The malaria parasite PP1 phosphatase controls the initiation of the egress pathway of asexual blood-stages by regulating the rounding-up of the vacuole

A sustained blood-stage infection of the human malaria parasite P. falciparum relies on the active exit of merozoites from their host erythrocytes. During this process, named egress, the infected red blood cell undergoes sequential morphological events: the rounding-up of the surrounding parasitophorous vacuole, the disruption of the vacuole membrane and finally the rupture of the red blood cell membrane. These events are coordinated by two intracellular second messengers, cGMP and calcium ions (Ca2+), that control the activation of their dedicated kinases, PKG and CDPKs respectively, and thus the secretion of parasitic factors that assist membranes rupture. We had previously identified the serine-threonine phosphatase PP1 as an essential enzyme required for the rupture of the surrounding vacuole. Here, we address its precise positioning and function within the egress signaling pathway by combining chemical genetics and live-microscopy. Fluorescent reporters of the parasitophorous vacuole morphology were expressed in the conditional PfPP1-iKO line which allowed to monitor the kinetics of natural and induced egress, as well as the rescue capacity of known egress inducers. Our results underscore a dual function for PP1 in the egress cascade. First, we provide further evidence that PP1 controls the homeostasis of the second messenger cGMP by modulating the basal activity of guanylyl cyclase alpha and consequently the PKG-dependent downstream Ca2+ signaling. Second, we demonstrate that PP1 also regulates the rounding-up of the parasitophorous vacuole, as this step is almost completely abolished in PfPP1-null schizonts. Strikingly, our data show that rounding-up is the step triggered by egress inducers, and support its reliance on Ca2+, as the calcium ionophore A23187 bypasses the egress defect of PfPP1-null schizonts, restores proper egress kinetics and promotes the initiation of the rounding-up step. Therefore, this study places the phosphatase PP1 upstream of the cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, and sheds new light on the regulation of rounding-up, the first step in P. falciparum blood stage egress cascade.

Advances in the study of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been the leading cause of death worldwide for many years. In recent years, exosomes have gained extensive attention in the cardiovascular system due to their excellent biocompatibility. Studies have extensively researched miRNAs in exosomes and found that they play critical roles in various physiological and pathological processes in the cardiovascular system. These processes include promoting or inhibiting inflammatory responses, promoting angiogenesis, participating in cell proliferation and migration, and promoting pathological progression such as fibrosis.

AIM OF REVIEW

This systematic review examines the role of exosomes in various cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, ischemia-reperfusion injury, heart failure and cardiomyopathy. It also presents the latest treatment and prevention methods utilizing exosomes. The study aims to provide new insights and approaches for preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases by exploring the relationship between exosomes and these conditions. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the potential clinical use of exosomes as biomarkers for diagnosing cardiovascular diseases.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles surrounded by lipid bilayers that are secreted by most cells in the body. They are heterogeneous, varying in size and composition, with a diameter typically ranging from 40 to 160 nm. Exosomes serve as a means of information communication between cells, carrying various biologically active substances, including lipids, proteins, and small RNAs such as miRNAs and lncRNAs. As a result, they participate in both physiological and pathological processes within the body.

Abnormal phosphorylation / dephosphorylation and Ca2+ dysfunction in heart failure

Heart failure (HF) can be caused by a variety of causes characterized by abnormal myocardial systole and diastole. Ca2+ current through the L-type calcium channel (LTCC) on the membrane is the initial trigger signal for a cardiac cycle. Declined systole and diastole in HF are associated with dysfunction of myocardial Ca2+ function. This disorder can be correlated with unbalanced levels of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation of LTCC, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and myofilament. Kinase and phosphatase activity changes along with HF progress, resulting in phased changes in the degree of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation. It is important to realize the phosphorylation / dephosphorylation differences between a normal and a failing heart. This review focuses on phosphorylation / dephosphorylation changes in the progression of HF and summarizes the effects of phosphorylation / dephosphorylation of LTCC, ER function, and myofilament function in normal conditions and HF based on previous experiments and clinical research. Also, we summarize current therapeutic methods based on abnormal phosphorylation / dephosphorylation and clarify potential therapeutic directions.

Integrated analysis of single-cell RNA-seq, bulk RNA-seq, Mendelian randomization, and eQTL reveals T cell-related nomogram model and subtype classification in rheumatoid arthritis

Objective

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic disease that attacks the joints and causes a heavy economic burden on humans worldwide. T cells regulate RA progression and are considered crucial targets for therapy. Therefore, we aimed to integrate multiple datasets to explore the mechanisms of RA. Moreover, we established a T cell-related diagnostic model to provide a new method for RA immunotherapy.

Methods

scRNA-seq and bulk-seq datasets for RA were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Various methods were used to analyze and characterize the T cell heterogeneity of RA. Using Mendelian randomization (MR) and expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL), we screened for potential pathogenic T cell marker genes in RA. Subsequently, we selected an optimal machine learning approach by comparing the nine types of machine learning in predicting RA to identify T cell-related diagnostic features to construct a nomogram model. Patients with RA were divided into different T cell-related clusters using the consensus clustering method. Finally, we performed immune cell infiltration and clinical correlation analyses of T cell-related diagnostic features.

Results

By analyzing the scRNA-seq dataset, we obtained 10,211 cells that were annotated into 7 different subtypes based on specific marker genes. By integrating the eQTL from blood and RA GWAS, combined with XGB machine learning, we identified a total of 8 T cell-related diagnostic features (MIER1, PPP1CB, ICOS, GADD45A, CD3D, SLFN5, PIP4K2A, and IL6ST). Consensus clustering analysis showed that RA could be classified into two different T-cell patterns (Cluster 1 and Cluster 2), with Cluster 2 having a higher T-cell score than Cluster 1. The two clusters involved different pathways and had different immune cell infiltration states. There was no difference in age or sex between the two different T cell patterns. In addition, ICOS and IL6ST were negatively correlated with age in RA patients.

Conclusion

Our findings elucidate the heterogeneity of T cells in RA and the communication role of these cells in an RA immune microenvironment. The construction of T cell-related diagnostic models provides a resource for guiding RA immunotherapeutic strategies.

Identification of shared gene signatures and pathways for diagnosing osteoporosis with sarcopenia through integrated bioinformatics analysis and machine learning

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have suggested a potential relationship between osteoporosis and sarcopenia, both of which can present symptoms of compromised mobility. Additionally, fractures among the elderly are often considered a common outcome of both conditions. There is a strong correlation between fractures in the elderly population, decreased muscle mass, weakened muscle strength, heightened risk of falls, and diminished bone density. This study aimed to pinpoint crucial diagnostic candidate genes for osteoporosis patients with concomitant sarcopenia.

METHODS

Two osteoporosis datasets and one sarcopenia dataset were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). Differential expression genes (DEGs) and module genes were identified using Limma and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA), followed by functional enrichment analysis, construction of protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks, and application of a machine learning algorithm (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression) to determine candidate hub genes for diagnosing osteoporosis combined with sarcopenia. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and column line plots were generated.

RESULTS

The merged osteoporosis dataset comprised 2067 DEGs, with 424 module genes filtered in sarcopenia. The intersection of DEGs between osteoporosis and sarcopenia module genes consisted of 60 genes, primarily enriched in viral infection. Through construction of the PPI network, 30 node genes were filtered, and after machine learning, 7 candidate hub genes were selected for column line plot construction and diagnostic value assessment. Both the column line plots and all 7 candidate hub genes exhibited high diagnostic value (area under the curve ranging from 1.00 to 0.93).

CONCLUSION

We identified 7 candidate hub genes (PDP1, ALS2CL, VLDLR, PLEKHA6, PPP1CB, MOSPD2, METTL9) and constructed column line plots for osteoporosis combined with sarcopenia. This study provides reference for potential peripheral blood diagnostic candidate genes for sarcopenia in osteoporosis patients.

