Charlie Spanjers
- Activated Research Company, 7561 Corporate Way, Eden Prairie, Minnesota 55344, United States
| | - Larry Bowers
- LDBowers, LLC, Southern Pines, North Carolina 28387, United States
| | - J. Thomas Brenna
- Dell Pediatric Research Institute, Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, 1400 Barbara Jordan Boulevard, Austin, Texas 78723, United States
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1224, United States
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8
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Tobias HJ, Brenna JT. Cryofocus fast gas chromatography combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry for rapid detection of synthetic steroid use in sport doping. Analyst 2018; 143:1124-1132. [DOI: 10.1039/c7an01398a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sports doping requires high precision carbon isotope ratio (CIR) analysis of endogenous steroids using gas chromatography-combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GCC-IRMS), however methods are relatively slow and cumbersome. In this work, speed of analysis is improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert J. Tobias
- Division of Nutritional Sciences
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
- Dell Pediatric Research Institute
| | - J. Thomas Brenna
- Division of Nutritional Sciences
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
- Dell Pediatric Research Institute
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9
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Forsdahl G, Erceg D, Geisendorfer T, Turkalj M, Plavec D, Thevis M, Tretzel L, Gmeiner G. Detection of testosterone esters in blood. Drug Test Anal 2015; 7:983-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guro Forsdahl
- Doping Control Laboratory, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; Seibersdorf Austria
- Natural Products and Medicinal Chemistry Research Group, Department of Pharmacy; University of Tromsø - The Arctic University of Norway; Tromsø Norway
| | - Damir Erceg
- Childrens Hospital Srebrnjak, Clinical Trials Unit; Zagreb Croatia
- Josip Juraj Strostamyer University of Osijek, Medical School; Osijek Croatia
| | | | - Mirjana Turkalj
- Childrens Hospital Srebrnjak, Clinical Trials Unit; Zagreb Croatia
- Josip Juraj Strostamyer University of Osijek, Medical School; Osijek Croatia
| | - Davor Plavec
- Childrens Hospital Srebrnjak, Clinical Trials Unit; Zagreb Croatia
- Josip Juraj Strostamyer University of Osijek, Medical School; Osijek Croatia
| | - Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Preventive Doping Research; German Sport University; Cologne Germany
| | - Laura Tretzel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Preventive Doping Research; German Sport University; Cologne Germany
| | - Günter Gmeiner
- Doping Control Laboratory, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; Seibersdorf Austria
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10
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Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Baume N. Confounding factors and genetic polymorphism in the evaluation of individual steroid profiling. Br J Sports Med 2015; 48:848-55. [PMID: 24764553 PMCID: PMC4033181 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In the fight against doping, steroid profiling is a powerful tool to detect drug misuse with endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids. To establish sensitive and reliable models, the factors influencing profiling should be recognised. We performed an extensive literature review of the multiple factors that could influence the quantitative levels and ratios of endogenous steroids in urine matrix. For a comprehensive and scientific evaluation of the urinary steroid profile, it is necessary to define the target analytes as well as testosterone metabolism. The two main confounding factors, that is, endogenous and exogenous factors, are detailed to show the complex process of quantifying the steroid profile within WADA-accredited laboratories. Technical aspects are also discussed as they could have a significant impact on the steroid profile, and thus the steroid module of the athlete biological passport (ABP). The different factors impacting the major components of the steroid profile must be understood to ensure scientifically sound interpretation through the Bayesian model of the ABP. Not only should the statistical data be considered but also the experts in the field must be consulted for successful implementation of the steroidal module.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiia Kuuranne
- Doping Control Laboratory, United Medix Laboratories Ltd., , Helsinki, Finland
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11
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Huestis MA, Smith ML. Modern analytical technologies for the detection of drug abuse and doping. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2014; 3:49-57. [PMID: 24980101 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Consequences to individuals convicted of abusing prohibited drugs or doping agents can be severe, including loss of employment, child custody, driving privileges, right to compete in international sports and ultimately freedom, when mandatory confinement occurs. In view of these penalties, laboratories charged with providing evidence must maximize testing accuracy. False positive and false negative tests are prevented by combining sensitive immunoassays and specific chromatographic-mass spectrometric detection. In addition, testing different biological matrices offers unique information about the drug-use history of an individual.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Michael L Smith
- Division of Forensic Toxicology, Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
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12
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Zhang L, Thevis M, Piper T, Jochmann MA, Wolbert JB, Kujawinski DM, Wiese S, Teutenberg T, Schmidt TC. Carbon Isotope Ratio Analysis of Steroids by High-Temperature Liquid Chromatography-Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2014; 86:2297-302. [DOI: 10.1021/ac403353x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lijun Zhang
- Instrumental
Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Mario Thevis
- Institute
of Biochemistry,
Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark
Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Piper
- Institute
of Biochemistry,
Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark
Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
| | - Maik A. Jochmann
- Instrumental
Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - J. Benjamin Wolbert
- Instrumental
Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Dorothea M. Kujawinski
- Instrumental
Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Steffen Wiese
- Institute of Energy and Environmental Technology e.V., (IUTA), Bliersheimer Strasse 60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Teutenberg
- Institute of Energy and Environmental Technology e.V., (IUTA), Bliersheimer Strasse 60, 47229 Duisburg, Germany
| | - Torsten C. Schmidt
- Instrumental
Analytical Chemistry, University Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
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Forsdahl G, Vatne H, Geisendorfer T, Gmeiner G. Screening of testosterone esters in human plasma. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:826-33. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Forsdahl
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; Seibersdorf Austria
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Tromsø; Tromsø Norway
| | - H.K. Vatne
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Tromsø; Tromsø Norway
| | - T. Geisendorfer
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; Seibersdorf Austria
| | - G. Gmeiner
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; Seibersdorf Austria
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14
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15
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Piper T, Emery C, Thomas A, Saugy M, Thevis M. Combination of carbon isotope ratio with hydrogen isotope ratio determinations in sports drug testing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:5455-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6949-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Janssens G, Courtheyn D, Mangelinckx S, Prévost S, Bichon E, Monteau F, De Poorter G, De Kimpe N, Le Bizec B. Use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry to differentiate between endogenous steroids and synthetic homologues in cattle: a review. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 772:1-15. [PMID: 23540242 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although substantial technical advances have been achieved during the past decades to extend and facilitate the analysis of growth promoters in cattle, the detection of abuse of synthetic analogs of naturally occurring hormones has remained a challenging issue. When it became clear that the exogenous origin of steroid hormones could be traced based on the (13)C/(12)C isotope ratio of the substances, GC/C/IRMS has been successfully implemented to this aim since the end of the past century. However, due to the costly character of the instrumental setup, the susceptibility of the equipment to errors and the complex and time consuming sample preparation, this method is up until now only applied by a limited number of laboratories. In this review, the general principles as well as the practical application of GC/C/IRMS to differentiate between endogenous steroids and exogenously synthesized homologous compounds in cattle will be discussed in detail, and will be placed next to other existing and to be developed methods based on isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Finally, the link will be made with the field of sports doping, where GC/C/IRMS has been established within the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) approved methods as the official technique to differentiate between exogenous and endogenous steroids over the past few years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geert Janssens
- Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain, Directorate General Laboratories, Brussels, Belgium.
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17
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Flenker U. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry - history and terminology in brief. Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:893-6. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ulrich Flenker
- Institute of Biochemistry; German Sports University Cologne; Am Sportpark Müngersdorf; 6, 50933 Cologne; Germany
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18
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Polet M, Van Gansbeke W, Deventer K, Van Eenoo P. Development of a sensitive GC-C-IRMS method for the analysis of androgens. Biomed Chromatogr 2012; 27:259-66. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.2785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Polet
- Doping Control Laboratory; Ghent University; Technologiepark 30; Zwijnaarde; Belgium
| | - Wim Van Gansbeke
- Doping Control Laboratory; Ghent University; Technologiepark 30; Zwijnaarde; Belgium
| | - Koen Deventer
- Doping Control Laboratory; Ghent University; Technologiepark 30; Zwijnaarde; Belgium
| | - Peter Van Eenoo
- Doping Control Laboratory; Ghent University; Technologiepark 30; Zwijnaarde; Belgium
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19
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Brailsford AD, Gavrilović I, Ansell RJ, Cowan DA, Kicman AT. Two-dimensional gas chromatography with heart-cutting for isotope ratio mass spectrometry analysis of steroids in doping control. Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:962-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Revised: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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20
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Abstract
Athletes have always sought to outperform their competitors and regrettably some have resorted to misuse of drugs or doping to achieve this. Stimulants were taken by the first Olympic athletes to be disqualified in 1972. Although undetectable until 1975, from the 1950s androgenic anabolic steroids were administered for increased strength and power followed in the 1990s by erythropoietin for enhanced endurance. Both are highly effective doping agents. As analytical science validated improved techniques to identify these drugs, Olympic athletes, including many medallists were caught and disqualified. When the International Olympic Committee (IOC) prohibited beta blockers (beneficial in shooting), diuretics (assist weight classified athletes) and glucocorticosteroids, some athletes with genuine medical conditions were denied legitimate medical therapy. To overcome this, in 1992 the IOC introduced a system known now as Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE). This paper discusses Olympic athletes who have been known to dope at past Games and some medical indications and pitfalls in the TUE process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Fitch
- School Sports Science, Exercise and Health, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Western Australia, Australia.
