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Berdowska I, Matusiewicz M, Fecka I. Methylglyoxal in Cardiometabolic Disorders: Routes Leading to Pathology Counterbalanced by Treatment Strategies. Molecules 2023; 28:7742. [PMID: 38067472 PMCID: PMC10708463 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28237742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Methylglyoxal (MGO) is the major compound belonging to reactive carbonyl species (RCS) responsible for the generation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Its upregulation, followed by deleterious effects at the cellular and systemic levels, is associated with metabolic disturbances (hyperglycemia/hyperinsulinemia/insulin resistance/hyperlipidemia/inflammatory processes/carbonyl stress/oxidative stress/hypoxia). Therefore, it is implicated in a variety of disorders, including metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases. In this review, an interplay between pathways leading to MGO generation and scavenging is addressed in regard to this system's impairment in pathology. The issues associated with mechanistic MGO involvement in pathological processes, as well as the discussion on its possible causative role in cardiometabolic diseases, are enclosed. Finally, the main strategies aimed at MGO and its AGEs downregulation with respect to cardiometabolic disorders treatment are addressed. Potential glycation inhibitors and MGO scavengers are discussed, as well as the mechanisms of their action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izabela Berdowska
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | | | - Izabela Fecka
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicines, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-556 Wroclaw, Poland
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Matsumoto T, Kudo M, Osada T, Taguchi K, Kobayashi T. Methylglyoxal impairs ATP- and UTP-induced relaxation in the rat carotid arteries. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 933:175259. [PMID: 36113554 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.175259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although methylglyoxal (MGO), a highly reactive dicarbonyl compound, influences the functioning of the vasculature, modulating its effects on vascular reactivity to various substances remains unclear, especially purinoceptor ligands. Therefore, we sought to investigate the direct effects of MGO on relaxation induced by adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP) in isolated rat carotid arteries. When carotid arteries were exposed to MGO (420 μM for 1 h), relaxation induced by acetylcholine or sodium nitroprusside was not affected by MGO. However, ATP- and UTP-induced relaxation was impaired by MGO compared with the control. In both ATP- and UTP-induced relaxation, endothelial denudation, incubation with the nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-L-arginine or the selective P2Y purinoceptor 2 (P2Y2) receptor antagonist AR-C118925XX reduced relaxation in both the control and MGO groups, while the differences between the control and MGO groups were eliminated. The cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor indomethacin inhibited the differences in ATP/UTP-mediated relaxations between the control and MGO groups. Moreover, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), an antioxidant, could augment carotid arterial relaxation induced by ATP/UTP in the presence of MGO. MGO increased arachidonic acid-induced contraction, which was suppressed by NAC. Following both ATP/UTP stimulation, MGO increased the release of prostanoids. These results suggest that MGO impaired ATP- and UTP-induced relaxation in carotid arteries, which was caused by suppressed P2Y2 receptor-mediated signaling and reductions in endothelial NO. Moreover, MGO partially contributed to COX-derived vasoconstrictor prostanoids through increased oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Matsumoto
- Department of Physiology and Morphology, Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan.
| | - Miyo Kudo
- Department of Physiology and Morphology, Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan
| | - Tomoe Osada
- Department of Physiology and Morphology, Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan
| | - Kumiko Taguchi
- Department of Physiology and Morphology, Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan
| | - Tsuneo Kobayashi
- Department of Physiology and Morphology, Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan.
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Matsumoto T, Yoshioka M, Yamada A, Taguchi K, Kobayashi T. Mechanisms underlying the methylglyoxal-induced enhancement of uridine diphosphate-mediated contraction in rat femoral artery. J Pharmacol Sci 2022; 150:100-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2022.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Abstract
Diabetes has become one of the most prevalent endocrine and metabolic diseases that threaten human health, and it is accompanied by serious complications. Therefore, it is vital and pressing to develop novel strategies or tools for prewarning and therapy of diabetes and its complications. Fluorescent probes have been widely applied in the detection of diabetes due to the fact of their attractive advantages. In this report, we comprehensively summarize the recent progress and development of fluorescent probes in detecting the changes in the various biomolecules in diabetes and its complications. We also discuss the design of fluorescent probes for monitoring diabetes in detail. We expect this review will provide new ideas for the development of fluorescent probes suitable for the prewarning and therapy of diabetes in future clinical transformation and application.
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Carpéné C, Marti L, Morin N. Increased monoamine oxidase activity and imidazoline binding sites in insulin-resistant adipocytes from obese Zucker rats. World J Biol Chem 2022; 13:15-34. [PMID: 35126867 PMCID: PMC8790288 DOI: 10.4331/wjbc.v13.i1.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite overt insulin resistance, adipocytes of genetically obese Zucker rats accumulate the excess of calorie intake in the form of lipids.
AIM To investigate whether factors can replace or reinforce insulin lipogenic action by exploring glucose uptake activation by hydrogen peroxide, since it is produced by monoamine oxidase (MAO) and semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) in adipocytes.
METHODS 3H-2-deoxyglucose uptake (2-DG) was determined in adipocytes from obese and lean rats in response to insulin or MAO and SSAO substrates such as tyramine and benzylamine. 14C-tyramine oxidation and binding of imidazolinic radioligands [3H-Idazoxan, 3H-(2-benzofuranyl)-2-imidazoline] were studied in adipocytes, the liver, and muscle. The influence of in vivo administration of tyramine + vanadium on glucose handling was assessed in lean and obese rats.
RESULTS 2-DG uptake and lipogenesis stimulation by insulin were dampened in adipocytes from obese rats, when compared to their lean littermates. Tyramine and benzylamine activation of hexose uptake was vanadate-dependent and was also limited, while MAO was increased and SSAO decreased. These changes were adipocyte-specific and accompanied by a greater number of imidazoline I2 binding sites in the obese rat, when compared to the lean. In vitro, tyramine precluded the binding to I2 sites, while in vivo, its administration together with vanadium lowered fasting plasma levels of glucose and triacylglycerols in obese rats.
CONCLUSION The adipocytes from obese Zucker rats exhibit increased MAO activity and imidazoline binding site number. However, probably as a consequence of SSAO down-regulation, the glucose transport stimulation by tyramine is decreased as much as that of insulin in these insulin-resistant adipocytes. The adipocyte amine oxidases deserve more studies with respect to their putative contribution to the management of glucose and lipid handling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Carpéné
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, INSERM, Toulouse 31342, France
| | - Luc Marti
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, INSERM, Toulouse 31342, France
| | - Nathalie Morin
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, INSERM, Toulouse 31342, France
- Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Paris University, Paris 75270, France
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6
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DUMAN E, KURBAN H. Investigation of in vitro formation of advanced lipoxidation end products and advanced glycation end products precursors in high-fat processed meat products. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1590/fst.110921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Hernandez-Castillo C, Shuck SC. Diet and Obesity-Induced Methylglyoxal Production and Links to Metabolic Disease. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:2424-2440. [PMID: 34851609 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The obesity rate in the United States is 42.4% and has become a national epidemic. Obesity is a complex condition that is influenced by socioeconomic status, ethnicity, genetics, age, and diet. Increased consumption of a Western diet, one that is high in processed foods, red meat, and sugar content, is associated with elevated obesity rates. Factors that increase obesity risk, such as socioeconomic status, also increase consumption of a Western diet because of a limited access to healthier options and greater affordability of processed foods. Obesity is a public health threat because it increases the risk of several pathologies, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer. The molecular mechanisms linking obesity to disease onset and progression are not well understood, but a proposed mechanism is physiological changes caused by altered lipid peroxidation, glycolysis, and protein metabolism. These metabolic pathways give rise to reactive molecules such as the abundant electrophile methylglyoxal (MG), which covalently modifies nucleic acids and proteins. MG-adducts are associated with obesity-linked pathologies and may have potential for biomonitoring to determine the risk of disease onset and progression. MG-adducts may also play a role in disease progression because they are mutagenic and directly impact protein stability and function. In this review, we discuss how obesity drives metabolic alterations, how these alterations lead to MG production, the association of MG-adducts with disease, and the potential impact of MG-adducts on cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Hernandez-Castillo
- Department of Diabetes and Cancer Metabolism, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California 91010, United States
| | - Sarah C Shuck
- Department of Diabetes and Cancer Metabolism, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California 91010, United States
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Ragno VM, Klein CD, Sereda NS, Uehlinger FD, Zello GA, Robinson KA, Montgomery JB. Morphometric, metabolic, and inflammatory markers across a cohort of client-owned horses and ponies on the insulin dysregulation spectrum. J Equine Vet Sci 2021; 105:103715. [PMID: 34607688 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In human metabolic syndrome and type II diabetes, methylglyoxal (MG), D-lactate, and several cytokines have been recognized as biomarkers of important metabolic and inflammatory processes. Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) shares many similarities with these human counterparts. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to compare body condition score (BCS), cresty neck score (CNS), resting insulin, MG, D-lactate, L-lactate, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) between horses with and without insulin dysregulation, as classified via combined glucose and insulin test (CGIT). 32 client-owned horses were included. History and morphometric data such as BCS and CNS were recorded. Subjects with abnormalities on physical examination or CBC, elevated ACTH or incomplete information were excluded. Baseline serum or plasma concentrations of biomarkers were tested via commercial ELISA or colorimetric assays. Characteristics of insulin dysregulated and insulin sensitive horses were compared by univariate analysis and forward logistic regression. 12 (38%) of the 32 horses were classified as insulin dysregulated. No significant difference between the 2 groups was found for age, BCS, baseline glucose, triglycerides, MG, D-lactate, L-lactate, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1. Baseline insulin was significantly associated with insulin dysregulation in univariate analysis (P = 0.02), but not in the final model. Horses with CNS ≥ 3 had 11.3 times higher odds of having insulin dysregulation (OR 11.3, 95% C.I. 2.04 - 63.08, P = 0.006). In this population, horses with mild-moderate signs of EMS presented similar metabolic and inflammatory profiles to non-insulin dysregulated controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina M Ragno
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
| | - Colby D Klein
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Nicole S Sereda
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Fabienne D Uehlinger
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Gordon A Zello
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada
| | - Katherine A Robinson
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Julia B Montgomery