FOXO1 promotes endothelial cell elongation and angiogenesis by up-regulating the phosphorylation of myosin light chain 2

The forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) is an important transcription factor related to proliferation, metabolism, and homeostasis, while the major phenotype of FOXO1-null mice is abnormal vascular morphology, such as vessel enlargement and dilation. In in vitro mouse embryonic stem cell (ESC)-differentiation system, Foxo1-/- vascular endothelial cells (ECs) fail to elongate, and mimic the abnormalities of FOXO1-deficiency in vivo. Here, we identified the PPP1R14C gene as the FOXO1 target genes responsible for elongating using transcriptome analyses in ESC-derived ECs (ESC-ECs), and found that the FOXO1-PPP1R14C-myosin light chain 2 (MLC2) axis is required for EC elongation during angiogenesis. MLC2 is phosphorylated by MLC kinase (MLCK) and dephosphorylated by MLC phosphatase (MLCP). PPP1R14C is an inhibitor of PP1, the catalytic subunit of MLCP. The abnormal morphology of Foxo1-/- ESC-ECs was associated with low level of PPP1R14C and loss of MLC2 phosphorylation, which were reversed by PPP1R14C-introduction. Knockdown of either FOXO1 or PPP1R14C suppressed vascular cord formation and reduced MLC2 phosphorylation in human ECs (HUVECs). The mouse and human PPP1R14C locus possesses an enhancer element containing conserved FOXO1-binding motifs. In vivo chemical inhibition of MLC2 phosphorylation caused dilated vascular structures in mouse embryos. Furthermore, foxo1 or ppp1r14c-knockdown zebrafish exhibited vascular malformations, which were also restored by PPP1R14C-introduction. Mechanistically, FOXO1 suppressed MLCP activity by up-regulating PPP1R14C expression, thereby promoting MLC2 phosphorylation and EC elongation, which are necessary for vascular development. Given the importance of MLC2 phosphorylation in cell morphogenesis, this study may provide novel insights into the role of FOXO1 in control of angiogenesis.

Exosomes secreted by endothelial cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells improve recovery from myocardial infarction in mice

BACKGROUND

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells (hiPSC-ECs) exhibit the potential to repair the injured heart after myocardial infarction (MI) by promoting neovascularization and cardiomyocyte survival. However, because of the low cellular retention and poor engraftment efficacy, cell therapy of MI is partly mediated by exosomes secreted from the transplanted cells. In this study, we investigated whether exosomes secreted from hiPSC-ECs could become a promising acellular approach to repair the infarcted heart after MI and elucidated the underlying protective mechanism.

METHODS

The hiPSC-ECs were differentiated, and exosomes were isolated in vitro. Then, hiPSC-EC exosomes were delivered by intramyocardial injection in a murine MI model in vivo. Echocardiography, combined with hemodynamic measurement, histological examination, Ca2+ transient and cell shortening assessment, and Western blot, was used to determine the protective effects of hiPSC-EC exosomes on the infarcted heart. Furthermore, microRNA sequencing, luciferase activity assay, and microRNA gain-loss function experiments were performed to investigate the enriched microRNA and its role in exosome-mediated effects.

RESULTS

In vitro, the hiPSC-EC exosomes enhanced intracellular Ca2+ transients, increased ATP content, and improved cell survival to protect cardiomyocytes from oxygen-glucose deprivation injury. Congruously, hiPSC-EC exosome administration in vivo improved the myocardial contractile function and attenuated the harmful left ventricular remodeling after MI without increasing the frequency of arrhythmias. Mechanistically, the hiPSC-EC exosomes notably rescued the protein expression and function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase 2a (SERCA-2a) and ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR-2) to maintain intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and increase cardiomyocyte contraction after MI. The microRNA sequencing showed that miR-100-5p was the most abundant microRNA in exosomes. miR-100-5p could target protein phosphatase 1β (PP-1β) to enhance phospholamban (PLB) phosphorylation at Ser16 and subsequent SERCA activity, which contributes to the hiPSC-EC exosome-exerted cytoprotective effects on maintaining intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and promoting cardiomyocyte survival.

CONCLUSION

The hiPSC-EC exosomes maintain cardiomyocyte Ca2+ homeostasis to improve myocardial recovery after MI, which may provide an acellular therapeutic option for myocardial injury.

Short peptide pharmacophores developed from protein phosphatase-1 disrupting peptides (PDPs)

PP1 is a major phosphoserine/threonine-specific phosphatase that is involved in diseases such as heart insufficiency and diabetes. PP1-disrupting peptides (PDPs) are selective modulators of PP1 activity that release its catalytic subunit, which then dephosphorylates nearby substrates. Recently, PDPs enabled the creation of phosphatase-recruiting chimeras, which are bifunctional molecules that guide PP1 to a kinase to dephosphorylate and inactivate it. However, PDPs are 23mer peptides, which is not optimal for their use in therapy due to potential stability and immunogenicity issues. Therefore, we present here the sequence optimization of the 23mer PDP to a 5mer peptide, involving several attempts considering structure-based virtual screening, high throughput screening and peptide sequence optimization. We provide here a strong pharmacophore as lead structure to enable PP1 targeting in therapy or its use in phosphatase-recruiting chimeras in the future.

Pharmacological analysis of Empagliflozin: Acting through the CaMKII pathway in type 2 diabetes and acute cardiovascular events

Background

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a high-risk factor for acute cardiovascular events. Some reports show that Empagliflozin has a protective effect on cardiovascular events and diabetes mellitus, and Empagliflozin can act on the CaMKII pathway. However, the specific gene of action is not precise. Therefore, this study investigated the target genes of Empagliflozin by integrated gene analysis and molecular docking method to provide a theoretical basis for further elucidating the mechanism of action of Empagliflozin.

Method

In this study, we obtained 12 datasets from GEO, divided into experimental and validation groups, with a total of 376 samples. We then integrated CaMKII pathway-related genes from OMIM, NCBI, and genecards databases. We then intersected them with the differential genes we obtained to obtain 5 common genes and performed functional enrichment analysis. We then performed group comparisons in the validation set, and we obtained 2 clinically significant genes. Then we performed group comparison in the validation set, and we obtained 2 clinically significant genes, followed by molecular docking analysis with pymol, autodock software. We obtained molecular docking models for the 2 genes.

Conclusion

In this study, we obtained CaMK2G and PPP1CA, genes associated with the CaMKII pathway and type 2 diabetes and acute cardiovascular events, by integrative gene analysis and validated their expression in the relevant dataset. We also derived that Empagliflozin acts on amino acid TRP-125 of CaMK2G gene and GLN-249 ASP-210 ASP-208 of PPP1CA through CaMKII pathway, thus acting on type 2 diabetes and acute cardiovascular events by molecular docking technique.

Function and regulation of phosphatase 1 in healthy and diseased heart

Reversible phosphorylation of ion channels and calcium-handling proteins provides precise post-translational regulation of cardiac excitation and contractility. Serine/threonine phosphatases govern dephosphorylation of the majority of cardiac proteins. Accordingly, dysfunction of this regulation contributes to the development and progression of heart failure and atrial fibrillation. On the molecular level, these changes include alterations in the expression level and phosphorylation status of Ca²⁺ handling and excitation-contraction coupling proteins provoked by dysregulation of phosphatases. The serine/threonine protein phosphatase PP1 is one a major player in the regulation of cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. PP1 essentially impacts on cardiac physiology and pathophysiology via interactions with the cardiac ion channels Cav1.2, NKA, NCX and KCNQ1, sarcoplasmic reticulum-bound Ca²⁺ handling proteins such as RyR2, SERCA and PLB as well as the contractile proteins MLC2, TnI and MyBP-C. PP1 itself but also PP1-regulatory proteins like inhibitor-1, inhibitor-2 and heat-shock protein 20 are dysregulated in cardiac disease. Therefore, they represent interesting targets to gain more insights in heart pathophysiology and to identify new treatment strategies for patients with heart failure or atrial fibrillation. We describe the genetic and holoenzymatic structure of PP1 and review its role in the heart and cardiac disease. Finally, we highlight the importance of the PP1 regulatory proteins for disease manifestation, provide an overview of genetic models to study the role of PP1 for the development of heart failure and atrial fibrillation and discuss possibilities of pharmacological interventions.