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21
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Forsdahl G, Östreicher C, Koller M, Gmeiner G. Carbon isotope ratio determination and investigation of seized testosterone preparations. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:814-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guro Forsdahl
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; 2444; Seibersdorf; Austria
| | | | - Martina Koller
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; 2444; Seibersdorf; Austria
| | - Günter Gmeiner
- Doping Control Laboratory; Seibersdorf Labor GmbH; 2444; Seibersdorf; Austria
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Mohamed R, Guy PA. The pivotal role of mass spectrometry in determining the presence of chemical contaminants in food raw materials. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2011; 30:1073-1095. [PMID: 21425183 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
During recent years, a rising interest from consumers and various governmental organizations towards the quality of food has continuously been observed. Human intervention across the different stages of the food supply chain can lead to the presence of several types of chemical contaminants in food-based products. On a normal daily consumption basis, some of these chemicals are not harmful; however, for those that present a risk to consumers, legislation rules were established to specify tolerance levels or in some cases the total forbiddance of these specific contaminants. Hence, the use of appropriate analytical tools is recommended to properly identify chemical contaminants. In that context, mass spectrometry (MS)-based techniques coupled or not to chromatography offer a vast panel of features such as sensitivity, selectivity, quantification at trace levels, and/or structural elucidation. Because of the complexity of food-based matrices, sample preparation is a crucial step before final detection. In the present manuscript, we review the contribution and the potentialities of MS-based techniques to ensure the absence of chemical contaminants in food-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayane Mohamed
- Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd, P.O. Box 44, Vers-Chez-Les-Blanc 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland
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Tobias HJ, Zhang Y, Auchus RJ, Brenna JT. Detection of synthetic testosterone use by novel comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 2011; 83:7158-65. [PMID: 21846122 DOI: 10.1021/ac2015849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We report the first demonstration of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC×GCC-IRMS) for the analysis of urinary steroids to detect illicit synthetic testosterone use, of interest in sport doping. GC coupled to IRMS (GCC-IRMS) is currently used to measure the carbon isotope ratios (CIRs, δ(13)C) of urinary steroids in antidoping efforts; however, extensive cleanup of urine extracts is required prior to analysis to enable baseline separation of target steroids. With its greater separation capabilities, GC×GC has the potential to reduce sample preparation requirements and enable CIR analysis of minimally processed urine extracts. Challenges addressed include online reactors with minimized dimensions to retain narrow peak shapes, baseline separation of peaks in some cases, and reconstruction of isotopic information from sliced steroid chromatographic peaks. Difficulties remaining include long-term robustness of online reactors and urine matrix effects that preclude baseline separation and isotopic analysis of low-concentration and trace components. In this work, steroids were extracted, acetylated, and analyzed using a refined, home-built GC×GCC-IRMS system. 11-Hydroxyandrosterone and 11-ketoetiocolanolone were chosen as endogenous reference compounds because of their satisfactory signal intensity, and their CIR was compared to target compounds androsterone and etiocholanolone. Separately, a GC×GC-quadrupole MS system was used to measure testosterone (T)/epitestosterone (EpiT) concentration ratios. Urinary extracts of urine pooled from professional athletes and urine from one individual that received testosterone gel (T-gel) and one individual that received testosterone injections (T-shots) were analyzed. The average precisions of δ(13)C and Δδ(13)C measurements were SD(δ(13)C) approximately ±1‰ (n = 11). The T-shot sample resulted in a positive for T use with a T/EpiT ratio of >9 and CIR measurements of Δδ(13)C > 5‰, both fulfilling World Anti-Doping Agency criteria. These data show for the first time that synthetic steroid use is detectable by GC×GCC-IRMS without the need for extensive urine cleanup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert J Tobias
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Savage Hall, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.
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Kioussi MK, Angelis YS, Cawley AT, Koupparis M, Kazlauskas R, Brenna JT, Georgakopoulos CG. External calibration in Gas Chromatography–Combustion–Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry measurements of endogenous androgenic anabolic steroids in sports doping control. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:5675-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Revised: 05/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Simultaneous separation and determination of 16 testosterone and nandrolone esters in equine plasma using ultra high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for doping control. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:3982-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.04.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 04/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Munton E, Murby J, Hibbert DB, Santamaria-Fernandez R. Systematic comparison of δ13C measurements of testosterone and derivative steroids in a freeze-dried urine candidate reference material for sports drug testing by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry and uncertainty evaluation using four different metrological approaches. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2011; 25:1641-1651. [PMID: 21594940 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
An alternative calibration procedure for use when performing carbon isotope ratio measurements by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS) has been developed. This calibration procedure does not rely on the corrections in-built in the instrument software, as the carbon isotope ratios of a sample are calculated from the measured raw peak areas. The method was developed for the certification of a urine reference material for sports drug testing, as the estimation of measurement uncertainty is greatly simplified. To ensure that the method is free from bias arising from the choice of calibration material and instrument, the carbon isotope ratios of steroids in urine extracts were measured using two different instruments in different laboratories, and three different reference materials (CU/USADA steroid standards from Brenna Laboratory, Cornell University; NIST RM8539 mineral oil; methane calibrated against NIST RM8560 natural gas). The measurements were performed at LGC and the Australian National Measurement Institute (NMI). It was found that there was no significant difference in measurement results when different instruments and reference materials were used to measure the carbon isotope ratio of the major testosterone metabolites androsterone and etiocholanolone, or the endogenous reference compounds pregnanediol, 11- ketoetiocholanolone and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone. Expanded measurement uncertainties at the 95% coverage probability ranged from 0.21‰ to 1.4‰, depending on analyte, instrument and reference material. The measurement results of this comparison were used to estimate a measurement uncertainty of δ(13)C for the certification of the urine reference material being performed on a single instrument using a single reference material at NMI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellaine Munton
- National Measurement Institute (NMI), Pymble, NSW 2073, Australia.