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Daniels LJ, Annandale M, Koutsifeli P, Li X, Bussey CT, van Hout I, Bunton RW, Davis PJ, Coffey S, Katare R, Lamberts RR, Delbridge LMD, Mellor KM. Elevated myocardial fructose and sorbitol levels are associated with diastolic dysfunction in diabetic patients, and cardiomyocyte lipid inclusions in vitro. Nutr Diabetes 2021; 11:8. [PMID: 33558456 PMCID: PMC7870957 DOI: 10.1038/s41387-021-00150-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is associated with cardiac metabolic disturbances and increased heart failure risk. Plasma fructose levels are elevated in diabetic patients. A direct role for fructose involvement in diabetic heart pathology has not been investigated. The goals of this study were to clinically evaluate links between myocardial fructose and sorbitol (a polyol pathway fructose precursor) levels with evidence of cardiac dysfunction, and to experimentally assess the cardiomyocyte mechanisms involved in mediating the metabolic effects of elevated fructose. Fructose and sorbitol levels were increased in right atrial appendage tissues of type 2 diabetic patients (2.8- and 1.5-fold increase respectively). Elevated cardiac fructose levels were confirmed in type 2 diabetic rats. Diastolic dysfunction (increased E/e’, echocardiography) was significantly correlated with cardiac sorbitol levels. Elevated myocardial mRNA expression of the fructose-specific transporter, Glut5 (43% increase), and the key fructose-metabolizing enzyme, Fructokinase-A (50% increase) was observed in type 2 diabetic rats (Zucker diabetic fatty rat). In neonatal rat ventricular myocytes, fructose increased glycolytic capacity and cytosolic lipid inclusions (28% increase in lipid droplets/cell). This study provides the first evidence that elevated myocardial fructose and sorbitol are associated with diastolic dysfunction in diabetic patients. Experimental evidence suggests that fructose promotes the formation of cardiomyocyte cytosolic lipid inclusions, and may contribute to lipotoxicity in the diabetic heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorna J Daniels
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Marco Annandale
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Parisa Koutsifeli
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Xun Li
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Carol T Bussey
- Department of Physiology, HeartOtago, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Isabelle van Hout
- Department of Physiology, HeartOtago, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Richard W Bunton
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Philip J Davis
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Sean Coffey
- Department of Medicine and HeartOtago, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Rajesh Katare
- Department of Physiology, HeartOtago, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Regis R Lamberts
- Department of Physiology, HeartOtago, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Lea M D Delbridge
- Department of Physiology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kimberley M Mellor
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. .,Department of Physiology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. .,Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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10
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Deo P, Dhillon VS, Lim WM, Jaunay EL, Donnellan L, Peake B, McCullough C, Fenech M. Advanced glycation end-products accelerate telomere attrition and increase pro-inflammatory mediators in human WIL2-NS cells. Mutagenesis 2021; 35:291-297. [PMID: 32319517 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geaa012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of dietary sugars and advanced glycation end-products (AGE) on telomere dynamics in WIL2-NS cells. Dietary sugars [glucose (Glu) and fructose (Fru); 0.1 M each] were incubated with bovine serum albumin (BSA) (10 mg/ml) at 60 ± 1°C for 6 weeks to generate AGE-BSA. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis showed total AGE levels as 87.74 ± 4.46 nmol/mg and 84.94 ± 4.28 nmol/mg respectively in Glu-BSA and Fru-BSA model. Cell treatment studies using WIL2-NS cells were based on either glucose, fructose (each 2.5-40 mM) or AGE-BSA (200-600 µg/ml) in a dose-dependent manner for 9 days. Telomere length (TL) was measured using qPCR. Nitric oxide (NO) production and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were measured in WIL2-NS culture medium. An increasing trend for TNF-α and NO production was observed with higher concentration of glucose (R2 = 0.358; P = 0.019; R2 = 0.307; P = 0.027) and fructose (R2 = 0.669; P = 0.001; R2 = 0.339; P = 0.006). A decreasing trend for TL (R2 = 0.828; P = 0.000), and an increasing trend for NO production (R2 = 0.352; P = 0.031) were observed with increasing Glu-BSA concentrations. Fru-BSA treatment did not show significant trend on TL (R2 = 0.135; P = 0.352) with increasing concentration, however, a significant reduction was observed at 600 µg/ml (P < 0.01) when compared to BSA treatment. No trends for TNF-α levels and a decreasing trend on NO production (R2 = 0.5201; P = 0.019) was observed with increasing Fru-BSA treatment. In conclusion, this study demonstrates a potential relationship between dietary sugars, AGEs and telomere attrition. AGEs may also exert telomere shortening through the production of pro-inflammatory metabolites, which ultimately increase the risk of diabetes complications and age-related disease throughout lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Permal Deo
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Varinderpal S Dhillon
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Wai Mun Lim
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Emma L Jaunay
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Leigh Donnellan
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Brock Peake
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Caitlin McCullough
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Michael Fenech
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Health and Biomedical Innovation, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Genome Health Foundation, North Brighton, Australia
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11
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Aldose Reductase and the Polyol Pathway in Schwann Cells: Old and New Problems. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031031. [PMID: 33494154 PMCID: PMC7864348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aldose reductase (AR) is a member of the reduced nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent aldo-keto reductase superfamily. It is also the rate-limiting enzyme of the polyol pathway, catalyzing the conversion of glucose to sorbitol, which is subsequently converted to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase. AR is highly expressed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The excess glucose flux through AR of the polyol pathway under hyperglycemic conditions has been suggested to play a critical role in the development and progression of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Despite the intensive basic and clinical studies over the past four decades, the significance of AR over-activation as the pathogenic mechanism of DPN remains to be elucidated. Moreover, the expected efficacy of some AR inhibitors in patients with DPN has been unsatisfactory, which prompted us to further investigate and review the understanding of the physiological and pathological roles of AR in the PNS. Particularly, the investigation of AR and the polyol pathway using immortalized Schwann cells established from normal and AR-deficient mice could shed light on the causal relationship between the metabolic abnormalities of Schwann cells and discordance of axon-Schwann cell interplay in DPN, and led to the development of better therapeutic strategies against DPN.
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12
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Deo P, McCullough CL, Almond T, Jaunay EL, Donnellan L, Dhillon VS, Fenech M. Dietary sugars and related endogenous advanced glycation end-products increase chromosomal DNA damage in WIL2-NS cells, measured using cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay. Mutagenesis 2020; 35:169-177. [PMID: 31971590 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geaa002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of glucose and fructose, and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) on genome damage in WIL2-NS cells, measured using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome (CBMN-Cyt) assay. The effect of AGEs was investigated using the bovine serum albumin (AGE-BSA) model system induced either with glucose (Glu-BSA) or with fructose (Fru-BSA). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis showed higher Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML; 26.76 ± 1.09 nmol/mg BSA) levels in the Glu-BSA model. Nε-Carboxyethyllysine (CEL; 7.87 ± 0.19 nmol/mg BSA) and methylglyoxal-derived hydroimidazolone-1 (MG-H1; 69.77 ± 3.74 nmol/mg BSA) levels were higher in the Fru-BSA model. Genotoxic effects were measured using CBMN-Cyt assay biomarkers [binucleated(BN) cells with micronuclei (MNi), BN with nucleoplasmic bridges (NPBs) and BN with nuclear buds (NBuds)] following 9 days of treatment with either glucose, fructose, Glu-BSA or Fru-BSA. Fructose treatment exerted a significant genotoxic dose-response effect including increases of BN with MNi (R2 = 0.7704; P = 0.0031), BN with NPBs (R2 = 0.9311; P < 0.0001) and BN with NBuds (R2 = 0.7118; P = 0.0091) on cells, whereas the DNA damaging effects of glucose were less evident. High concentrations of AGEs (400-600 µg/ml) induced DNA damage; however, there was no effect on cytotoxicity indices (necrosis and apoptosis). In conclusion, this study demonstrates a potential link between physiologically high concentrations of reducing sugars or AGEs with increased chromosomal damage which is an important emerging aspect of the pathology that may be induced by diabetes. Ultimately, loss of genome integrity could accelerate the rate of ageing and increase the risk of age-related diseases over the long term. These findings indicate the need for further research on the effects of glycation on chromosomal instability and to establish whether this effect is replicated in humans in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Permal Deo
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Caitlin L McCullough
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | | | - Emma L Jaunay
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Leigh Donnellan
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Varinderpal S Dhillon
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Michael Fenech
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.,Genome Health Foundation, North Brighton, Australia
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13
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Biermann AR, Demers EG, Hogan DA. Mrr1 regulation of methylglyoxal catabolism and methylglyoxal-induced fluconazole resistance in Candida lusitaniae. Mol Microbiol 2020; 115:116-130. [PMID: 33319423 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Transcription factor Mrr1, best known for its regulation of Candida azole resistance genes such as MDR1, regulates other genes that are poorly characterized. Among the other Mrr1-regulated genes are putative methylglyoxal reductases. Methylglyoxal (MG) is a toxic metabolite that is elevated in diabetes, uremia, and sepsis, which are diseases that increase the risk for candidiasis, and MG serves as a regulatory signal in diverse organisms. Our studies in Clavispora lusitaniae, also known as Candida lusitaniae, showed that Mrr1 regulates expression of two paralogous MG reductases, MGD1 and MGD2, and that both participate in MG resistance and MG catabolism. Exogenous MG increased Mrr1-dependent expression of MGD1 and MGD2 as well as expression of MDR1, which encodes an efflux pump that exports fluconazole. MG improved growth in the presence of fluconazole and this was largely Mrr1-dependent with contributions from a secondary transcription factor, Cap1. Increased fluconazole resistance was also observed in mutants lacking Glo1, a Mrr1-independent MG catabolic enzyme. Isolates from other Candida species displayed heterogeneity in MG resistance and MG stimulation of azole resistance. We propose endogenous and host-derived MG can induce MDR1 and other Mrr1-regulated genes causing increased drug resistance, which may contribute to some instances of fungal treatment failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy R Biermann
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Elora G Demers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Deborah A Hogan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
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Utilizing methylglyoxal and D-lactate in urine to evaluate saikosaponin C treatment in mice with accelerated nephrotoxic serum nephritis. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241053. [PMID: 33104740 PMCID: PMC7588094 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between methylglyoxal (MGO) and D-lactate during saikosaponin C (SSC) treatment of mice with accelerated nephrotoxic serum (NTS) nephritis was investigated. NTS nephritis was induced by administration of anti-basement membrane antibodies to C57BL/6 mice and three dosages of SSC were administered for 14 days. Proteinuria, blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, renal histology, urinary MGO and d-lactate changes were examined. Compared to the NTS control group, the middle dosage (10 mg/kg/day) of SSC significantly alleviated the development of nephritis based on urine protein measurements (34.40 ± 6.85 vs. 17.33 ± 4.79 mg/day, p<0.05). Pathological observation of the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) revealed monocyte infiltration, hypertrophy, and crescents were alleviated, and injury scoring also showed improved efficacy for the middle dose of SSC during nephritis (7.92 ± 1.37 vs. 3.50 ± 1.14, p<0.05). Moreover, the significant decreases in urinary levels of MGO (24.71 ± 3.46 vs. 16.72 ± 2.36 μg/mg, p<0.05) and D-lactate (0.31 ± 0.04 vs. 0.23 ± 0.02 μmol/mg, p<0.05) were consistent with the biochemical and pathological examinations. This study demonstrates that MGO and D-lactate may reflect the extent of damage and the efficacy of SSC in NTS nephritis; further studies are required to enable clinical application.