Complex functionality of protein phosphatase 1 isoforms in the heart

Protein phosphatase 1(PP1) is a key regulator of cardiac function through dephosphorylating serine/threonine residues within target proteins to oppose the function of protein kinases. Studies from failing hearts of animal models and human patients have demonstrated significant increase of PP1 activity in myocardium, while elevated PP1 activity in transgenic mice leads to cardiac dysfunction, suggesting that PP1 might be a therapeutic target to ameliorate cardiac dysfunction in failing hearts. In fact, cardiac overexpression of inhibitor 1, the endogenous inhibitor of PP1, increases cardiac contractility and suppresses heart failure progression. However, this notion of PP1 inhibition for heart failure treatment has been challenged by recent studies on the isoform-specific roles of PP1 in the heart. PP1 is a holoenzyme composed of catalytic subunits (PP1α, PP1β, or PP1γ) and regulatory proteins that target them to distinct subcellular locations for functional specificity. This review will summarize how PP1 regulates phosphorylation of some of the key cardiac proteins involved in Ca²⁺ handling and cardiac contraction, and the potential role of PP1 isoforms in controlling cardiac physiology and pathophysiology.

Subcellular Organization of the cAMP Signaling Pathway

The field of cAMP signaling is witnessing exciting developments with the recognition that cAMP is compartmentalized and that spatial regulation of cAMP is critical for faithful signal coding. This realization has changed our understanding of cAMP signaling from a model in which cAMP connects a receptor at the plasma membrane to an intracellular effector in a linear pathway to a model in which cAMP signals propagate within a complex network of alternative branches and the specific functional outcome strictly depends on local regulation of cAMP levels and on selective activation of a limited number of branches within the network. In this review, we cover some of the early studies and summarize more recent evidence supporting the model of compartmentalized cAMP signaling, and we discuss how this knowledge is starting to provide original mechanistic insight into cell physiology and a novel framework for the identification of disease mechanisms that potentially opens new avenues for therapeutic interventions. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: cAMP mediates the intracellular response to multiple hormones and neurotransmitters. Signal fidelity and accurate coordination of a plethora of different cellular functions is achieved via organization of multiprotein signalosomes and cAMP compartmentalization in subcellular nanodomains. Defining the organization and regulation of subcellular cAMP nanocompartments is necessary if we want to understand the complex functional ramifications of pharmacological treatments that target G protein-coupled receptors and for generating a blueprint that can be used to develop precision medicine interventions.

Protein phosphatase 1 in tumorigenesis: is it worth a closer look?

Cancer cells take advantage of signaling cascades to meet their requirements for sustained growth and survival. Cell signaling is tightly controlled by reversible protein phosphorylation mechanisms, which require the counterbalanced action of protein kinases and protein phosphatases. Imbalances on this system are associated with cancer development and progression. Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) is one of the most relevant protein phosphatases in eukaryotic cells. Despite the widely recognized involvement of PP1 in key biological processes, both in health and disease, its relevance in cancer has been largely neglected. Here, we provide compelling evidence that support major roles for PP1 in tumorigenesis.

Integrative genomics analysis of eQTL and GWAS summary data identifies PPP1CB as a novel bone mineral density risk genes

In recent years, multiple genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous susceptibility variants and risk genes that demonstrate significant associations with bone mineral density (BMD). However, exploring how these genetic variants contribute risk to BMD remains a major challenge. We systematically integrated two independent expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) data (N = 1890) and GWAS summary statistical data of BMD (N = 142,487) using Sherlock integrative analysis to reveal whether expression-associated variants confer risk to BMD. By using Sherlock integrative analysis and MAGMA gene-based analysis, we found there existed 36 promising genes, for example, PPP1CB, XBP1, and FDFT1, whose expression alterations may contribute susceptibility to BMD. Through a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, we further prioritized the PPP1CB as a hub gene that has interactions with predicted genes and BMD-associated genes. Two eSNPs of rs9309664 (PeQTL = 1.42 × 10-17 and PGWAS = 1.40 × 10-11) and rs7475 (PeQTL = 2.10 × 10-6 and PGWAS = 1.70 × 10-7) in PPP1CB were identified to be significantly associated with BMD risk. Consistently, differential gene expression analysis found that the PPP1CB gene showed significantly higher expression in low BMD samples than that in high BMD samples based on two independent expression datasets (P = 0.0026 and P = 0.043, respectively). Together, we provide a convergent line of evidence to support that the PPP1CB gene involves in the etiology of osteoporosis.

Activation of endogenous protein phosphatase 1 enhances the calcium sensitivity of the ryanodine receptor type 2 in murine ventricular cardiomyocytes

KEY POINTS

Increased protein phosphatase 1 (PP-1) activity has been found in end stage human heart failure. Although PP-1 has been extensively studied, a detailed understanding of its role in the excitation-contraction coupling mechanism, in normal and diseased hearts, remains elusive. The present study investigates the functional effect of the PP-1 activity on local Ca²⁺ release events in ventricular cardiomyocytes, by using an activating peptide (PDP3) for the stimulation of the endogenous PP-1 protein. We report that acute de-phosphorylation may increase the sensitivity of RyR2 channels to Ca²⁺ in situ, and that the RyR2-serine2808 phosphorylation site may mediate such a process. Our approach unmasks the functional importance of PP-1 in the regulation of RyR2 activity, suggesting a potential role in the generation of a pathophysiological sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ leak in the diseased heart.

ABSTRACT

Changes in cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR2) phosphorylation are considered to be important regulatory and disease related post-translational protein modifications. The extent of RyR2 phosphorylation is mainly determined by the balance of the activities of protein kinases and phosphatases, respectively. Increased protein phosphatase-1 (PP-1) activity has been observed in heart failure, although the regulatory role of this enzyme on intracellular Ca²⁺ handling remains poorly understood. To determine the physiological and pathophysiological significance of increased PP-1 activity, we investigated how the PP-1 catalytic subunit (PP-1c) alters Ca²⁺ sparks in permeabilized cardiomyocytes and we also applied a PP-1-disrupting peptide (PDP3) to specifically activate endogenous PP-1, including the one anchored on the RyR2 macromolecular complex. We compared wild-type and transgenic mice in which the usually highly phosphorylated site RyR2-S2808 has been ablated to investigate its involvement in RyR2 modulation (S2808A^+/+ ). In wild-type myocytes, PP-1 increased Ca²⁺ spark frequency by two-fold, followed by depletion of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ store. Similarly, PDP3 transiently increased spark frequency and decreased sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ load. RyR2 Ca²⁺ sensitivity, which was assessed by Ca²⁺ spark recovery analysis, was increased in the presence of PDP3 compared to a negative control peptide. S2808A^+/+ cardiomyocytes did not respond to both PP-1c and PDP3 treatment. Our results suggest an increased Ca²⁺ sensitivity of RyR2 upon de-phosphorylation by PP-1. Furthermore, we have confirmed the S2808 site as a target for PP-1 and as a potential link between RyR2s modulation and the cellular response.

Inhibitor 1 of Protein Phosphatase 1 Regulates Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II to Alleviate Oxidative Stress in Hypoxia-Reoxygenation Injury of Cardiomyocytes

Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), regulated by inhibitor 1 of protein phosphatase 1 (I1PP1), is vital for maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis. However, the role and mechanism of I1PP1 against hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) injury in cardiomyocytes remain a question. In our study, after I1PP1 overexpression by adenovirus infection in the neonatal cardiomyocytes followed by hypoxia for 4 h and reoxygenation for 12 h, the CaMKIIδ alternative splicing subtype, ATP content, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release were determined. CaMKII activity was evaluated by phosphoprotein phosphorylation at Thr17 (p-PLB Thr17), CaMKII phosphorylation (p-CaMKII), and CaMKII oxidation (ox-CaMKII). Reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential, dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1), and optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) expressions were assessed. Our study verified that I1PP1 overexpression attenuated the CaMKIIδ alternative splicing disorder; suppressed PLB phosphorylation at Thr17, p-CaMKII, and ox-CaMKII; decreased cell LDH release; increased ATP content; attenuated ROS production; increased mitochondrial membrane potential; and decreased DRP1 expression but increased OPA1 expression in the cardiomyocytes after H/R. Contrarily, CaMKIIδ alternative splicing disorder, LDH release, ATP reduction, and ROS accumulation were aggravated after H/R injury with the I1PP1 knockdown. Collectively, I1PP1 overexpression corrected disorders of CaMKIIδ alternative splicing, inhibited CaMKII phosphorylation, repressed CaMKII oxidation, suppressed ROS production, and attenuated cardiomyocyte H/R injury.