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27
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Recent developments in the use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry in sports drug testing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 401:433-47. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4886-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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The Assay of Endogenous and Exogenous Anabolic Androgenic Steroids. HORMONE USE AND ABUSE BY ATHLETES 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-7014-5_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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You Y, Uboh CE, Soma LR, Guan F, Li X, Liu Y, Chen J, Tsang D. Simultaneous Determination of Testosterone and Testosterone Enanthate in Equine Plasma by UHPLC-MS-MS. Chromatographia 2010. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-010-1784-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Sobolevskii TG, Prasolov IS, Rodchenkov GM. Carbon isotope mass spectrometry in doping control. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934810080113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Abstract
CONTEXT Doping with anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) both in sports (especially power sports) and among specific subsets of the population is rampant. With increasing availability of designer androgens, significant efforts are needed by antidoping authorities to develop sensitive methods to detect their use. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION The PubMed and Google Scholar search engines were used to identify publications addressing various forms of doping, methods employed in their detection, and adverse effects associated with their use. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS The list of drugs prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has grown in the last decade. The newer entries into this list include gonadotropins, estrogen antagonists, aromatase inhibitors, androgen precursors, and selective androgen receptor modulators. The use of mass spectrometry has revolutionized the detection of various compounds; however, challenges remain in identifying newer designer androgens because their chemical signature is unknown. Development of high throughput bioassays may be an answer to this problem. It appears that the use of AAS continues to be associated with premature mortality (especially cardiovascular) in addition to suppressed spermatogenesis, gynecomastia, and virilization. CONCLUSION The attention that androgen abuse has received lately should be used as an opportunity to educate both athletes and the general population regarding their adverse effects. The development of sensitive detection techniques may help discourage (at least to some extent) the abuse of these compounds. Investigations are needed to identify ways to hasten the recovery of the gonadal axis in AAS users and to determine the mechanism of cardiac damage by these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shehzad Basaria
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA.
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Hoffman JR, Kraemer WJ, Bhasin S, Storer T, Ratamess NA, Haff GG, Willoughby DS, Rogol AD. Position stand on androgen and human growth hormone use. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23:S1-S59. [PMID: 19620932 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e31819df2e6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hoffman, JR, Kraemer, WJ, Bhasin, S, Storer, T, Ratamess, NA, Haff, GG, Willoughby, DS, and Rogol, AD. Position stand on Androgen and human growth hormone use. J Strength Cond Res 23(5): S1-S59, 2009-Perceived yet often misunderstood demands of a sport, overt benefits of anabolic drugs, and the inability to be offered any effective alternatives has fueled anabolic drug abuse despite any consequences. Motivational interactions with many situational demands including the desire for improved body image, sport performance, physical function, and body size influence and fuel such negative decisions. Positive countermeasures to deter the abuse of anabolic drugs are complex and yet unclear. Furthermore, anabolic drugs work and the optimized training and nutritional programs needed to cut into the magnitude of improvement mediated by drug abuse require more work, dedication, and preparation on the part of both athletes and coaches alike. Few shortcuts are available to the athlete who desires to train naturally. Historically, the NSCA has placed an emphasis on education to help athletes, coaches, and strength and conditioning professionals become more knowledgeable, highly skilled, and technically trained in their approach to exercise program design and implementation. Optimizing nutritional strategies are a vital interface to help cope with exercise and sport demands (). In addition, research-based supplements will also have to be acknowledged as a strategic set of tools (e.g., protein supplements before and after resistance exercise workout) that can be used in conjunction with optimized nutrition to allow more effective adaptation and recovery from exercise. Resistance exercise is the most effective anabolic form of exercise, and over the past 20 years, the research base for resistance exercise has just started to develop to a significant volume of work to help in the decision-making process in program design (). The interface with nutritional strategies has been less studied, yet may yield even greater benefits to the individual athlete in their attempt to train naturally. Nevertheless, these are the 2 domains that require the most attention when trying to optimize the physical adaptations to exercise training without drug use.Recent surveys indicate that the prevalence of androgen use among adolescents has decreased over the past 10-15 years (). The decrease in androgen use among these students may be attributed to several factors related to education and viable alternatives (i.e., sport supplements) to substitute for illegal drug use. Although success has been achieved in using peer pressure to educate high school athletes on behaviors designed to reduce the intent to use androgens (), it has not had the far-reaching effect desired. It would appear that using the people who have the greatest influence on adolescents (coaches and teachers) be the primary focus of the educational program. It becomes imperative that coaches provide realistic training goals for their athletes and understand the difference between normal physiological adaptation to training or that is pharmaceutically enhanced. Only through a stringent coaching certification program will academic institutions be ensured that coaches that they hire will have the minimal knowledge to provide support to their athletes in helping them make the correct choices regarding sport supplements and performance-enhancing drugs.The NSCA rejects the use of androgens and hGH or any performance-enhancing drugs on the basis of ethics, the ideals of fair play in competition, and concerns for the athlete's health. The NSCA has based this position stand on a critical analysis of the scientific literature evaluating the effects of androgens and human growth hormone on human physiology and performance. The use of anabolic drugs to enhance athletic performance has become a major concern for professional sport organizations, sport governing bodies, and the federal government. It is the belief of the NSCA that through education and research we can mitigate the abuse of androgens and hGH by athletes. Due to the diversity of testosterone-related drugs and molecules, the term androgens is believed to be a more appropriate term for anabolic steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay R Hoffman
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, 08628, USA.