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15
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Simons N, Debray FG, Schaper NC, Feskens EJ, Hollak CE, Bons JA, Bierau J, Houben AJ, Schalkwijk CG, Stehouwer CD, Cassiman D, Brouwers MC. Kidney and vascular function in adult patients with hereditary fructose intolerance. Mol Genet Metab Rep 2020; 23:100600. [PMID: 32426234 PMCID: PMC7225396 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgmr.2020.100600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective: Previous studies have shown that patients with hereditary fructose intolerance (HFI) are characterized by a greater intrahepatic triglyceride content, despite a fructose-restricted diet. The present study aimed to examine the long-term consequences of HFI on other aldolase-B-expressing organs, i.e. the kidney and vascular endothelium. Methods: Fifteen adult HFI patients were compared to healthy control individuals matched for age, sex and body mass index. Aortic stiffness was assessed by carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cf-PWV) and endothelial function by peripheral arterial tonometry, skin laser doppler flowmetry and the endothelial function biomarkers soluble E-selectin [sE-selectin] and von Willebrand factor. Serum creatinine and cystatin C were measured to estimate the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Urinary glucose and amino acid excretion and the ratio of tubular maximum reabsorption of phosphate to GFR (TmP/GFR) were determined as measures of proximal tubular function. Results: Median systolic blood pressure was significantly higher in HFI patients (127 versus 122 mmHg, p = .045). Pulse pressure and cf-PWV did not differ between the groups (p = .37 and p = .49, respectively). Of all endothelial function markers, only sE-selectin was significantly higher in HFI patients (p = .004). eGFR was significantly higher in HFI patients than healthy controls (119 versus 104 ml/min/1.73m2, p = .001, respectively). All measurements of proximal tubular function did not differ significantly between the groups. Conclusions: Adult HFI patients treated with a fructose-restricted diet are characterized by a higher sE-selectin level and slightly higher systolic blood pressure, which in time could contribute to a greater cardiovascular risk. The exact cause and, hence, clinical consequences of the higher eGFR in HFI patients, deserves further study.
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Key Words
- 95% confidence interval, (95% CI)
- Blood
- CKD-EPI equation based on creatinine and cystatin c combined, (eGFRcr-cys)
- CKD-EPI equation based on cystatin c, (eGFRcys)
- CKD-EPI equation based on serum creatinine, (eGFRcr)
- Case-control study
- Fanconi syndrome
- Hereditary fructose intolerance
- Kidney
- Vessels
- alanine, (Ala)
- aldolase B, (ALDOB)
- arginine, (Arg)
- asparagine, (Asn)
- carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, (cf-PWV)
- chronic kidney disease epidemiology collaboration, (CKD-EPI)
- citrulline, (Cit)
- cysteine, (Cys)
- difference, (Δ)
- estimated glomerular filtration rate, (eGFR)
- glucokinase regulatory protein, (GKRP)
- glutamic acid, (Glu)
- glutamine, (Gln)
- glycine, (Gly)
- hereditary fructose intolerance, (HFI)
- histidine, (His)
- intrahepatic triglyceride, (IHTG)
- isoleucine, (Ile)
- laser doppler flowmetry, (LDF)
- leucine, (Leu)
- lysine, (Lys)
- methionine, (Met)
- ornithine, (Orn)
- perfusion units, (PU)
- phenylalanine, (Phe)
- proline, (Pro)
- ratio of tubular maximum reabsorption of phosphate to GFR, (TmP/GFR)
- reactive hyperemia index, (RHI)
- reactive hyperemia peripheral arterial tonometry, (RH-PAT)
- serine, (Ser)
- soluble E-selectin, (sE-selectin)
- statistical package of social sciences, (SPSS)
- taurine, (Tau)
- threonine, (Thr)
- tryptophan, (Try)
- tubular reabsorption of phosphate, (TRP)
- tyrosine, (Tyr)
- valine, (Val)
- von willebrand factor, (vWF)
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Affiliation(s)
- Nynke Simons
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Laboratory for Metabolism and Vascular Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Nicolaas C. Schaper
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CAPHRI School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Edith J.M. Feskens
- Division of Human Nutrition, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carla E.M. Hollak
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Judith A.P. Bons
- Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jörgen Bierau
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Alfons J.H.M. Houben
- Laboratory for Metabolism and Vascular Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Casper G. Schalkwijk
- Laboratory for Metabolism and Vascular Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Coen D.A. Stehouwer
- Laboratory for Metabolism and Vascular Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - David Cassiman
- Department of Gastroenterology-Hepatology and Metabolic Center, University Hospital Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Martijn C.G.J. Brouwers
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Laboratory for Metabolism and Vascular Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- CARIM School for Cardiovascular Diseases, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Corresponding author at: Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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16
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Yoon S, Lee E, Kim M, Kim I. Acute Exposure to Fructose Impairs Endothelium-Dependent Relaxation via Oxidative Stress in Isolated Rat Aortic Rings. J Vasc Res 2020; 57:213-222. [PMID: 32294645 DOI: 10.1159/000506684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Although both glucose and fructose are hexoses, their catabolism is quite different: the catabolism of fructose is initiated by ketohexokinase and is not regulated by negative feedback, which results in oxidative stress. OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that fructose impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation via oxidative stress in rat aortic rings. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats were offered 20% fructose solution or tap water for 2 weeks, after which vascular reactivity was measured in isolated aortic rings. In a separate experiment, vascular reactivity was measured after acute exposure to ∼10 mM fructose in isolated aortic rings from untreated rats. RESULTS Although high-fructose intake statistically significantly increased blood pressure and body weight, it did not affect contraction and relaxation in aortic rings. The substitution of fructose for glucose in Krebs solution inhibited vascular relaxation in aortic rings, which was abolished by pretreatment with antioxidants. Decreasing the glucose concentration in Krebs solution inhibited vascular relaxation, whereas decreasing the fructose concentration in Krebs solution improved vascular relaxation in the aortic rings. Pretreatment with antioxidants improved the vascular relaxation in Krebs solution with fructose substituted for glucose. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that fructose impairs endothelium-dependent relaxation via oxidative stress in isolated rat aortic rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangwon Yoon
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.,Cardiovascular Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.,BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunjo Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.,Cardiovascular Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.,BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Mina Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.,Cardiovascular Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - InKyeom Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea, .,Cardiovascular Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea, .,BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea,
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17
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Effect of prednisolone on glyoxalase 1 in an inbred mouse model of aristolochic acid nephropathy using a proteomics method with fluorogenic derivatization-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227838. [PMID: 31968011 PMCID: PMC6975546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Prednisolone is involved in glucose homeostasis and has been used for treatment for aristolochic acid (AA) nephropathy (AAN), but its effect on glycolysis in kidney has not yet been clarified. This study aims to investigate the effect in terms of altered proteins after prednisolone treatment in a mice model of AAN using a proteomics technique. The six-week C3H/He female mice were administrated AA (0.5 mg/kg/day) for 56 days. AA+P group mice were then given prednisolone (2 mg/kg/day) via oral gavage for the next 14 days, and AA group mice were fed water instead. The tubulointerstitial damage was improved after prednisolone treatment comparing to that of AA group. Kidney homogenates were harvested to perform the proteomics analysis with fluorogenic derivatization-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method (FD-LC-MS/MS). On the other hand, urinary methylglyoxal and D-lactate levels were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. There were 47 altered peaks and 39 corresponding proteins on day 14 among the groups, and the glycolysis-related proteins, especially glyoxalase 1 (GLO1), fructose-bisphosphate aldolase B (aldolase B), and triosephosphate isomerase (TPI), decreased in the AA+P group. Meanwhile, prednisolone decreased the urinary amount of methylglyoxal (AA+P: 2.004 ± 0.301 μg vs. AA: 2.741 ± 0.630 μg, p < 0.05), which was accompanied with decrease in urinary amount of D-lactate (AA+P: 54.07 ± 5.45 μmol vs. AA: 86.09 ± 8.44 μmol, p < 0.05). Prednisolone thus alleviated inflammation and interstitial renal fibrosis. The renal protective mechanism might be associated with down-regulation of GLO1 via reducing the contents of methylglyoxal derived from glycolysis. With the aid of proteomics analysis and the determination of methylglyoxal and its metabolite-D-lactate, we have demonstrated for the first time the biochemical efficacy of prednisolone, and urinary methylglyoxal and its metabolite-D-lactate might be potential biomarkers for AAN.