Differential localizations of protein phosphatase 1 isoforms determine their physiological function in the heart

Protein phosphatase 1 isoforms α, β, and γ (PP1α, PP1β, and PP1γ) are highly homologous in the catalytic domains but have distinct subcellular localizations. In this study, we utilized both primary cell culture and knockout mice to investigate the isoform-specific roles of PP1s in the heart. In both neonatal and adult cardiac myocytes, PP1β was mainly localized in the nucleus, compared to the predominant presence of PP1α and PP1γ in the cytoplasm. Adenovirus-mediated overexpression of PP1α led to decreased phosphorylation of phospholamban, which was not influenced by overexpression of either PP1β or PP1γ. Interestingly, only cardiac-specific knockout of PP1β resulted in increased HDAC7 phosphorylation, consistent with the predominant nuclear localization of PP1β. Functionally, deletion of either PP1 isoform resulted in reduced fractional shortening in aging mice, however only PP1β deletion resulted in interstitial fibrosis in mice as early as 3 weeks of age. Deletion of neither PP1 isoform had any effect on pathological cardiac hypertrophy induced by 2 weeks of pressure overload stimulation. Together, our data suggest that PP1 isoforms have differential localizations to regulate the phosphorylation of their specific substrates for the physiological function in the heart.

Impaired Ca2+ cycling of nonischemic myocytes contributes to sarcomere dysfunction early after myocardial infarction

Changes in the nonischemic remote myocardium of the heart contribute to left ventricular dysfunction after ischemia and reperfusion (I/R). Understanding the underlying mechanisms early after I/R is crucial to improve the adaptation of the viable myocardium to increased mechanical demands. Here, we investigated the role of myocyte Ca²⁺ handling in the remote myocardium 24 h after 60 min LAD occlusion. Cardiomyocytes isolated from the basal noninfarct-related parts of wild type mouse hearts demonstrated depressed beat-to-beat Ca²⁺ handling. The amplitude of the Ca²⁺ transients as well as the kinetics of Ca²⁺ transport were reduced by up to 25%. These changes were associated with impaired sarcomere contraction. While expression levels of Ca²⁺ regulatory proteins were unchanged in remote myocardium compared to the corresponding regions of sham-operated hearts, mobility shift analyses of phosphorylated protein showed 2.9 ± 0.4-fold more unphosphorylated phospholamban (PLN) monomers, the PLN species that inhibits the Ca²⁺ ATPase SERCA2a (P ≤ 0.001). Phospho-specific antibodies revealed normal phosphorylation of PLN at T17 in remote myocardium, but markedly reduced phosphorylation at its PKA-dependent phosphorylation site, S16 (P ≤ 0.01). The underlying cause involved enhanced activity of protein phosphatases, particularly PP2A (P ≤ 0.01). In contrast, overall PKA activity was normal. The PLN interactome, as determined by co-immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry, and the phosphorylation state of PKA targets other than PLN were also unchanged. Isoproterenol enhanced cellular Ca²⁺ cycling much stronger in remote myocytes than in healthy controls and improved sarcomere function. We conclude that the reduced phosphorylation state of PLN at S16 impairs myocyte Ca²⁺ cycling in the remote myocardium 24 h after I/R and contributes to contractile dysfunction.

Differential regulation of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) isoforms in human heart failure and atrial fibrillation

Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) is a key regulator of important cardiac signaling pathways. Dysregulation of PP1 has been heavily implicated in cardiac dysfunctions. Accordingly, pharmacological targeting of PP1 activity is considered for therapeutic intervention in human cardiomyopathies. Recent evidence from animal models implicated previously unrecognized, isoform-specific activities of PP1 in the healthy and diseased heart. Therefore, this study examined the expression of the distinct PP1 isoforms PP1α, β, and γ in human heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF) and addressed the consequences of β-adrenoceptor blocker (beta-blocker) therapy for HF patients with reduced ejection fraction on PP1 isoform expression. Using western blot analysis, we found greater abundance of PP1 isoforms α and γ but unaltered PP1β levels in left ventricular myocardial tissues from HF patients as compared to non-failing controls. However, expression of all three PP1 isoforms was higher in atrial appendages from patients with AF compared to patients with sinus rhythm. Moreover, we found that in human failing ventricles, beta-blocker therapy was associated with lower PP1α abundance and activity, as indicated by higher phosphorylation of the PP1α-specific substrate eIF2α. Greater eIF2α phosphorylation is a known repressor of protein translation, and accordingly, we found lower levels of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress marker Grp78 in the very same samples. We propose that isoform-specific targeting of PP1α activity may be a novel and innovative therapeutic strategy for the treatment of human cardiac diseases by reducing ER stress conditions.

Serine/Threonine Phosphatases in Atrial Fibrillation

Serine/threonine protein phosphatases control dephosphorylation of numerous cardiac proteins, including a variety of ion channels and calcium-handling proteins, thereby providing precise post-translational regulation of cardiac electrophysiology and function. Accordingly, dysfunction of this regulation can contribute to the initiation, maintenance and progression of cardiac arrhythmias. Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common heart rhythm disorder and is characterized by electrical, autonomic, calcium-handling, contractile, and structural remodeling, which include, among other things, changes in the phosphorylation status of a wide range of proteins. Here, we review AF-associated alterations in the phosphorylation of atrial ion channels, calcium-handling and contractile proteins, and their role in AF-pathophysiology. We highlight the mechanisms controlling the phosphorylation of these proteins and focus on the role of altered dephosphorylation via local type-1, type-2A and type-2B phosphatases (PP1, PP2A, and PP2B, also known as calcineurin, respectively). Finally, we discuss the challenges for phosphatase research, potential therapeutic significance of altered phosphatase-mediated protein dephosphorylation in AF, as well as future directions.

Regulating the regulator: Insights into the cardiac protein phosphatase 1 interactome

Reversible phosphorylation of proteins is a delicate yet dynamic balancing act between kinases and phosphatases, the disturbance of which underlies numerous disease processes. While our understanding of protein kinases has grown tremendously over the past decades, relatively little is known regarding protein phosphatases. This may be because protein kinases are great in number and relatively specific in function, and thereby amenable to be studied in isolation, whereas protein phosphatases are much less abundant and more nonspecific in their function. To achieve subcellular localization and substrate specificity, phosphatases depend on partnering with a large number of regulatory subunits, protein scaffolds and/or other interactors. This added layer of complexity presents a significant barrier to their study, but holds the key to unexplored opportunities for novel pharmacologic intervention. In this review we focus on serine/threonine protein phosphatase type-1 (PP1), which plays an important role in cardiac physiology and pathophysiology. Although much work has been done to investigate the role of PP1 in cardiac diseases including atrial fibrillation and heart failure, most of these studies were limited to examining and manipulating the catalytic subunit(s) of PP1 without adequately considering the PP1 interactors, which give specificity to PP1's functions. To complement these studies, three unbiased methods have been developed and applied to the mapping of the PP1 interactome: bioinformatics approaches, yeast two-hybrid screens, and affinity-purification mass spectrometry. The application of these complementary methods has the potential to generate a detailed cardiac PP1 interactome, which is an important step in identifying novel and targeted pharmacological interventions.