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Abstract
The abundances of the stable isotopes of the bioelements are not constant. Subtle, but significant, variations may be induced by physical, physiological and biochemical processes. These variations may be detected and quantified. Often, isotope fingerprints are characteristic of certain processes and may reveal information concerning the sources and origins of compounds of interest. Moreover, natural variabilities of stable isotopes may be exploited in order to perform tracer experiments. The most accurate technology to perform stable isotope analysis is (gas) isotope ratio MS (IRMS). Compound-specific approaches employ hyphenation of GC and LC to IRMS. In these approaches, complete conversion to simple gases prior to MS is required. Analysis by stable isotope ratio spectroscopy currently approaches the accuracy of IRMS. However, for bioanalytical projects, it is still predominantly confined to material synthetically enriched with stable isotopes.
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Validation and performance comparison of two carbon isotope ratio methods to control the misuse of androgens in humans. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2009; 877:2321-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2008] [Revised: 12/01/2008] [Accepted: 12/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Athletes have increasingly used testosterone (T) and other endogenous anabolic steroids that cannot be detected by conventional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. This led to gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry(GC/C/IRMS), which measures the relative amount of 13C in urinary steroids. Because exogenous testosterone is relatively low in 13C content, this study will determine if consuming a diet low in 13C plants, such as soy, can be confused with a GC/C/IRMS-positive test for exogenous testosterone. DESIGN Cross-sectional study in which 22 vegetarians known to consume a diet depleted of 13C isotope were compared with a geographic control group of 14 subjects consuming a normal diet. SETTING Two distinct subject populations with respect to diet. SUBJECTS Subjects were recruited from a soy-based cooperative and control volunteers. Twenty-two of 24 research subjects completed the protocol compared with 14 of 22 control subjects. INTERVENTIONS Independent variables were delta13C IRMS values,urinary steroid profile, and isoflavone analysis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Comparisons were made with respect to dietary analysis, isoflavones, and urinary steroid measurements using GC-C-IRMS. RESULTS The delta13C values for 2 major metabolites of T (androsterone and etiocholanolone) were lower for the vegetarians than the controls (P = 0.005). The vegetarians excreted a median of 23 micromol/d of total isoflavones compared with 2.7 micromol/d for the control group (P =0.0002). CONCLUSIONS The carbon isotope ratios of urinary testosterone metabolites of vegetarians consuming a diet that is markedly depleted of 13C content were lower than that of control subjects, but not low enough to result in World Anti-Doping Agency criteria for a positive IRMS analysis.
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Aguilera R, Chapman TE, Pereira H, Oliveira GC, Illanes RP, Fernandes TF, Azevedo DA, Neto FA. Drug testing data from the 2007 Pan American Games: delta13C values of urinary androsterone, etiocholanolone and androstanediols determined by GC/C/IRMS. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2009; 115:107-14. [PMID: 19428237 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2009.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 03/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The main purpose of this article is to show the application of the CG/C/IRMS in real time during competition in the steroid confirmation analysis. For this reason, this paper summarizes the results obtained from the doping control analysis during the period of the 2007 Pan American Games held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Approximately 5600 athletes from 42 different countries competed in the games. Testing was performed in accordance to World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) technical note for prohibited substances. This paper reports data where abnormal urinary steroid profiles, have been found with the screening procedures. One 8 mL urine sample was used for the analysis of five steroid metabolites with two separate analyses by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS). Urine samples were submitted to GC/C/IRMS for confirmation analysis to determine the (13)C/(12)C ratio of selected steroids. Fifty-seven urine samples were analyzed by GC/C/IRMS and the delta(13)C values ( per thousand) of androsterone, etiocholanolone, 5beta-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol (5beta-diol), 5alpha-androstane-3alpha, 17beta-diol (5alpha-diol) and 5beta-pregnane-3alpha, 20alpha-diol (5beta-pdiol), the endogenous reference compound are presented. One urine sample with a testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio of 4.7 was confirmed to be positive of doping by GC/C/IRMS analysis. The delta values of 5beta-diol and 5alpha-diol were 3.8 and 10.8, respectively, compared to the endogenous reference compound 5beta-pdiol, which exceeded the WADA limit of 3 per thousand. The results obtained by CG/C/IRMS confirmation analyses, in suspicious samples, were conclusive in deciding whether or not a doping steroid violation had occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Aguilera
- House Ear Institute, 2100 West Third Street, Los Angeles, CA 90057, USA.