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18
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Li H, Zheng L, Chen C, Liu X, Zhang W. Brain Senescence Caused by Elevated Levels of Reactive Metabolite Methylglyoxal on D-Galactose-Induced Aging Mice. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1004. [PMID: 31619960 PMCID: PMC6760031 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is a complex natural phenomenon that is manifested by degenerative changes in the structure and function of cells and tissues. D-Galactose-induced aging mice are an artificial accelerated aging model that causes memory and learning impairment, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. In this study, we examined the underlying mechanism of an aging mouse model induced by D-galactose. Our behavioral Morris water maze results revealed that D-galactose administration for 2 months significantly induced memory and learning impairment in C57BL/6J mice. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) results showed elevated levels of the metabolite methylglyoxal (MG) in D-galactose-induced aging mice. Whether and how D-galactose induces senescence by elevated levels of reactive metabolite MG remain unclear. In our study, MG mainly accumulated through the following two aspects: to increase its source, namely, the triose phosphate produced by the glycolysis pathway, and to reduce its detoxification system, namely, the glyoxalase system. Therefore, elevated MG levels may be one of the causes of brain senescence in D-galactose-induced mice. However, the molecular mechanism of the increased level of the reaction metabolite methylglyoxal requires further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Protection and Utilization, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Natural Medicine, Faculty of Geographical Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Zheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Protection and Utilization, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Natural Medicine, Faculty of Geographical Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Chen
- The Laboratory of Vector Biology, College of Engineering, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Xiaoli Liu
- National and Local United Engineering Research Center for Panax Notoginseng Resources Protection and Utilization Technology, Kunming, China
| | - Wensheng Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Protection and Utilization, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Natural Medicine, Faculty of Geographical Science, Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,The Laboratory of Vector Biology, College of Engineering, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China.,National and Local United Engineering Research Center for Panax Notoginseng Resources Protection and Utilization Technology, Kunming, China
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19
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Registry of the Egyptian specialized hypertension clinics: patient risk profiles and geographical differences. J Hum Hypertens 2019; 34:520-527. [PMID: 31558807 DOI: 10.1038/s41371-019-0265-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Data regarding the prevalence and characteristics of cardiovascular (CV) risk factors among Egyptian hypertensive patients are limited. Nationwide Specialized Hypertension Clinics (SHCs) were initiated for screening, investigating, and treating hypertensive patients. This study aimed to determine the clinical characteristics and the CV risk profile of hypertensive Egyptians attending SHCs. Data from 4701 hypertensive patients were collected from the SHCs of nine university hospitals representing the different geographical regions of Egypt. Data collection started in October 2014 and ended in September 2017. Data included blood pressure (BP) measurements, clinical data, socio-demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, and cardiovascular risk profiles. The patients' mean age was 51.8 ± 11.5 years, 58.7% were older than 50 years, and 58.5% were females. The mean office systolic and diastolic BP values were 145.2 ± 22.4 and 88.7 ± 12.9 mmHg, respectively. Regarding CV risk factors, 58.6% were obese, 23.4% were smokers, and 25.1% had diabetes mellitus. Obesity was more prevalent in females than males (65.7% vs. 53.0%, p < 0.001, respectively), while dyslipidaemia and smoking were significantly more common in male patients. The highest levels of BP and the highest global risk were observed in the inhabitants of the Delta region, despite their younger age. In conclusion, this study revealed a high prevalence of modifiable CV risk factors among a cohort of Egyptian hypertensive patients attending SHCs. The pattern of the risk factors across the different geographic regions may be attributed to rapid urbanization. Governmental and community-based approaches are needed for better control of hypertension and its associated CV risk factors.
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20
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Liver metabolism in adult male mice offspring: consequences of a maternal, paternal or both maternal and paternal high-fructose diet. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2018; 9:450-459. [DOI: 10.1017/s2040174418000235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe study aimed to evaluate the consequences of the consumption of a high-fructose diet (HFR; fructose was responsible for 45% of the energy from carbohydrates) by the mother, the father, or both on C57BL/6 adult male offspring. Non-consanguineous parents received the diet (HFR or control, C) from 8 weeks before mating until weaning (n=10 fathers and n=10 mothers on each diet). After weaning, only the C diet was offered to offspring. The groups were formed by one male randomly taken from each litter. The offspring groups were identified according to the mother’s diet (the first letter), then the father’s diet (the second letter), that is, C/C, C/HFR, HFR/C, HFR/HFR (n=10 per group). The parents exhibited the following characteristics: compared with those of the C group, the HFR parents had higher blood pressure (BP), enlarged liver, increased hepatic triacylglycerol content, hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia, high plasma leptin and low adiponectin. The offspring exhibited the following characteristics: compared with the C/C group, the HFR/HFR group had high BP. The C/HFR, HFR/C and HFR/HFR showed elevated uric acid and leptin levels and diminished adiponectin. The HFR/HFR group showed liver inflammation (increased NFκB, SOCS3, JNK, TNF-α, IL1-β and IL6 levels). Likewise, SREBP-1c and FAS were upregulated. In conclusion, the consumption of a HFR by the mother and/or father is associated with adverse effects on liver metabolism in adult male offspring. When both mother and father are fed a HFR, the adverse effects on the offspring are more severe.
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21
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Moghadam SS, Oryan A, Kurganov BI, Tamaddon AM, Alavianehr MM, Moosavi-Movahedi AA, Yousefi R. The structural damages of lens crystallins induced by peroxynitrite and methylglyoxal, two causative players in diabetic complications and preventive role of lens antioxidant components. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 103:74-88. [PMID: 28472684 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.04.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Peroxynitrite (PON) and methylglyoxal (MGO), two diabetes-associated compounds, are believed to be important causative players in development of diabetic cataracts. In the current study, different spectroscopic methods, gel electrophoresis, lens culture and microscopic assessments were applied to examine the impact of individual, subsequent or simultaneous modification of lens crystallins with MGO and PON on their structure, oligomerization and aggregation. The protein modifications were confirmed with detection of the significantly increased quantity of carbonyl groups and decreased levels of sulfhydryl, tyrosine and tryptophan. Also, lens proteins modification with these chemical agents was accompanied with important structural alteration, oligomerization, disulfide/chromophore mediated protein crosslinking and important proteolytic instability. All these structural damages were more pronounced when the lens proteins were modified in the presence of both mentioned chemical agents, either in sequential or simultaneous manner. Ascorbic acid and glutathione, as the main components of lens antioxidant defense mechanism, were also capable to markedly prevent the damaging effects of PON and MGO on lens crystallins, as indicated by gel electrophoresis. The results of this study may highlight the importance of lens antioxidant defense system in protection of crystallins against the structural insults induced by PON and MGO during chronic hyperglycemia in the diabetic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sogand Sasan Moghadam
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory (PCL), Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ahmad Oryan
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Boris I Kurganov
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky pr. 33, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Ali-Mohammad Tamaddon
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | | | | | - Reza Yousefi
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory (PCL), Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
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22
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Zhang DM, Jiao RQ, Kong LD. High Dietary Fructose: Direct or Indirect Dangerous Factors Disturbing Tissue and Organ Functions. Nutrients 2017; 9:E335. [PMID: 28353649 PMCID: PMC5409674 DOI: 10.3390/nu9040335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
High dietary fructose is a major contributor to insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, disturbing tissue and organ functions. Fructose is mainly absorbed into systemic circulation by glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) and GLUT5, and metabolized in liver to produce glucose, lactate, triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid (FFA), uric acid (UA) and methylglyoxal (MG). Its extrahepatic absorption and metabolism also take place. High levels of these metabolites are the direct dangerous factors. During fructose metabolism, ATP depletion occurs and induces oxidative stress and inflammatory response, disturbing functions of local tissues and organs to overproduce inflammatory cytokine, adiponectin, leptin and endotoxin, which act as indirect dangerous factors. Fructose and its metabolites directly and/or indirectly cause oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, autophagy and increased intestinal permeability, and then further aggravate the metabolic syndrome with tissue and organ dysfunctions. Therefore, this review addresses fructose-induced metabolic syndrome, and the disturbance effects of direct and/or indirect dangerous factors on the functions of liver, adipose, pancreas islet, skeletal muscle, kidney, heart, brain and small intestine. It is important to find the potential correlations between direct and/or indirect risk factors and healthy problems under excess dietary fructose consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Mei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Rui-Qing Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
| | - Ling-Dong Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Dual effects of fructose on ChREBP and FoxO1/3α are responsible for AldoB up-regulation and vascular remodelling. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016; 131:309-325. [PMID: 28007970 DOI: 10.1042/cs20160251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 12/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Increased production of methylglyoxal (MG) in vascular tissues is one of the causative factors for vascular remodelling in different subtypes of metabolic syndrome, including hypertension and insulin resistance. Fructose-induced up-regulation of aldolase B (AldoB) contributes to increased vascular MG production but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Serum levels of MG and fructose were determined in diabetic patients with hypertension. MG level had significant positive correlations with blood pressure and fructose level respectively. C57BL/6 mice were fed with control or fructose-enriched diet for 3 months and ultrasonographic and histologic analyses were performed to evaluate arterial structural changes. Fructose-fed mice exhibited hypertension and high levels of serum MG with normal glucose level. Fructose intake increased blood vessel wall thickness and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation. Western blotting and real-time PCR analysis revealed that AldoB level was significantly increased in both the aorta of fructose-fed mice and the fructose-treated VSMCs, whereas aldolase A (AldoA) expression was not changed. The knockdown of AldoB expression prevented fructose-induced MG overproduction and VSMC proliferation. Moreover, fructose significantly increased carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein (ChREBP), phosphorylated FoxO1/3α and Akt1 levels. Fructose induced translocation of ChREBP from the cytosol to nucleus and activated AldoB gene expression, which was inhibited by the knockdown of ChREBP. Meanwhile, fructose caused FoxO1/3α shuttling from the nucleus to cytosol and inhibited its binding to AldoB promoter region. Fructose-induced AldoB up-regulation was suppressed by Akt1 inhibitor but enhanced by FoxO1/3α siRNA. Collectively, fructose activates ChREBP and inactivates FoxO1/3α pathways to up-regulate AldoB expression and MG production, leading to vascular remodelling.