Role of protein phosphatase inhibitor-1 in cardiac beta adrenergic pathway

Phosphoproteomic studies have shown that about one third of all cardiac proteins are reversibly phosphorylated, affecting virtually every cellular signaling pathway. The reversibility of this process is orchestrated by the opposing enzymatic activity of kinases and phosphatases. Conversely, imbalances in subcellular protein phosphorylation patterns are a hallmark of many cardiovascular diseases including heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias. While numerous studies have revealed excessive beta-adrenergic signaling followed by deregulated kinase expression or activity as a major driver of the latter cardiac pathologies, far less is known about the beta-adrenergic regulation of their phosphatase counterparts. In fact, most of the limited knowledge stems from the detailed analysis of the endogenous inhibitor of the protein phosphatase 1 (I-1) in cellular and animal models. I-1 acts as a nodal point between adrenergic and putatively non-adrenergic cardiac signaling pathways and is able to influence widespread cellular functions of protein phosphatase 1 which are contributing to cardiac health and disease, e.g. Ca²⁺ handling, sarcomere contractility and glucose metabolism. Finally, nearly all of these studies agree that I-1 is a promising drug target on the one hand but the outcome of its pharmacological regulation maybe extremely context-dependent on the other hand, thus warranting for careful interpretation of past and future experimental results. In this respect we will: 1) comprehensively review the current knowledge about structural, functional and regulatory properties of I-1 within the heart 2) highlight current working hypothesis and potential I-1 mediated disease mechanisms 3) discuss state-of-the-art knowledge and future prospects of a potential therapeutic strategy targeting I-1 by restoring the balance of cardiac protein phosphorylation.

Regulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release by serine-threonine phosphatases in the heart

The amount and timing of Ca²⁺ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) during cardiac cycle are the main determinants of cardiac contractility. Reversible phosphorylation of the SR Ca²⁺ release channel, ryanodine receptor type 2 (RyR2) is the central mechanism of regulation of Ca²⁺ release in cardiomyocytes. Three major serine-threonine phosphatases including PP1, PP2A and PP2B (calcineurin) have been implicated in modulation of RyR2 function. Changes in expression levels of these phosphatases, their activity and targeting to the RyR2 macromolecular complex were demonstrated in many animal models of cardiac disease and humans and are implicated in cardiac arrhythmia and heart failure. Here we review evidence in support of regulation of RyR2-mediated SR Ca²⁺ release by serine-threonine phosphatases and the role and mechanisms of dysregulation of phosphatases in various disease states.

Phosphoprotein Phosphatase 1 Is Required for Extracellular Calcium-Induced Keratinocyte Differentiation

Extracellular calcium is a major regulator of keratinocyte differentiation in vitro and appears to play that role in vivo, but the mechanism is unclear. We have previously demonstrated that, following calcium stimulation, PIP5K1α is recruited by the E-cadherin-β-catenin complex to the plasma membrane where it provides the substrate PIP2 for both PI3K and PLC-γ1. This signaling pathway is critical for calcium-induced generation of second messengers including IP3 and intracellular calcium and keratinocyte differentiation. In this study, we explored the upstream regulatory mechanism by which calcium activates PIP5K1α and the role of this activation in calcium-induced keratinocyte differentiation. We found that treatment of human keratinocytes in culture with calcium resulted in an increase in serine dephosphorylation and PIP5K1α activation. PP1 knockdown blocked extracellular calcium-induced increase in serine dephosphorylation and activity of PIP5K1α and induction of keratinocyte differentiation markers. Knockdown of PLC-γ1, the downstream effector of PIP5K1α, blocked upstream dephosphorylation and PIP5K1α activation induced by calcium. Coimmunoprecipitation revealed calcium induced recruitment of PP1 to the E-cadherin-catenin-PIP5K1α complex in the plasma membrane. These results indicate that PP1 is recruited to the extracellular calcium-dependent E-cadherin-catenin-PIP5K1α complex in the plasma membrane to activate PIP5K1α, which is required for PLC-γ1 activation leading to keratinocyte differentiation.

Palmitoyl acyltransferase Aph2 in cardiac function and the development of cardiomyopathy

Protein palmitoylation regulates many aspects of cell function and is carried out by acyl transferases that contain zf-DHHC motifs. The in vivo physiological function of protein palmitoylation is largely unknown. Here we generated mice deficient in the acyl transferase Aph2 (Ablphilin 2 or zf-DHHC16) and demonstrated an essential role for Aph2 in embryonic/postnatal survival, eye development, and heart development. Aph2(-/-) embryos and pups showed cardiomyopathy and cardiac defects including bradycardia. We identified phospholamban, a protein often associated with human cardiomyopathy, as an interacting partner and a substrate of Aph2. Aph2-mediated palmitoylation of phospholamban on cysteine 36 differentially alters its interaction with PKA and protein phosphatase 1 α, augmenting serine 16 phosphorylation, and regulates phospholamban pentamer formation. Aph2 deficiency results in phospholamban hypophosphorylation, a hyperinhibitory form. Ablation of phospholamban in Aph2(-/-) mice histologically and functionally alleviated the heart defects. These findings establish Aph2 as a critical in vivo regulator of cardiac function and reveal roles for protein palmitoylation in the development of other organs including eyes.

Human G109E-inhibitor-1 impairs cardiac function and promotes arrhythmias

A hallmark of human and experimental heart failure is deficient sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca-uptake reflecting impaired contractile function. This is at least partially attributed to dephosphorylation of phospholamban by increased protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) activity. Indeed inhibition of PP1 by transgenic overexpression or gene-transfer of constitutively active inhibitor-1 improved Ca-cycling, preserved function and decreased fibrosis in small and large animal models of heart failure, suggesting that inhibitor-1 may represent a potential therapeutic target. We recently identified a novel human polymorphism (G109E) in the inhibitor-1 gene with a frequency of 7% in either normal or heart failure patients. Transgenic mice, harboring cardiac-specific expression of G109E inhibitor-1, exhibited decreases in contractility, Ca-kinetics and SR Ca-load. These depressive effects were relieved by isoproterenol stimulation. Furthermore, stress conditions (2Hz +/- Iso) induced increases in Ca-sparks, Ca-waves (60% of G109E versus 20% in wild types) and after-contractions (76% of G109E versus 23% of wild types) in mutant cardiomyocytes. Similar findings were obtained by acute expression of the G109E variant in adult cardiomyocytes in the absence or presence of endogenous inhibitor-1. The underlying mechanisms included reduced binding of mutant inhibitor-1 to PP1, increased PP1 activity, and dephosphorylation of phospholamban at Ser16 and Thr17. However, phosphorylation of the ryanodine receptor at Ser2808 was not altered while phosphorylation at Ser2814 was increased, consistent with increased activation of Ca/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), promoting aberrant SR Ca-release. Parallel in vivo studies revealed that mutant mice developed ventricular ectopy and complex ventricular arrhythmias (including bigeminy, trigeminy and ventricular tachycardia), when challenged with isoproterenol. Inhibition of CaMKII activity by KN-93 prevented the increased propensity to arrhythmias. These findings suggest that the human G109E inhibitor-1 variant impairs SR Ca-cycling and promotes arrhythmogenesis under stress conditions, which may present an additional insult in the compromised function of heart failure carriers.

Counteracting Protein Kinase Activity in the Heart: The Multiple Roles of Protein Phosphatases

Decades of cardiovascular research have shown that variable and flexible levels of protein phosphorylation are necessary to maintain cardiac function. A delicate balance between phosphorylated and dephosphorylated states of proteins is guaranteed by a complex interplay of protein kinases (PKs) and phosphatases. Serine/threonine phosphatases, in particular members of the protein phosphatase (PP) family govern dephosphorylation of the majority of these cardiac proteins. Recent findings have however shown that PPs do not only dephosphorylate previously phosphorylated proteins as a passive control mechanism but are capable to actively control PK activity via different direct and indirect signaling pathways. These control mechanisms can take place on (epi-)genetic, (post-)transcriptional, and (post-)translational levels. In addition PPs themselves are targets of a plethora of proteinaceous interaction partner regulating their endogenous activity, thus adding another level of complexity and feedback control toward this system. Finally, novel approaches are underway to achieve spatiotemporal pharmacologic control of PPs which in turn can be used to fine-tune misleaded PK activity in heart disease. Taken together, this review comprehensively summarizes the major aspects of PP-mediated PK regulation and discusses the subsequent consequences of deregulated PP activity for cardiovascular diseases in depth.