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37
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Meklat N, Tabet JC, de Ceaurriz J. Urine ratio of tetrahydrocortisol to tetrahydrodeoxycortisol to screen for the systemic administration of cortisone and hydrocortisone. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 185:e13-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2008] [Revised: 12/15/2008] [Accepted: 12/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Buisson C, Mongongu C, Frelat C, Jean-Baptiste M, de Ceaurriz J. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry analysis of the oxidation products of the main and minor metabolites of hydrocortisone and cortisone for antidoping controls. Steroids 2009; 74:393-7. [PMID: 19056411 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2008] [Revised: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Metabolites of hydrocortisone (HC) and cortisone (C), namely tetrahydrocortisol (THF), tetrahydrocortisone (THE), allo-THF, allo-THE for the main metabolites and 11-hydroxyandrosterone, 11-hydoxyetiocholanolone, 11-ketoandrosterone, and 11-ketoetiocholanolone for the minor metabolites, as well as the two main metabolites of testosterone, androsterone and etiocholanolone, were separated from each other using HPLC fractionation of urine extracts. An isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis determined the absolute delta(13)C values of 5alpha-androstanetrione (5alpha-AT) and 5beta-androstanetrione (5beta-AT) as the oxidation products (ox-products) of the HC and C metabolites and as target compounds (TCs). We also performed IRMS analysis of 5alpha-androstanedione (5alpha-AD) and 5beta-androstanedione (5beta-AD) as the ox-products of etiocholanolone and androsterone and as endogenous reference compounds (ERCs). Urine samples came from two male volunteers treated with a single 10-mg oral dose and a single 100-mg intramuscular dose of HC hemisuccinate, a male volunteer treated with a single 25-mg oral dose of C acetate, and a control group of 30 drug-free athletes. The mean -3SD of delta(13)C depletion values from the controls were -1.46, -1.98, -1.78 and -2.42 for 5beta-AT-5beta-AD, 5alpha-AT-5beta-AD, 5beta-AT-5alpha-AD and 5alpha-AT-5alpha-AD, respectively, indicating -3 per thousand as a safe cut-off value for differentiating the pharmaceutical from the natural form. In the main metabolite fraction, delta(13)C depletion values peaked around -5 per thousand and -9 per thousand after oral and intramuscular administration of HC, respectively, and around -6 per thousand after oral administration of C. In comparison, less impressive results were obtained when IRMS analysis focused on the ox-products of the minor metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Buisson
- Afld, Département des analyses, 143, avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France.
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Schulze JJ, Lundmark J, Garle M, Ekström L, Sottas PE, Rane A. Substantial advantage of a combined Bayesian and genotyping approach in testosterone doping tests. Steroids 2009; 74:365-8. [PMID: 19056415 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2008] [Revised: 10/17/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone abuse is conventionally assessed by the urinary testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio, levels above 4.0 being considered suspicious. A deletion polymorphism in the gene coding for UGT2B17 is strongly associated with reduced testosterone glucuronide (TG) levels in urine. Many of the individuals devoid of the gene would not reach a T/E ratio of 4.0 after testosterone intake. Future test programs will most likely shift from population based- to individual-based T/E cut-off ratios using Bayesian inference. A longitudinal analysis is dependent on an individual's true negative baseline T/E ratio. The aim was to investigate whether it is possible to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the T/E test by addition of UGT2B17 genotype information in a Bayesian framework. A single intramuscular dose of 500mg testosterone enanthate was given to 55 healthy male volunteers with either two, one or no allele (ins/ins, ins/del or del/del) of the UGT2B17 gene. Urinary excretion of TG and the T/E ratio was measured during 15 days. The Bayesian analysis was conducted to calculate the individual T/E cut-off ratio. When adding the genotype information, the program returned lower individual cut-off ratios in all del/del subjects increasing the sensitivity of the test considerably. It will be difficult, if not impossible, to discriminate between a true negative baseline T/E value and a false negative one without knowledge of the UGT2B17 genotype. UGT2B17 genotype information is crucial, both to decide which initial cut-off ratio to use for an individual, and for increasing the sensitivity of the Bayesian analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Jakobsson Schulze
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet at Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska University Hospital, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Piper T, Flenker U, Mareck U, Schänzer W. 13C/12C Ratios of endogenous urinary steroids investigated for doping control purposes. Drug Test Anal 2009; 1:65-72. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abstract
Forensic chemistry is unique among chemical sciences in that its research, practice, and presentation must meet the needs of both the scientific and the legal communities. As such, forensic chemistry research is applied and derivative by nature and design, and it emphasizes metrology (the science of measurement) and validation. Forensic chemistry has moved away from its analytical roots and is incorporating a broader spectrum of chemical sciences. Existing forensic practices are being revisited as the purview of forensic chemistry extends outward from drug analysis and toxicology into such diverse areas as combustion chemistry, materials science, and pattern evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Bell
- Bennett Department of Chemistry and Forensic and Investigative Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6121, USA.