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24
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Alomar F, Singh J, Jang H, Rozanzki GJ, Shao CH, Padanilam BJ, Mayhan WG, Bidasee KR. Smooth muscle-generated methylglyoxal impairs endothelial cell-mediated vasodilatation of cerebral microvessels in type 1 diabetic rats. Br J Pharmacol 2016; 173:3307-3326. [PMID: 27611446 PMCID: PMC5738666 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Endothelial cell-mediated vasodilatation of cerebral arterioles is impaired in individuals with Type 1 diabetes (T1D). This defect compromises haemodynamics and can lead to hypoxia, microbleeds, inflammation and exaggerated ischaemia-reperfusion injuries. The molecular causes for dysregulation of cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (cECs) in T1D remains poorly defined. This study tests the hypothesis that cECs dysregulation in T1D is triggered by increased generation of the mitochondrial toxin, methylglyoxal, by smooth muscle cells in cerebral arterioles (cSMCs). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Endothelial cell-mediated vasodilatation, vascular transcytosis inflammation, hypoxia and ischaemia-reperfusion injury were assessed in brains of male Sprague-Dawley rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes and compared with those in diabetic rats with increased expression of methylglyoxal-degrading enzyme glyoxalase-I (Glo-I) in cSMCs. KEY RESULTS After 7-8 weeks of T1D, endothelial cell-mediated vasodilatation of cerebral arterioles was impaired. Microvascular leakage, gliosis, macrophage/neutrophil infiltration, NF-κB activity and TNF-α levels were increased, and density of perfused microvessels was reduced. Transient occlusion of a mid-cerebral artery exacerbated ischaemia-reperfusion injury. In cSMCs, Glo-I protein was decreased, and the methylglyoxal-synthesizing enzyme, vascular adhesion protein 1 (VAP-1) and methylglyoxal were increased. Restoring Glo-I protein in cSMCs of diabetic rats to control levels via gene transfer, blunted VAP-1 and methylglyoxal increases, cECs dysfunction, microvascular leakage, inflammation, ischaemia-reperfusion injury and increased microvessel perfusion. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Methylglyoxal generated by cSMCs induced cECs dysfunction, inflammation, hypoxia and exaggerated ischaemia-reperfusion injury in diabetic rats. Lowering methylglyoxal produced by cSMCs may be a viable therapeutic strategy to preserve cECs function and blunt deleterious downstream consequences in T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadhel Alomar
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental NeuroscienceUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of DammamDammamSaudi Arabia
| | - Jaipaul Singh
- School of Forensic and Applied ScienceUniversity of Central LancashirePrestonUK
| | - Hee‐Seong Jang
- Department of Cellular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
| | - George J Rozanzki
- Department of Cellular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
- Nebraska Redox Biology CenterLincolnNEUSA
| | - Chun Hong Shao
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental NeuroscienceUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
| | - Babu J Padanilam
- Department of Cellular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
| | - William G Mayhan
- Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Sanford School of MedicineUniversity of South DakotaVermillionSDUSA
| | - Keshore R Bidasee
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental NeuroscienceUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
- Department of Environmental, Agricultural and Occupational HealthUniversity of Nebraska Medical CenterOmahaNEUSA
- Nebraska Redox Biology CenterLincolnNEUSA
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Osman I, Poulose N, Ganapathy V, Segar L. High fructose-mediated attenuation of insulin receptor signaling does not affect PDGF-induced proliferative signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 791:703-710. [PMID: 27729247 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Insulin resistance is associated with accelerated atherosclerosis. Although high fructose is known to induce insulin resistance, it remains unclear as to how fructose regulates insulin receptor signaling and proliferative phenotype in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which play a major role in atherosclerosis. Using human aortic VSMCs, we investigated the effects of high fructose treatment on insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) serine phosphorylation, insulin versus platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-induced phosphorylation of Akt, S6 ribosomal protein, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and cell cycle proteins. In comparison with PDGF (a potent mitogen), neither fructose nor insulin enhanced VSMC proliferation and cyclin D1 expression. d-[14C(U)]fructose uptake studies revealed a progressive increase in fructose uptake in a time-dependent manner. Concentration-dependent studies with high fructose (5-25mM) showed marked increases in IRS-1 serine phosphorylation, a key adapter protein in insulin receptor signaling. Accordingly, high fructose treatment led to significant diminutions in insulin-induced phosphorylation of downstream signaling components including Akt and S6. In addition, high fructose significantly diminished insulin-induced ERK phosphorylation. Nevertheless, high fructose did not affect PDGF-induced key proliferative signaling events including phosphorylation of Akt, S6, and ERK and expression of cyclin D1 protein. Together, high fructose dysregulates IRS-1 phosphorylation state and proximal insulin receptor signaling in VSMCs, but does not affect PDGF-induced proliferative signaling. These findings suggest that systemic insulin resistance rather than VSMC-specific dysregulation of insulin receptor signaling by high fructose may play a major role in enhancing atherosclerosis and neointimal hyperplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Islam Osman
- Center for Pharmacy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Georgia College of Pharmacy, Augusta, GA, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Ninu Poulose
- Center for Pharmacy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Georgia College of Pharmacy, Augusta, GA, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Vadivel Ganapathy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Lakshman Segar
- Center for Pharmacy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Georgia College of Pharmacy, Augusta, GA, USA; Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA, USA; Vascular Biology Center, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA; Department of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA.
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Fructose Beverage Consumption Induces a Metabolic Syndrome Phenotype in the Rat: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2016; 8:nu8090577. [PMID: 27657120 PMCID: PMC5037561 DOI: 10.3390/nu8090577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
A high intake of refined carbohydrates, particularly the monosaccharide fructose, has been attributed to the growing epidemics of obesity and type-2 diabetes. Animal studies have helped elucidate the metabolic effects of dietary fructose, however, variations in study design make it difficult to draw conclusions. The aim of this study was to review the effects of fructose beverage consumption on body weight, systolic blood pressure and blood glucose, insulin and triglyceride concentrations in validated rat models. We searched Ovid Embase Classic + EmbaseMedline and Ovid Medline databases and included studies that used adolescent/adult male rats, with fructose beverage consumption for >3 weeks. Data from 26 studies were pooled by an inverse variance weighting method using random effects models, expressed as standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Overall, 10%–21% w/v fructose beverage consumption was associated with increased rodent body weight (SMD, 0.62 (95% CI: 0.18, 1.06)), systolic blood pressure (SMD, 2.94 (95% CI: 2.10, 3.77)) and blood glucose (SMD, 0.77 (95% CI: 0.36, 1.19)), insulin (SMD, 2.32 (95% CI: 1.57, 3.07)) and triglyceride (SMD, 1.87 (95% CI: 1.39, 2.34)) concentrations. Therefore, the consumption of a low concentration fructose beverage is sufficient to cause early signs of the metabolic syndrome in adult rats.
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Matafome P, Rodrigues T, Sena C, Seiça R. Methylglyoxal in Metabolic Disorders: Facts, Myths, and Promises. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:368-403. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Matafome
- Laboratory of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI); Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra; 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
- Department of Complementary Sciences; Coimbra Health School (ESTeSC); Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra; 3045-601 Coimbra Portugal
| | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI); Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra; 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
| | - Cristina Sena
- Laboratory of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI); Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra; 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
| | - Raquel Seiça
- Laboratory of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI); Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra; 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
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Dhungana RR, Pandey AR, Bista B, Joshi S, Devkota S. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Hypertension: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study in Municipalities of Kathmandu, Nepal. Int J Hypertens 2016; 2016:1656938. [PMID: 27293880 PMCID: PMC4880705 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1656938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and associated factors of hypertension in newly declared municipalities of Kathmandu, Nepal. Design, Settings, and Participants. This was a community-based cross-sectional study conducted in the municipalities of Kathmandu District, Nepal, between January and July 2015. Study participants were aged 18 to 70 years, residing permanently in the study sites. Municipalities, Wards, households, and respondents were selected randomly. Results. Of the 587 participants, 58.8% were females, mean (SD) age was 42.3 (13.5) years, 29.3% had no formal education, 35.1% were Brahmins, and 41.2% were homemakers. Prevalence of hypertension was 32.5% (95% CI: 28.7-36.3). Age, gender, education, ethnicity, occupation, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, diabetes, menopausal history, and family history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and hypertension were significantly associated with hypertension. In multivariable analysis, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, body mass index, and diabetes were identified as significant explanatory variables for hypertension. Conclusion. This study demonstrated that the people living in newly established municipalities of Kathmandu, Nepal, have a high burden of hypertension as well as its associated factors. Therefore, community-based preventive approaches like lifestyle modification and early detection and treatment of hypertension might bring a substantial change in tackling the burden effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Suira Joshi
- Ministry of Health and Population, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Surya Devkota
- Manmohan Cardiothoracic, Vascular and Transplant Centre, Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
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Evaluation of the In Vivo and In Vitro Effects of Fructose on Respiratory Chain Complexes in Tissues of Young Rats. DISEASE MARKERS 2015; 2015:312530. [PMID: 26770008 PMCID: PMC4684876 DOI: 10.1155/2015/312530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Hereditary fructose intolerance (HFI) is an autosomal-recessive disorder characterized by fructose and fructose-1-phosphate accumulation in tissues and biological fluids of patients. This disease results from a deficiency of aldolase B, which metabolizes fructose in the liver, kidney, and small intestine. We here investigated the effect of acute fructose administration on the activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes, succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), and malate dehydrogenase (MDH) in cerebral cortex, liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle of male 30-day-old Wistar rats. The rats received subcutaneous injection of sodium chloride (0.9%; control group) or fructose solution (5 μmol/g; treated group). One hour later, the animals were euthanized and the cerebral cortex, liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle were isolated and homogenized for the investigations. Acute fructose administration increased complex I-III activity in liver. On the other hand, decreased complexes II and II-III activities in skeletal muscle and MDH in kidney were found. Interestingly, none of these parameters were affected in vitro. Our present data indicate that fructose administration elicits impairment of mitochondrial energy metabolism, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of the HFI patients.