Cardiac-specific deletion of protein phosphatase 1β promotes increased myofilament protein phosphorylation and contractile alterations

There are 3 protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) catalytic isoforms (α, β and γ) encoded within the mammalian genome. These 3 gene products share ~90% amino acid homology within their catalytic domains but each has unique N- and C-termini that likely underlie distinctive subcellular localization or functionality. In this study, we assessed the effect associated with the loss of each PP1 isoform in the heart using a conditional Cre-loxP targeting approach in mice. Ppp1ca-loxP, Ppp1cb-loxP and Ppp1cc-loxP alleles were crossed with either an Nkx2.5-Cre knock-in containing allele for early embryonic deletion or a tamoxifen inducible α-myosin heavy chain (αMHC)-MerCreMer transgene for adult and cardiac-specific deletion. We determined that while deletion of Ppp1ca (PP1α) or Ppp1cc (PP1γ) had little effect on the whole heart, deletion of Ppp1cb (PP1β) resulted in concentric remodeling of the heart, interstitial fibrosis and contractile dysregulation, using either the embryonic or adult-specific Cre-expressing alleles. However, myocytes isolated from Ppp1cb deleted hearts surprisingly showed enhanced contractility. Mechanistically we found that deletion of any of the 3 PP1 gene-encoding isoforms had no effect on phosphorylation of phospholamban, nor were Ca(2+) handling dynamics altered in adult myocytes from Ppp1cb deleted hearts. However, the loss of Ppp1cb from the heart, but not Ppp1ca or Ppp1cc, resulted in elevated phosphorylation of myofilament proteins such as myosin light chain 2 and cardiac myosin binding protein C, consistent with an enriched localization profile of this isoform to the sarcomeres. These results suggest a unique functional role for the PP1β isoform in affecting cardiac contractile function.

Rescue of cardiac failing and remodelling by inhibition of protein phosphatase 1γ is associated with suppression of the alternative splicing factor-mediated splicing of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase δ

Our previous studies showed that protein phosphatase 1γ (PP1γ) exacerbates cardiomyocyte apoptosis through promotion of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase δ (CaMKIIδ) splicing. Here we determine the role of PP1γ in abdominal aorta constriction-induced hypertrophy and remodelling in rat hearts. Systolic blood pressure and echocardiographic measurements were used to evaluate the model of cardiac hypertrophy. Sirius red staining and invasive haemodynamic/cardiac index measurements were used to evaluate the effects of PP1γ or inhibitor 1 of PP1 transfection. Western blot, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and co-immunoprecipitation were applied to investigate the molecular mechanisms. Transfection of PP1γ increased the value of the heart mass index, left ventricular mass index and cardiac fibrosis, and simultaneously decreased the value of maximal left ventricular pressure increase and decline rate, ejection fraction, fractional shortening, and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure, as well as left ventricular systolic pressure. Transfection of inhibitor 1 of PP1, however, showed opposite effects on the aforementioned indexes. Overexpression of PP1γ potentiated CaMKIIδC production and decreased CaMKIIδB production in the hypertrophic heart. In contrast, inhibition of PP1γ re-balanced the CaMKIIδ splicing. Furthermore, CaMKII activity was found to be augmented or attenuated by PP1γ overexpression or inhibition, respectively. Further mechanistic studies showed that abdominal aorta constriction stress specifically increased the association of alternative splicing factor with PP1γ, but not with PP1β. Overexpression of PP1γ, but not inhibitor 1 of PP1, further potentiated this association. These results suggest that PP1γ alters the cardiac hypertrophy and remodelling likely through promotion of the alternative splicing factor-mediated splicing of CaMKIIδ.

Protein phosphatase 1 catalytic isoforms: specificity toward interacting proteins

The coordinated and reciprocal action of serine-threonine protein kinases and protein phosphatases produces transitory phosphorylation, a fundamental regulatory mechanism for many biological processes. Phosphoprotein phosphatase 1 (PPP1), a major serine-threonine phosphatase, in particular, is ubiquitously distributed and regulates a broad range of cellular functions, including glycogen metabolism, cell cycle progression, and muscle relaxation. PPP1 has evolved effective catalytic machinery but in vitro lacks substrate specificity. In vivo, its specificity is achieved not only by the existence of different PPP1 catalytic isoforms, but also by binding of the catalytic moiety to a large number of regulatory or targeting subunits. Here, we will address exhaustively the existence of diverse PPP1 catalytic isoforms and the relevance of their specific partners and consequent functions.

PP1γ functionally augments the alternative splicing of CaMKIIδ through interaction with ASF

Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase δ (CaMKIIδ) are upregulated in heart disorders. Alternative splicing factor (ASF), a major splice factor for CaMKIIδ splicing, can be regulated by both protein kinase and phosphatase. Here we determine the role of PP1 isoforms in ASF-mediated splicing of CaMKIIδ in cells. We found that 1) PP1γ, but not α or β isoform, enhanced the splicing of CaMKIIδ in HEK293T cells; 2) PP1γ promoted the function of ASF, evidenced by the existence of ASF-PP1γ association as well as the PP1γ overexpression- or silencing-mediated change in CaMKIIδ splicing in ASF-transfected HEK293T cells; 3) CaMKIIδ splicing was promoted by overexpression of PP1γ and impaired by application of PP1 inhibitor 1 (I1PP1) or pharmacological inhibitor tautomycetin in primary cardiomyocytes; 4) CaMKIIδ splicing and enhancement of ASF-PP1γ association induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation followed by reperfusion (OGD/R) were potentiated by overexpression of PP1γ and suppressed by inhibition of PP1γ with I1PP1 or tautomycetin in primary cardiomyocytes; 5) functionally, overexpression and inhibition of PP1γ, respectively, potentiated or suppressed the apoptosis and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, which were associated with the enhanced activity of CaMKII in OGD/R-stimulated cardiomyocytes; and 6) CaMKII was required for the OGD/R induced- and PP1γ exacerbated-apoptosis of cardiomyocytes, evidenced by a specific inhibitor of CaMKII KN93, but not its structural analog KN92, attenuating the apoptosis and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in OGD/R and PP1γ-treated cells. In conclusion, our results show that PP1γ promotes the alternative splicing of CaMKIIδ through its interacting with ASF, exacerbating OGD/R-triggered apoptosis in primary cardiomyocytes.

Synergistic role of protein phosphatase inhibitor 1 and sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase in the acquisition of the contractile phenotype of arterial smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND

Phenotypic modulation or switching of vascular smooth muscle cells from a contractile/quiescent to a proliferative/synthetic phenotype plays a key role in vascular proliferative disorders such as atherosclerosis and restenosis. Although several calcium handling proteins that control differentiation of smooth muscle cells have been identified, the role of protein phosphatase inhibitor 1 (I-1) in the acquisition or maintenance of the contractile phenotype modulation remains unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In human coronary arteries, I-1 and sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase expression is specific to contractile vascular smooth muscle cells. In synthetic cultured human coronary artery smooth muscle cells, protein phosphatase inhibitor 1 (I-1 target) is highly expressed, leading to a decrease in phospholamban phosphorylation, sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase, and cAMP-responsive element binding activity. I-1 knockout mice lack phospholamban phosphorylation and exhibit vascular smooth muscle cell arrest in the synthetic state with excessive neointimal proliferation after carotid injury, as well as significant modifications of contractile properties and relaxant response to acetylcholine of femoral artery in vivo. Constitutively active I-1 gene transfer decreased neointimal formation in an angioplasty rat model by preventing vascular smooth muscle cell contractile to synthetic phenotype change.

CONCLUSIONS

I-1 and sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase synergistically induce the vascular smooth muscle cell contractile phenotype. Gene transfer of constitutively active I-1 is a promising therapeutic strategy for preventing vascular proliferative disorders.