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Graham MR, Davies B, Grace FM, Kicman A, Baker JS. Anabolic steroid use: patterns of use and detection of doping. Sports Med 2008; 38:505-25. [PMID: 18489196 DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200838060-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were the first identified doping agents that have ergogenic effects and are being used to increase muscle mass and strength in adult males. Consequently, athletes are still using them to increase physical performance and bodybuilders are using them to improve size and cosmetic appearance. The prevalence of AAS use has risen dramatically over the last two decades and filtered into all aspects of society. Support for AAS users has increased, but not by the medical profession, who will not accept that AAS use dependency is a psychiatric condition. The adverse effects and potential dangers of AAS use have been well documented. AAS are used in sport by individuals who have acquired knowledge of the half-lives of specific drugs and the dosages and cycles required to avoid detection. Conversely, they are used by bodybuilders in extreme dosages with the intention of gaining muscle mass and size, with little or no regard for the consequences. Polypharmacy by self-prescription is prevalent in this sector. Most recently, AAS use has filtered through to 'recreational street drug' users and is the largest growth of drugs in this subdivision. They are taken to counteract the anorexic and cachectic effects of the illegal psychotropic street drugs. Screening procedures for AAS in World Anti-Doping Agency accredited laboratories are comprehensive and sensitive and are based mainly on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, although liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is becoming increasingly more valuable. The use of carbon isotope mass spectrometry is also of increasing importance in the detection of natural androgen administration, particularly to detect testosterone administration. There is a degree of contentiousness in the scenario of AAS drug use, both within and outside sport. AAS and associated doping agents are not illegal per se. Possession is not an offence, despite contravening sporting regulations and moral codes. Until AAS are classified in the same capacity as street drugs in the UK, where possession becomes a criminal offence, they will continue to attract those who want to win at any cost. The knowledge acquired by such work can only assist in the education of individuals who use such doping agents, with a view to minimizing health risks and hopefully once again create a level playing field in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Graham
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, School of Applied Science, University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, UK
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43
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Abstract
The fight against doping in sports commenced as a result of the death of a Danish cyclist during the Rome Olympic Games in 1960. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) established a Medical Commission (IOC-MC) which had the task of designing a strategy to combat the misuse of drugs in Olympic Sport. Some International Sport Federations (IF) and National Sports Federations followed suit, but progress was modest until the world's best male sprinter was found doped with anabolic steroids at the Olympic Games in Seoul in 1988. Further progress was made following the cessation of the cold war in 1989 and in 1999 public authorities around the world joined the Olympic Movement in a unique partnership by creating WADA--the 'World Anti-Doping Agency'. The troubled history of the anti-doping fight from the 1960s until today is reviewed. In particular, the development of detection methods for an ever increasing number of drugs that can be used to dope is described, as are the measures that have been taken to protect the health of the athletes, including those who may need banned substances for medical reasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Catlin
- Anti-Doping Research Institute, 3873 Grand View Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90066, USA.
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Piper T, Mareck U, Geyer H, Flenker U, Thevis M, Platen P, Schänzer W. Determination of 13C/12C ratios of endogenous urinary steroids: method validation, reference population and application to doping control purposes. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2008; 22:2161-2175. [PMID: 18536069 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The application of a comprehensive gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS)-based method for stable carbon isotopes of endogenous urinary steroids is presented. The key element in sample preparation is the consecutive cleanup with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of underivatized and acetylated steroids, which allows the isolation of ten analytes (11beta-hydroxyandrosterone, 5alpha-androst-16-en-3beta-ol, pregnanediol, androsterone, etiocholanolone, testosterone, epitestosterone, 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol, 5beta-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol and dehydroepiandrosterone) from a single urine specimen. These steroids are of particular importance to doping controls as they enable the sensitive and retrospective detection of steroid abuse by athletes. Depending on the biological background, the determination limit for all steroids ranges from 5 to 10 ng/mL for a 10 mL specimen. The method is validated by means of linear mixing models for each steroid, which covers repeatability and reproducibility. Specificity was further demonstrated by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for each analyte, and no influence of the sample preparation or the quantity of analyte on carbon isotope ratios was observed. In order to determine naturally occurring (13)C/(12)C ratios of all implemented steroids, a reference population of n = 61 subjects was measured to enable the calculation of reference limits for all relevant steroidal Delta values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Piper
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, Carl-Diem-Weg 6, 50933 Köln, Germany.