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Tao QF, Yuan SX, Yang F, Yang S, Yang Y, Yuan JH, Wang ZG, Xu QG, Lin KY, Cai J, Yu J, Huang WL, Teng XL, Zhou CC, Wang F, Sun SH, Zhou WP. Aldolase B inhibits metastasis through Ten-Eleven Translocation 1 and serves as a prognostic biomarker in hepatocellular carcinoma. Mol Cancer 2015; 14:170. [PMID: 26376879 PMCID: PMC4574028 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-015-0437-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Downregulation of Aldolase B (ALDOB) has been reported in hepatocellular carcinoma. However, its clinical significance and its role in pathogenesis of HCC remain largely unknown. Methods We analyzed the expression of ALDOB and its clinical features in a large cohort of 313 HCC patients using tissue microarray and immunohistochemistry. Moreover, the function of stably overexpressed ALDOB in HCC cells was explored in vitro and in vivo. Gene expression microarray analysis was performed on ALDOB-overexpressing SMMC7721 cells to elucidate its mechanism of action. Results ALDOB downregulation in HCC was significantly correlated with aggressive characteristics including absence of encapsulation, increased tumor size (>5 cm) and early recurrence. ALDOB downregulation was indicative of a shorter recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) for all HCC patients and early-stage HCC patients (BCLC 0-A and TNM I stage patients). Multiple analyses revealed that ALDOB downregulation was an independent risk factor of RFS and OS. Stable expression of ALDOB in HCC cell lines reduced cell migration in vitro and inhibited lung metastasis, intrahepatic metastasis, and reduced circulating tumor cells in vivo. Mechanistically, we found that cells stably expressing ALDOB show elevated Ten–Eleven Translocation 1 (TET1) expression. Moreover, ALDOB expressing cells have higher levels of methylglyoxal than do control cells, which can upregulate TET1 expression. Conclusion The downregulation of ALDOB could indicate a poor prognosis for HCC patients, and therefore, ALDOB might be considered a prognostic biomarker for HCC, especially at the early stage. In addition, ALDOB inhibits the invasive features of cell lines partly through TET1 expression. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12943-015-0437-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Fei Tao
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Sheng-Xian Yuan
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Fu Yang
- The Department of Medical Genetics, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Sen Yang
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Yuan Yang
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Ji-Hang Yuan
- The Department of Medical Genetics, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhen-Guang Wang
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Qing-Guo Xu
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Kong-Ying Lin
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Jie Cai
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Jian Yu
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Wei-Long Huang
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Xiao-Lei Teng
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
| | - Chuan-Chuan Zhou
- The Department of Medical Genetics, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Fang Wang
- The Department of Medical Genetics, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Shu-Han Sun
- The Department of Medical Genetics, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wei-Ping Zhou
- The Third Department of Hepatic Surgery, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Second Military Medical University, 225 Changhai Road, 200438, Shanghai, P.R. China.
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Develi-Is S, Ozen G, Bekpinar S, Topal G, Unlucerci Y, Dogan BSU, Uysal M. Resveratrol improves high-fructose-induced vascular dysfunction in rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2014; 92:1021-7. [DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2014-0245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
High levels of fructose in the diet results in metabolic abnormalities and vascular disorders. In this study, the effect of resveratrol (RES) on vascular relaxation and contraction responses was examined in the aorta of high-fructose (HFr)-fed rats. mRNA expressions of aortic sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), GLUT5, and aldolase B were also investigated. Rats were given fructose (30%) and (or) RES (50 mg·L−1) in their drinking water for 8 weeks. In the HFr-fed rats, plasma levels of arginine and the ratio of arginine:asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) decreased, whereas leptin levels increased. Decreased relaxation and increased contractile responses were detected in aortic rings. However, the aortic expressions of SIRT1, GLUT5, and aldolase B remained unchanged. RES treatment restored HFr-induced vascular dysfunction without improvements in insulin resistance. Treatment of HFr-fed rats with RES increased plasma levels of arginine and the l-arginine:ADMA ratio, and decreased plasma levels of leptin. RES increased SIRT1 expression, but decreased the expression of GLUT5 and aldolase B in aortas from HFr-fed rats. These results suggest that RES contributes to the restoration of HFr-induced vascular dysfunction in rats, at least in part, by up-regulation of SIRT 1 and down-regulation of GLUT5 and aldolase B in the aorta. Moreover, RES may have a positive influence on vasculature by partly restoring the plasma arginine:ADMA ratio and leptin levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seval Develi-Is
- Department of Biochemistry, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Capa 34093, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gulsev Ozen
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Istanbul University, Beyazit, 34116, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Seldag Bekpinar
- Department of Biochemistry, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Capa 34093, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gokce Topal
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Istanbul University, Beyazit, 34116, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yesim Unlucerci
- Department of Biochemistry, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Capa 34093, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - B. Sonmez Uydes Dogan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Istanbul University, Beyazit, 34116, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mujdat Uysal
- Department of Biochemistry, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Capa 34093, Istanbul, Turkey
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Free α-dicarbonyl compounds in coffee, barley coffee and soy sauce and effects of in vitro digestion. Food Chem 2014; 164:259-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Compounds blocking methylglyoxal-induced protein modification and brain endothelial injury. Arch Med Res 2014; 45:753-64. [PMID: 25446614 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Elevated levels of reactive carbonyl species such as methylglyoxal triggers carbonyl stress and activates a series of inflammatory responses leading to accelerated vascular damage. Carbonyl stress is implicated in conditions and diseases like aging, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular diseases. Our aim was to examine the effects of methylglyoxal on human hCMEC/D3 brain endothelial cells and search for protective molecules to prevent endothelial damage. METHODS Methylglyoxal-induced modification of albumin was tested in a cell-free assay. Endothelial cell viability was monitored by impedance measurement in real-time. The following compounds were tested in cell-free and viability assays: β-alanine, all-trans-retinoic acid, aminoguanidine, ascorbic acid, L-carnosine, GW-3333, indapamide, piracetam, γ-tocopherol, U0126, verapamil. Barrier function of brain endothelial monolayers was characterized by permeability measurements and visualized by immunohistochemistry for β-catenin. mRNA expression level of 60 selected blood-brain barrier-related genes in hCMEC/D3 cells was investigated by a custom Taqman gene array. RESULTS Methylglyoxal treatment significantly elevated protein modification, exerted toxicity, reduced barrier integrity, increased permeability for markers FITC-dextran and albumin and caused higher production of reactive oxygen species in hCMEC/D3 endothelial cells. Changes in the mRNA expression of 30 genes coding tight junction proteins, transporters and enzymes were observed in methylglyoxal-treated hCMEC/D3 cells. From the tested 11 compounds only all-trans-retinoic acid, an antioxidant and antiglycation agent, U0126, a MAP/ERK kinase inhibitor and aminoguanidine attenuated methylglyoxal-induced damage in hCMEC/D3 cells. CONCLUSIONS All-trans-retinoic acid and inhibition of the MAP/ERK signaling pathway may be protective in carbonyl stress induced brain endothelial damage.
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Tikellis C, Pickering RJ, Tsorotes D, Huet O, Cooper ME, Jandeleit-Dahm K, Thomas MC. Dicarbonyl stress in the absence of hyperglycemia increases endothelial inflammation and atherogenesis similar to that observed in diabetes. Diabetes 2014; 63:3915-25. [PMID: 24812427 DOI: 10.2337/db13-0932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The deleterious effects of high glucose levels and enhanced metabolic flux on the vasculature are thought to be mediated by the generation of toxic metabolites, including reactive dicarbonyls like methylglyoxal (MG). In this article, we demonstrate that increasing plasma MG to levels observed in diabetic mice either using an exogenous source (1% in drinking water) or generated following inhibition, its primary clearance enzyme, glyoxalase-1 (with 50 mg/kg IP bromobenzyl-glutathione cyclopentyl diester every second day), was able to increase vascular adhesion and augment atherogenesis in euglycemic apolipoprotein E knockout mice to a similar magnitude as that observed in hyperglycemic mice with diabetes. The effects of MG appear partly mediated by activation of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), as deletion of RAGE was able to reduce inflammation and atherogenesis associated with MG exposure. However, RAGE deletion did not completely prevent inflammation or vascular damage, possibly because the induction of mitochondrial oxidative stress by dicarbonyls also contributes to inflammation and atherogenesis. Such data would suggest that a synergistic combination of RAGE antagonism and antioxidants may offer the greatest utility for the prevention and management of diabetic vascular complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Tikellis
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia Central Clinical School, Clinical Hematology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | | | - Olivier Huet
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia Intensive Care Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Mark E Cooper
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Karin Jandeleit-Dahm
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Merlin C Thomas
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Qadri SM, Su Y, Cayabyab FS, Liu L. Endothelial Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 participates in redox-sensitive leukocyte recruitment triggered by methylglyoxal. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2014; 13:134. [PMID: 25270604 PMCID: PMC4193979 DOI: 10.1186/s12933-014-0134-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Excessive levels of methylglyoxal (MG) encountered in diabetes foster enhanced leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions, mechanisms of which are incompletely understood. MG genomically upregulates endothelial serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) which orchestrates leukocyte recruitment by regulating the activation and expression of transcription factors and adhesion molecules. SGK1 regulates a myriad of ion channels and carriers including the Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1. Here, we explored the effect of MG on SGK1-dependent NHE1 activation and the putative role of NHE1 activation in MG-induced leukocyte recruitment and microvascular hyperpermeability. Methods Using RT-PCR and immunoblotting, we analyzed NHE1 mRNA and protein levels in murine microvascular SVEC4-10EE2 endothelial cells (EE2 ECs). NHE1 phosphorylation was detected using a specific antibody against the 14-3-3 binding motif at phospho-Ser703. SGK in EE2 ECs was silenced using targeted siRNA. ROS production was determined using DCF-dependent fluorescence. Leukocyte recruitment and microvascular permeability in murine cremasteric microvasculature were measured using intravital microscopy. The expression of endothelial adhesion molecules was determined by immunoblotting and confocal imaging analysis. Results MG treatment significantly upregulated NHE1 mRNA and dose-dependently increased total- and phospho-NHE1. Treatment with SGK1 inhibitor GSK650394, antioxidant Tempol and silencing SGK all blunted MG-triggered phospho-NHE1 upregulation in EE2 ECs. NHE1 inhibitor cariporide attenuated MG-triggered ROS production, leukocyte adhesion and emigration and microvascular hyperpermeability, without affecting leukocyte rolling. Cariporide treatment did not alter MG-triggered upregulation of P- and E-selectins, but reduced endothelial ICAM-1 expression. Conclusion MG elicits SGK1-dependent activation of endothelial Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 which participates in MG-induced ROS production, upregulation of endothelial ICAM-1, leukocyte recruitment and microvascular hyperpermeability. Pharmacological inhibition of NHE1 attenuates the proinflammatory effects of excessive MG and may, thus, be beneficial in diabetes-associated inflammation.