Function and regulation of serine/threonine phosphatases in the healthy and diseased heart

Protein phosphorylation is a major control mechanism of a wide range of physiological processes and plays an important role in cardiac pathophysiology. Serine/threonine protein phosphatases control the dephosphorylation of a variety of cardiac proteins, thereby fine-tuning cardiac electrophysiology and function. Specificity of protein phosphatases type-1 and type-2A is achieved by multiprotein complexes that target the catalytic subunits to specific subcellular domains. Here, we describe the composition, regulation and target substrates of serine/threonine phosphatases in the heart. In addition, we provide an overview of pharmacological tools and genetic models to study the role of cardiac phosphatases. Finally, we review the role of protein phosphatases in the diseased heart, particularly in ventricular arrhythmias and atrial fibrillation and discuss their role as potential therapeutic targets.

AAV-mediated gene therapy for heart failure: enhancing contractility and calcium handling

Heart failure is a progressive, debilitating disease that is characterized by inadequate contractility of the heart. With an aging population, the incidence and economic burden of managing heart failure are anticipated to increase substantially. Drugs for heart failure only slow its progression and offer no cure. However, results of recent clinical trials using recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene delivery offer the promise, for the first time, that heart failure can be reversed. The strategy is to improve contractility of cardiac muscle cells by enhancing their ability to store calcium through increased expression of the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase pump (SERCA2a). Preclinical trials have also identified other proteins involved in calcium cycling in cardiac muscle that are promising targets for gene therapy in heart failure, including the following: protein phosphatase 1, adenylyl cyclase 6, G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2, phospholamban, SUMO1, and S100A1. These preclinical and clinical trials represent a "quiet revolution" that may end up being one of the most significant and remarkable breakthroughs in modern medical practice. Of course, a number of uncertainties remain, including the long-term utility and wisdom of improving the contractile performance of "sick" muscle cells. In this regard, gene therapy may turn out to be a way of buying additional time for actual cardiac regeneration to occur using cardiac stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells.

Targeting the untargetable: recent advances in the selective chemical modulation of protein phosphatase-1 activity

Protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) has long been neglected as a potential drug target owing to its misinterpreted unselective nature. However, growing evidence demonstrates that PP1 is highly selective in complex with regulatory proteins at the holoenzyme level, each of which is involved in different essential cellular signaling events. Here we summarize promising approaches to specifically activate or inhibit PP1 activity, and discuss remaining challenges and potential solutions. The summarized chemical tools pave the way for a better understanding of PP1's role in signaling networks, and the effects resulting from their application suggest their potential as future therapeutic candidates.

Distinct roles for the α , β and γ1 isoforms of protein phosphatase 1 in the outside-in αIIbβ3 integrin signalling-dependent functions

Although protein kinases and phosphatases participate in integrin αIIbβ3 signalling, whether integrin functions are regulated by the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1(PP1c)isoforms are unclear. We show that siRNA mediated knockdown of all PP1c isoforms(α, β and γ1)in 293 αIIbβ3 cells decreased adhesion to immobilised fibrinogen and fibrin clot retraction. Selective knockdown of only PP1cγ1 did not alter adhesion or clot retraction, while depletion of PP1cβ decreased both functions. Unexpectedly, knockdown of PP1cα enhanced αIIbβ3 adhesion to fibrinogen and clot retraction. Protein interaction studies revealed that all PP1c isoforms can interact with the integrin αIIb subunit. Phospho-profiling studies revealed an enhanced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 in the PP1cα depleted cells. Enhanced adhesive phenotype displayed by the PP1cα-depleted 293 αIIbβ3 cells was blocked by pharmacological inhibition of p38. Conversely, the decreased adhesion of PP1cα overexpressing cells was rescued by the expression of constitutively active p38α or p38γ. Thus, PP1c isoforms have distinct contribution to the outside-in αIIbβ3 signalling-dependent functions in 293 αIIbβ3 cells. Moreover, PP1cα negatively regulates integrin function by suppressing the p38 pathway.

Tandem affinity purification in transgenic mouse embryonic stem cells identifies DDOST as a novel PPP1CC2 interacting protein

Members of the PP1 family of protein phosphatases achieve functional diversity through numerous and varied protein-protein interactions. In mammals, there are four PP1 isoforms, the ubiquitously expressed PPP1CA, PPP1CB, and PPP1CC1, and the testis specific splice isoform PPP1CC2. When the mouse Ppp1cc gene is deleted, the only phenotypic consequence is a failure of spermatogenesis in homozygous males. To elucidate the function of the Ppp1cc gene, we sought to identify novel protein-protein interactions. To this end, we have created SBP-3XFLAG-PPP1CC1 and SBP-3XFLAG-PPP1CC2 knock-in mouse embryonic stem cell lines using a gene-trap-based system. Tandem affinity purification using our knock-in cell lines identified 11 significant protein-protein interactions, including nine known PP1 interacting proteins and two additional proteins (ATP5C1 and DDOST). Reciprocal in vitro sedimentation assays confirmed the interaction between PPP1CC2 and DDOST that may have physiological implications in spermatogenesis. Immunolocalization studies revealed that DDOST localized to the nuclear envelope in dissociated spermatogenic cells and persists throughout spermatogenesis. The knock-in system described in this paper can be applied in creating tandem affinity-tagged knock-in embryonic stem cell lines with any gene for which a compatible gene-trap line is available.

CD36 protein influences myocardial Ca2+ homeostasis and phospholipid metabolism: conduction anomalies in CD36-deficient mice during fasting

Sarcolemmal CD36 facilitates myocardial fatty acid (FA) uptake, which is markedly reduced in CD36-deficient rodents and humans. CD36 also mediates signal transduction events involving a number of cellular pathways. In taste cells and macrophages, CD36 signaling was recently shown to regulate store-responsive Ca(2+) flux and activation of Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipases A(2) that cycle polyunsaturated FA into phospholipids. It is unknown whether CD36 deficiency influences myocardial Ca(2+) handling and phospholipid metabolism, which could compromise the heart, typically during stresses. Myocardial function was examined in fed or fasted (18-22 h) CD36(-/-) and WT mice. Echocardiography and telemetry identified conduction anomalies that were associated with the incidence of sudden death in fasted CD36(-/-) mice. No anomalies or death occurred in WT mice during fasting. Optical imaging of perfused hearts from fasted CD36(-/-) mice documented prolongation of Ca(2+) transients. Consistent with this, knockdown of CD36 in cardiomyocytes delayed clearance of cytosolic Ca(2+). Hearts of CD36(-/-) mice (fed or fasted) had 3-fold higher SERCA2a and 40% lower phospholamban levels. Phospholamban phosphorylation by protein kinase A (PKA) was enhanced after fasting reflecting increased PKA activity and cAMP levels in CD36(-/-) hearts. Abnormal Ca(2+) homeostasis in the CD36(-/-) myocardium associated with increased lysophospholipid content and a higher proportion of 22:6 FA in phospholipids suggests altered phospholipase A(2) activity and changes in membrane dynamics. The data support the role of CD36 in coordinating Ca(2+) homeostasis and lipid metabolism and the importance of this role during myocardial adaptation to fasting. Potential relevance of the findings to CD36-deficient humans would need to be determined.

Beta-adrenergic adaptation in paediatric idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Although the pathophysiology and treatment of adult heart failure (HF) are well studied, HF in children remains poorly understood. In adults, adrenergic receptor (AR)-mediated adaptation plays a central role in cardiac abnormalities in HF, and these patients respond well to β-blocker (BB) therapy. However, in children with HF, there is a growing body of literature suggesting a lack of efficacy of adult HF therapies. Due to these unanticipated differences in response to therapy and the paucity of data regarding the molecular adaptation of the paediatric heart, we investigated the molecular characteristics of HF in children.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Explanted hearts from adults and children with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy and non-failing controls were used in the study. Our results show that the molecular characteristics of paediatric HF are strikingly different from their adult counterparts. These differences include: (i) down-regulation of β1- and β2-AR in children, whereas β2-AR expression is maintained in adults; (ii) up-regulation of connexin43 in children, whereas down-regulation is observed in adults; (iii) no differences in phosphatase expression, whereas up-regulation is observed in adults; (iv) no decrease in the phosphorylation of phospholamban at the Ser16 or Thr17 sites in children, which are known characteristics of adult HF.