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Cawley AT, Flenker U. The application of carbon isotope ratio mass spectrometry to doping control. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:854-864. [PMID: 18523972 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The administration of synthetic steroid copies is one of the most important issues facing sports. Doping control laboratories accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) require methods of analysis that allow endogenous steroids to be distinguished from their synthetic analogs in urine. The ability to measure isotope distribution at natural abundance with high accuracy and precision has increased the application of Gas Chromatography-Combustion-Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) to doping control in recent years. GC-C-IRMS is capable of measuring the carbon isotope ratio (delta(13)C) of urinary steroids and confirm their synthetic origin based on the abnormal (13)C content. This tutorial describes some of the complexities encountered by obtaining valid delta(13)C measurements from GC-C-IRMS and the need for careful interpretation of all relevant information concerning an individual's metabolism in order to make an informed decision with respect to a doping violation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam T Cawley
- Australian Sports Drug Testing Laboratory, National Measurement Institute, Pymble NSW 2073, Australia.
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Mareck U, Geyer H, Opfermann G, Thevis M, Schänzer W. Factors influencing the steroid profile in doping control analysis. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:877-91. [PMID: 18570179 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Steroid profiling is one of the most versatile and informative screening tools for the detection of steroid abuse in sports drug testing. Concentrations and ratios of various endogenously produced steroidal hormones, their precursors and metabolites including testosterone (T), epitestosterone (E), dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androsterone (And), etiocholanolone (Etio), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (Adiol), and 5beta-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (Bdiol) as well as androstenedione, 6alpha-OH-androstenedione, 5beta-androstane-3alpha,17alpha-diol (17-epi-Bdiol), 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17alpha-diol (17-epi-Adiol), 3alpha,5-cyclo-5alpha-androstan-6beta-ol-17-one (3alpha,5-cyclo), 5alpha-androstanedione (Adion), and 5beta-androstanedione (Bdion) add up to a steroid profile that is highly sensitive to applications of endogenous as well as synthetic anabolic steroids, masking agents, and bacterial activity. Hence, the knowledge of factors that do influence the steroid profile pattern is a central aspect, and pharmaceutical (application of endogenous steroids and various pharmaceutical preparations), technical (hydrolysis, derivatization, matrix), and biological (bacterial activities, enzyme side activities) issues are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Mareck
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
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Schulze JJ, Lundmark J, Garle M, Skilving I, Ekström L, Rane A. Doping test results dependent on genotype of uridine diphospho-glucuronosyl transferase 2B17, the major enzyme for testosterone glucuronidation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93:2500-6. [PMID: 18334593 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2008-0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Testosterone abuse is conventionally assessed by the urinary testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio, levels above 4.0 being considered suspicious. The large variation in testosterone glucuronide (TG) excretion and its strong association with a deletion polymorphism in the uridine diphospho-glucuronosyl transferase (UGT) 2B17 gene challenge the accuracy of the T/E ratio test. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to investigate whether genotype-based cutoff values will improve the sensitivity and specificity of the test. DESIGN This was an open three-armed comparative study. PARTICIPANTS A total of 55 healthy male volunteers with either two, one, or no allele [insertion/insertion, insertion/deletion, or deletion/deletion (del/del)] of the UGT2B17 gene was included in the study. INTERVENTION A single im dose of 500 mg testosterone enanthate was administered. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Urinary excretion of TG after dose and the T/E ratio during 15 d were calculated. RESULTS The degree and rate of increase in the TG excretion rate were highly dependent on the UGT2B17 genotype with a 20-fold higher average maximum increase in the insertion/insertion group compared with the del/del group. Of the del/del subjects, 40% never reached the T/E ratio of 4.0 on any of the 15 d after the dose. When differentiated cutoff levels for the del/del (1.0) and the other genotypes (6.0) were applied, the sensitivity increased substantially for the del/del group, and false positives in the other genotypes were eliminated. CONCLUSIONS Consideration of the genetic variation in disposition of androgens will improve the sensitivity and specificity of the testosterone doping test. This is of interest not only for combating androgen doping in sports, but also for detecting and preventing androgen abuse in society.
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Saudan C, Baume N, Emery C, Strahm E, Saugy M. Short term impact of Tribulus terrestris intake on doping control analysis of endogenous steroids. Forensic Sci Int 2008; 178:e7-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2007] [Revised: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 01/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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