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Tóth AE, Walter FR, Bocsik A, Sántha P, Veszelka S, Nagy L, Puskás LG, Couraud PO, Takata F, Dohgu S, Kataoka Y, Deli MA. Edaravone protects against methylglyoxal-induced barrier damage in human brain endothelial cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100152. [PMID: 25033388 PMCID: PMC4102474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Elevated level of reactive carbonyl species, such as methylglyoxal, triggers carbonyl stress and activates a series of inflammatory responses leading to accelerated vascular damage. Edaravone is the active substance of a Japanese medicine, which aids neurological recovery following acute brain ischemia and subsequent cerebral infarction. Our aim was to test whether edaravone can exert a protective effect on the barrier properties of human brain endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3 cell line) treated with methylglyoxal. Methodology Cell viability was monitored in real-time by impedance-based cell electronic sensing. The barrier function of the monolayer was characterized by measurement of resistance and flux of permeability markers, and visualized by immunohistochemistry for claudin-5 and β-catenin. Cell morphology was also examined by holographic phase imaging. Principal Findings Methylglyoxal exerted a time- and dose-dependent toxicity on cultured human brain endothelial cells: a concentration of 600 µM resulted in about 50% toxicity, significantly reduced the integrity and increased the permeability of the barrier. The cell morphology also changed dramatically: the area of cells decreased, their optical height significantly increased. Edaravone (3 mM) provided a complete protection against the toxic effect of methylglyoxal. Co-administration of edaravone restored cell viability, barrier integrity and functions of brain endothelial cells. Similar protection was obtained by the well-known antiglycating molecule, aminoguanidine, our reference compound. Conclusion These results indicate for the first time that edaravone is protective in carbonyl stress induced barrier damage. Our data may contribute to the development of compounds to treat brain endothelial dysfunction in carbonyl stress related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Tóth
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Fruzsina R. Walter
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Alexandra Bocsik
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Petra Sántha
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Szilvia Veszelka
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | | | | | - Pierre-Olivier Couraud
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Fuyuko Takata
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care and Health Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shinya Dohgu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care and Health Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yasufumi Kataoka
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care and Health Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Mária A. Deli
- Institute of Biophysics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
- * E-mail:
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Su Y, Qadri SM, Cayabyab FS, Wu L, Liu L. Regulation of methylglyoxal-elicited leukocyte recruitment by endothelial SGK1/GSK3 signaling. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2014; 1843:2481-91. [PMID: 25003317 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2014.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Excessive levels of the glycolysis metabolite methylglyoxal (MG) elicit enhanced expression of adhesion molecules which foster leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions. The signaling mechanisms involved remain elusive. To address this, we investigated the signal transduction of leukocyte- and endothelial-expressed phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) effector kinases glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) and serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 (SGK1) in the regulation of MG-elicited leukocyte recruitment. Using intravital microscopy of mouse cremasteric microvasculature, we demonstrate that GSK3 inhibitors lithium and SB216763 mitigate MG-elicited leukocyte recruitment and microvascular hyperpermeability. In SVEC4-10EE2 endothelial cells, but not in neutrophils, MG transiently activates GSK3 by reducing inhibitory phospho-GSK3α/β (Ser21/9) which parallels decrease of phospho-Akt at early time points (<30min). At later time points (≥1h), MG induces GSK3 deactivation which is dissipated by siRNA silencing of SGK. MG treatment potentiates endothelial SGK1 mRNA, total SGK1, phospho-SGK1 and phospho-NDRG1. The SGK1 inhibitor GSK650394 attenuates MG-elicited leukocyte recruitment. Pharmacological inhibition or silencing endothelial GSK3 or SGK attenuates MG-triggered nuclear factor (NF)-κB activity. Furthermore, silencing SGK blunts MG-triggered redox-sensitive phosphorylation of endothelial transcription factor CREB. Inhibition of SGK1 or GSK3 mitigates the expression of endothelial adhesion molecules P- and E-selectins and ICAM-1. Moreover, SGK1-dependent CREB activation participates in MG-elicited ICAM-1 upregulation. We conclude that temporal activation of endothelial SGK1 and GSK3 is decisive in MG-elicited upregulation of transcription factors, adhesion molecule expression, and leukocyte-vascular endothelium interactions. This novel signaling pathway may link excessive MG levels in vivo to inflammation, thus, unraveling potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Su
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Syed M Qadri
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Francisco S Cayabyab
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Lingyun Wu
- Department of Health Sciences, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada; Thunder Bay Regional Research Institute, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lixin Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
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Huang Q, Sparatore A, Del Soldato P, Wu L, Desai K. Hydrogen sulfide releasing aspirin, ACS14, attenuates high glucose-induced increased methylglyoxal and oxidative stress in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97315. [PMID: 24896242 PMCID: PMC4045575 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide is a gasotransmitter with vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Aspirin is an irreversible cyclooxygenase inhibitor anti-inflammatory drug. ACS14 is a novel synthetic hydrogen sulfide releasing aspirin which inhibits cyclooxygenase and has antioxidant effects. Methylglyoxal is a chemically active metabolite of glucose and fructose, and a major precursor of advanced glycation end products formation. Methylglyoxal is harmful when produced in excess. Plasma methylglyoxal levels are significantly elevated in diabetic patients. Our aim was to investigate the effects of ACS14 on methylglyoxal levels in cultured rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells. We used cultured rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells for the study. Methylglyoxal was measured by HPLC after derivatization, and nitrite+nitrate with an assay kit. Western blotting was used to determine NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) protein expression. Dicholorofluorescein assay was used to measure oxidative stress. ACS14 significantly attenuated elevation of intracellular methylglyoxal levels caused by incubating cultured vascular smooth muscle cells with methylglyoxal (30 µM) and high glucose (25 mM). ACS14, but not aspirin, caused a significant attenuation of increase in nitrite+nitrate levels caused by methylglyoxal or high glucose. ACS14, aspirin, and sodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS, a hydrogen sulfide donor), all attenuated the increase in oxidative stress caused by methylglyoxal and high glucose in cultured cells. ACS14 prevented the increase in NOX4 expression caused by incubating the cultured VSMCs with MG (30 µM). ACS14, aspirin and NaHS attenuated the increase in iNOS expression caused by high glucose (25 mM). In conclusion, ACS14 has the novel ability to attenuate an increase in methylglyoxal levels which in turn can reduce oxidative stress, decrease the formation of advanced glycation end products and prevent many of the known deleterious effects of elevated methylglyoxal. Thus, ACS14 has the potential to be especially beneficial for diabetic patients pending further in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- King's Lab, School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Anna Sparatore
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Lingyun Wu
- Department of Health Sciences, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
- Thunder Bay Regional Research Institute, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: (KD); (LW)
| | - Kaushik Desai
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- * E-mail: (KD); (LW)
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Liu J, Desai K, Wang R, Wu L. Up-regulation of aldolase A and methylglyoxal production in adipocytes. Br J Pharmacol 2013; 168:1639-46. [PMID: 23126339 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We previously reported that up-regulation of aldolase B, a key enzyme in fructose metabolism, was mainly responsible for vascular methylglyoxal (MG) overproduction under different pathological conditions. Here we investigated whether aldolase A, an enzyme of the glycolytic pathway, also caused MG overproduction in insulin-sensitive adipocytes. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The relative contributions of different metabolic pathways or enzymes to MG generation were evaluated in cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes. KEY RESULTS Glucose (25 mM) had no effect on aldolase A gene expression, but insulin (100 nM) up-regulated aldolase A mRNA and protein levels in the absence or presence of 25 mM glucose in adipocytes. Treatment with insulin increased levels of basal or glucose (25 mM)-induced MG and glucose 6-phosphate. However, insulin, glucose (25 mM) or their combination had no effect on cellular levels of sorbitol and fructose, but down-regulated gene expression of aldolase B to a similar extent, when compared with the control group. Incubation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with fructose, acetone, acetol, threonine or glycine (25 mM), with or without insulin did not alter cellular MG levels. The elevated MG levels induced by insulin, glucose (25 mM) or their combination in adipocytes was completely reduced by siRNA knock down of aldolase A or application of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (a non-specific inhibitor of glucose uptake and glycolysis), but not by knock down of aldolase B. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Insulin enhanced MG overproduction in insulin-sensitive adipocytes by up-regulating aldolase A, a mechanism that could be involved in the development of insulin resistance and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghai Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Aydin E, Karabacak E, Ozcan O, Dinc M. Comment on "Serum methylglyoxal level and its association with oxidative stress and disease severity in patients with psoriasis". Arch Dermatol Res 2013; 305:671-2. [PMID: 23917642 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-013-1400-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
Methylglyoxal (MG) is a highly reactive compound derived mainly from glucose and fructose metabolism. This metabolite has been implicated in diabetic complications as it is a strong AGE precursor. Furthermore, recent studies suggested a role for MG in insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. Although several drugs have been developed in the recent years to scavenge MG and inhibit AGE formation, we are still far from having an effective strategy to prevent MG-induced mechanisms. This review summarizes the mechanisms of MG formation, detoxification, and action. Furthermore, we review the current knowledge about its implication on the pathophysiology and complications of obesity and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Matafome
- Laboratory of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Research on Light and Image (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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43
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Papetti A, Mascherpa D, Marrubini G, Gazzani G. Effect of in vitro digestion on free α-dicarbonyl compounds in balsamic vinegars. J Food Sci 2013; 78:C514-9. [PMID: 23464604 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.12062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the influence of an in vitro simulated digestion process on the content of the free α-dicarbonyl compounds most frequently found in food. A Glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), and diacetyl (DA) aqueous standard mixture and 2 brands of balsamic vinegar were analyzed before and after exposure to digestive enzymes. A strong matrix effect required adoption of validated RP-HPLC-DAD standard addition methods. The results showed that the digestive enzymes markedly alter the concentrations of the exogenous free α-dicarbonyl compounds ingested with food; the extent of such changes varied with the α-dicarbonyl compound itself and the diet components, which determined important but different food matrix effects also during digestion. The data also indicate that digestion can reduce the bioavailability of the toxic α-dicarbonyl compounds ingested with food. However, no firm conclusions can be drawn about a putative positive influence of digestion on the toxic potential of dietary α-dicarbonyl compounds, because their reaction in the presence of digestive enzymes likely gives rise to advanced glycation end products, which are involved in the development of chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adele Papetti
- Department of Drug Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
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Hipkiss AR, Cartwright SP, Bromley C, Gross SR, Bill RM. Carnosine: can understanding its actions on energy metabolism and protein homeostasis inform its therapeutic potential? Chem Cent J 2013; 7:38. [PMID: 23442334 PMCID: PMC3602167 DOI: 10.1186/1752-153x-7-38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The dipeptide carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) has contrasting but beneficial effects on cellular activity. It delays cellular senescence and rejuvenates cultured senescent mammalian cells. However, it also inhibits the growth of cultured tumour cells. Based on studies in several organisms, we speculate that carnosine exerts these apparently opposing actions by affecting energy metabolism and/or protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Specific effects on energy metabolism include the dipeptide's influence on cellular ATP concentrations. Carnosine's ability to reduce the formation of altered proteins (typically adducts of methylglyoxal) and enhance proteolysis of aberrant polypeptides is indicative of its influence on proteostasis. Furthermore these dual actions might provide a rationale for the use of carnosine in the treatment or prevention of diverse age-related conditions where energy metabolism or proteostasis are compromised. These include cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and the complications of type-2 diabetes (nephropathy, cataracts, stroke and pain), which might all benefit from knowledge of carnosine's mode of action on human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan R Hipkiss
- Aston Research Centre for Healthy Ageing, School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK.