CONCLUSION

There is a different adaptation of β-AR and adrenergic signalling pathways in children with HF compared with adults. Our results begin to address the disparities in cardiovascular research specific to children and suggest that age-related differences in adaptation could influence the response to therapy. These findings could lead to a paradigm shift in the contemporary management of children with HF.

Heart failure-inducible gene therapy targeting protein phosphatase 1 prevents progressive left ventricular remodeling

Background

The targeting of Ca²⁺ cycling has emerged as a potential therapy for the treatment of severe heart failure. These approaches include gene therapy directed at overexpressing sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ ATPase, or ablation of phospholamban (PLN) and associated protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) protein complexes. We previously reported that PP1β, one of the PP1 catalytic subunits, predominantly suppresses Ca²⁺ uptake in the SR among the three PP1 isoforms, thereby contributing to Ca²⁺ downregulation in failing hearts. In the present study, we investigated whether heart-failure-inducible PP1β-inhibition by adeno-associated viral-9 (AAV9) vector mediated gene therapy is beneficial for preventing disease progression in genetic cardiomyopathic mice.

Methods

We created an adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9) vector encoding PP1β short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) or negative control (NC) shRNA. A heart failure inducible gene expression system was employed using the B-type natriuretic protein (BNP) promoter conjugated to emerald-green fluorescence protein (EmGFP) and the shRNA sequence. AAV9 vectors (AAV9-BNP-EmGFP-PP1βshRNA and AAV9-BNP-EmGFP-NCshRNA) were injected into the tail vein (2×10¹¹ GC/mouse) of muscle LIM protein deficient mice (MLPKO), followed by serial analysis of echocardiography, hemodynamic measurement, biochemical and histological analysis at 3 months.

Results

In the MLPKO mice, BNP promoter activity was shown to be increased by detecting both EmGFP expression and the induced reduction of PP1β by 25% in the myocardium. Inducible PP1βshRNA delivery preferentially ameliorated left ventricular diastolic function and mitigated adverse ventricular remodeling. PLN phosphorylation was significantly augmented in the AAV9-BNP-EmGFP-PP1βshRNA injected hearts compared with the AAV9-BNP-EmGFP-NCshRNA group. Furthermore, BNP production was reduced, and cardiac interstitial fibrosis was abrogated at 3 months.

Conclusion

Heart failure-inducible molecular targeting of PP1β has potential as a novel therapeutic strategy for heart failure.

Ca²+-regulatory proteins in cardiomyocytes from the right ventricle in children with congenital heart disease

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia and hypertrophy are the most frequent pathophysiological consequence of congenital heart disease (CHD) which can induce the alteration of Ca2+-regulatory proteins and inhibit cardiac contractility. Few studies have been performed to examine Ca2+-regulatory proteins in human cardiomyocytes from the hypertrophic right ventricle with or without hypoxia.

METHODS

Right ventricle tissues were collected from children with tetralogy of Fallot [n = 25, hypoxia and hypertrophy group (HH group)], pulmonary stenosis [n = 25, hypertrophy group (H group)], or small isolated ventricular septal defect [n = 25, control group (C group)] during open-heart surgery. Paraffin sections of tissues were stained with 3,3'-dioctadecyloxacarbocyanine perchlorate to measure cardiomyocyte size. Expression levels of Ca2+-regulatory proteins [sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2a), ryanodine receptor (RyR2), sodiumcalcium exchanger (NCX), sarcolipin (SLN) and phospholamban (PLN)] were analysed by means of real-time PCR, western blot, or immunofluorescence. Additionally, phosphorylation level of RyR and PLN and activity of protein phosphatase (PP1) were evaluated using western blot.

RESULTS

Mild cardiomyocyte hypertrophy of the right ventricle in H and HH groups was confirmed by comparing cardiomyocyte size. A significant reduction of SERCA2a in mRNA (P<0.01) was observed in the HH group compared with the C group. The level of Ser16-phosphorylated PLN was down-regulated (P<0.01) and PP1 was increased (P<0.01) in the HH group compared to that in the C group.

CONCLUSIONS

The decreased SERCA2a mRNA may be a biomarker of the pathological process in the early stage of cyanotic CHD with the hypertrophic right ventricle. A combination of hypoxia and hypertrophy can induce the adverse effect of PLN-Ser16 dephosphorylation. Increased PP1 could result in the decreased PLN-Ser16 and inhibition of PP1 is a potential therapeutic target for heart dysfunction in pediatrics.

Interaction of protein phosphatase 1δ with nucleophosmin in human osteoblastic cells

Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation has been recognized as an essential mechanism in the regulation of cellular metabolism and function in various tissues. Serine and threonine protein phosphatases (PP) are divided into four categories: PP1, PP2A, PP2B, and PP2C. At least four isoforms of PP1 catalytic subunit in rat, PP1α, PP1γ1, PP1γ2, and PP1δ, were isolated. In the present study, we examined the localization and expression of PP1δ in human osteoblastic Saos-2 cells. Anti-PP1δ antibody recognized a protein present in the nucleolar regions in Saos-2 cells. Cellular fractionation revealed that PP1δ is a 37 kDa protein localized in the nucleolus. Nucleophosmin is a nucleolar phosphoprotein and located mainly in the nucleolus. Staining pattern of nucleophosmin in Saos-2 cells was similar to that of PP1δ. PP1δ and nucleophosmin were specifically stained as dots in the nucleus. Dual fluorescence images revealed that PP1δ and nucleophosmin were localized in the same regions in the nucleolus. Similar distribution patterns of PP1δ and nucleophosmin were observed in osteoblastic MG63 cells. The interaction of PP1δ and nucleophosmin was also shown by immunoprecipitation and Western analysis. These results indicated that PP1δ associate with nucleophosmin directly in the nucleolus and suggested that nucleophosmin is one of the candidate substrate for PP1δ.

Caveolae compartmentalise β2-adrenoceptor signals by curtailing cAMP production and maintaining phosphatase activity in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the adult ventricular myocyte

Inotropy and lusitropy in the ventricular myocyte can be efficiently induced by activation of β1-, but not β2-, adrenoceptors (ARs). Compartmentation of β2-AR-derived cAMP-dependent signalling underlies this functional discrepancy. Here we investigate the mechanism by which caveolae (specialised sarcolemmal invaginations rich in cholesterol and caveolin-3) contribute to compartmentation in the adult rat ventricular myocyte. Selective activation of β2-ARs (with zinterol/CGP20712A) produced little contractile response in control cells but pronounced inotropic and lusitropic responses in cells treated with the cholesterol-depleting agent methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MBCD). This was not linked to modulation of L-type Ca²⁺ current, but instead to a discrete PKA-mediated phosphorylation of phospholamban at Ser¹⁶. Application of a cell-permeable inhibitor of caveolin-3 scaffolding interactions mimicked the effect of MBCD on phosphorylated phospholamban (pPLB) during β2-AR stimulation, consistent with MBCD acting via caveolae. Biosensor experiments revealed β2-AR mobilisation of cAMP in PKA II signalling domains of intact cells only after MBCD treatment, providing a real-time demonstration of cAMP freed from caveolar constraint. Other proteins have roles in compartmentation, so the effects of phosphodiesterase (PDE), protein phosphatase (PP) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors on pPLB and contraction were compared in control and MBCD treated cells. PP inhibition alone was conspicuous in showing robust de-compartmentation of β2-AR-derived signalling in control cells and a comparatively diminutive effect after cholesterol depletion. Collating all evidence, we promote the novel concept that caveolae limit β2-AR-cAMP signalling by providing a platform that not only attenuates production of cAMP but also prevents inhibitory modulation of PPs at the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled “Local Signaling in Myocytes”.