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Pyla R, Poulose N, Jun JY, Segar L. Expression of conventional and novel glucose transporters, GLUT1, -9, -10, and -12, in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2013; 304:C574-89. [PMID: 23302780 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00275.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Intimal hyperplasia is characterized by exaggerated proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Enhanced VSMC growth is dependent on increased glucose uptake and metabolism. Facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) are comprised of conventional GLUT isoforms (GLUT1-5) and novel GLUT isoforms (GLUT6-14). Previous studies demonstrate that GLUT1 overexpression or GLUT10 downregulation contribute to phenotypic changes in VSMCs. To date, the expression profile of all 14 GLUT isoforms has not been fully examined in VSMCs. Using the proliferative and differentiated phenotypes of human aortic VSMCs, the present study has determined the relative abundance of GLUT1-14 mRNAs by quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Twelve GLUT mRNAs excluding GLUT7 and GLUT14 were detectable in VSMCs. In the proliferative phenotype, the relative abundance of key GLUT mRNAs was GLUT1 (∼43%)>GLUT10 (∼26%)>GLUT9 (∼13%)>GLUT12 (∼4%), whereas in the differentiated phenotype the relative abundance was GLUT10 (∼28%)>GLUT1 (∼25%)>GLUT12 (∼20%)>GLUT9 (∼14%), together constituting 86-87% of total GLUT transcripts. To confirm the expression of key GLUT proteins, immunoblot and immunocytochemical analyses were performed using GLUT isoform-specific primary antibodies. The protein bands characteristic of GLUT1, -9, -10, and -12 were detected in VSMCs in parallel with respective positive controls. In particular, GLUT1 protein expression showed different molecular forms representative of altered glycosylation. While GLUT1 protein displayed a predominant distribution in the plasma membrane, GLUT9, -10, and -12 proteins were mostly distributed in the intracellular compartments. The present study provides the first direct evidence for GLUT9 and GLUT12 expression in VSMCs in conjunction with the previously identified GLUT1 and GLUT10.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajkumar Pyla
- Program in Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Georgia College of Pharmacy, Augusta, GA 30912-2450, USA
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FOXO1-mediated upregulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase-4 (PDK4) decreases glucose oxidation and impairs right ventricular function in pulmonary hypertension: therapeutic benefits of dichloroacetate. J Mol Med (Berl) 2012; 91:333-46. [PMID: 23247844 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-012-0982-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) is activated in right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), causing an increase in glycolysis relative to glucose oxidation that impairs right ventricular function. The stimulus for PDK upregulation, its isoform specificity, and the long-term effects of PDK inhibition are unknown. We hypothesize that FOXO1-mediated PDK4 upregulation causes bioenergetic impairment and RV dysfunction, which can be reversed by dichloroacetate. Adult male Fawn-Hooded rats (FHR) with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) and right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH; age 6-12 months) were compared to age-matched controls. Glucose oxidation (GO) and fatty acid oxidation (FAO) were measured at baseline and after acute dichloroacetate (1 mM × 40 min) in isolated working hearts and in freshly dispersed RV myocytes. The effects of chronic dichloroacetate (0.75 g/L drinking water for 6 months) on cardiac output (CO) and exercise capacity were measured in vivo. Expression of PDK4 and its regulatory transcription factor, FOXO1, were also measured in FHR and RV specimens from PAH patients (n = 10). Microarray analysis of 168 genes related to glucose or FA metabolism showed >4-fold upregulation of PDK4, aldolase B, and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase. FOXO1 was increased in FHR RV, whereas HIF-1 α was unaltered. PDK4 expression was increased, and the inactivated form of FOXO1 decreased in human PAH RV (P < 0.01). Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) inhibition in RVH increased proton production and reduced GO's contribution to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Acutely, dichloroacetate reduced RV proton production and increased GO's contribution (relative to FAO) to the TCA cycle and ATP production in FHR (P < 0.01). Chronically dichloroacetate decreased PDK4 and FOXO1, thereby activating PDH and increasing GO in FHR. These metabolic changes increased CO (84 ± 14 vs. 69 ± 14 ml/min, P < 0.05) and treadmill-walking distance (239 ± 20 vs. 171 ± 22 m, P < 0.05). Chronic dichloroacetate inhibits FOXO1-induced PDK4 upregulation and restores GO, leading to improved bioenergetics and RV function in RVH.
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Su Y, Lei X, Wu L, Liu L. The role of endothelial cell adhesion molecules P-selectin, E-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in leucocyte recruitment induced by exogenous methylglyoxal. Immunology 2012; 137:65-79. [PMID: 22681228 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2012.03608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylglyoxal (MG) is a reactive dicarbonyl metabolite formed during glucose, protein and fatty acid metabolism. In hyperglycaemic conditions, increased MG level has been linked to the development of diabetes and its vascular complications at the macrovascular and microvascular levels where inflammation plays a role. To study the mechanism of MG-induced inflammation in vivo, we applied MG locally to healthy mice and used intravital microscopy to investigate the role of endothelial cell adhesion molecules in MG-induced leucocyte recruitment in cremasteric microvasculature. Administration of MG (25 and 50 mg/kg) to the tissue dose-dependently induced leucocyte recruitment at 4.0-5.5 hr, with 84-92% recruited cells being neutrophils. Such MG treatment up-regulated the expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules P-selectin, E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, but not vascular cell adhesion molecule-1. Activation of the nuclear factor-κB signalling pathway contributed to MG-induced up-regulation of these adhesion molecules and leucocyte recruitment. The role of the up-regulated endothelial cell adhesion molecules in MG-induced leucocyte recruitment was determined by applying specific functional blocking antibodies to MG-treated animals and observing changes in leucocyte recruitment parameters. Our data demonstrate that the up-regulation of P-selectin, E-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 contributes to the increased leucocyte rolling flux, reduced leucocyte rolling velocity, and increased leucocyte adhesion, respectively. Our results reveal the role of endothelial cell adhesion molecules in MG-induced leucocyte recruitment in microvasculature, an inflammatory condition related to diabetic vascular complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Su
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Hipkiss AR. Can the beneficial effects of methionine restriction in rats be explained in part by decreased methylglyoxal generation resulting from suppressed carbohydrate metabolism? Biogerontology 2012; 13:633-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s10522-012-9401-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Mukohda M, Okada M, Hara Y, Yamawaki H. Methylglyoxal accumulation in arterial walls causes vascular contractile dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Pharmacol Sci 2012; 120:26-35. [PMID: 22971844 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.12088fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylglyoxal (MGO) is a metabolite of glucose and perhaps mediates diabetes-related macrovascular complications including hypertension. In the present study, we examined if MGO accumulation affects vascular reactivity of isolated mesenteric artery from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Five-week-old SHR were treated with an MGO scavenger, aminoguanidine (AG), for 5 weeks. AG partially normalized increased blood pressure in SHR. In mesenteric artery from SHR treated with AG, increased accumulation of MGO-derived advanced glycation end-products was reversed. In mesenteric artery from SHR, AG normalized impaired acetylcholine (ACh)-induced relaxation and increased angiotensin (Ang) II-induced contraction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production increased in SHR mesenteric artery, and acute treatment with a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) inhibitor augmented ACh-induced relaxation. Protein expression of NOX1 and Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) increased in SHR mesenteric artery, which was normalized by AG. Acute treatment with an AT2R blocker but not a NOX inhibitor normalized the increased Ang II-induced contraction in SHR mesenteric artery. The present results demonstrate that MGO accumulation in mesenteric artery may mediate development of hypertension in SHR at least in part via increased ROS-mediated impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation and AT2R-mediated increased Ang II contraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Mukohda
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Aomori 034-8628, Japan
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Liu J, Mak TCP, Banigesh A, Desai K, Wang R, Wu L. Aldolase B knockdown prevents high glucose-induced methylglyoxal overproduction and cellular dysfunction in endothelial cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41495. [PMID: 22911800 PMCID: PMC3404030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
We used cultured endothelial cells as a model to examine whether up-regulation of aldolase B and enhanced methylglyoxal (MG) formation play an important role in high glucose-induced overproduction of advanced glycosylation endproducts (AGEs), oxidative stress and cellular dysfunction. High glucose (25 mM) incubation up-regulated mRNA levels of aldose reductase (an enzyme converting glucose to fructose) and aldolase B (a key enzyme that catalyzes MG formation from fructose) and enhanced MG formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and HUVEC-derived EA. hy926 cells. High glucose-increased MG production in EA. hy926 cells was completely prevented by siRNA knockdown of aldolase B, but unaffected by siRNA knockdown of aldolase A, an enzyme responsible for MG formation during glycolysis. In addition, inhibition of cytochrome P450 2E1 or semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase which produces MG during the metabolism of lipid and proteins, respectively, did not alter MG production. Both high glucose (25 mM) and MG (30, 100 µM) increased the formation of N(ε)-carboxyethyl-lysine (CEL, a MG-induced AGE), oxidative stress (determined by the generation of oxidized DCF, H2O2, protein carbonyls and 8-oxo-dG), O-GlcNAc modification (product of the hexosamine pathway), membrane protein kinase C activity and nuclear translocation of NF-κB in EA. hy926 cells. However, the above metabolic and signaling alterations induced by high glucose were completely prevented by knockdown of aldolase B and partially by application of aminoguanidine (a MG scavenger) or alagebrium (an AGEs breaker). In conclusion, efficient inhibition of aldolase B can prevent high glucose-induced overproduction of MG and related cellular dysfunction in endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianghai Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Timothy Chun-Ping Mak
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Ali Banigesh
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Kaushik Desai
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Biology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lingyun Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- Department of Health Sciences, Lakehead University and Thunder Bay Regional Research Institute, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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