Effect of opioid receptor antagonist on mitigating tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK)-induced apoptolysis in pemphigus pathogenesis

Pemphigus is a severe autoimmune blistering disease characterized by acantholysis triggered by autoantibodies against desmoglein 1 and 3 (DSG1/3). Apoptosis plays a pivotal role in facilitating acantholysis, yet the precise underlying mechanism remains obscure. Tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) is known to promote apoptosis and disrupt cell junctions, although its involvement in pemphigus pathogenesis remains ambiguous. Our study observed decreased DSG1/3 expression alongside increased TWEAK/fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14) expression and keratinocyte apoptosis in both lesional and perilesional skin. In vitro experiments revealed that TWEAK-stimulated keratinocytes exhibited enhanced apoptosis, STAT1 phosphorylation, and reduced intercellular DSG1/3 expression. Notably, bulk-RNA sequencing unveiled that CASPASE-3 was responsible for mediating the DSG1/3 depletion, as confirmed by direct interaction with DSG1/3 in a co-immunoprecipitation assay. Naloxone, known for preserving cellular adhesion and preventing cell death, effectively reduced apoptosis and restored DSG1/3 levels in TWEAK-stimulated keratinocytes. The anti-apoptotic properties of naloxone were further validated in a murine pemphigus model. Our findings elucidate that TWEAK facilitates keratinocyte apoptosis by augmenting caspase-3 activity, leading to DSG1/3 depletion and apoptosis in pemphigus. Importantly, naloxone can counter TWEAK-induced apoptosis in pemphigus pathogenesis, offering a potential therapeutic intervention.

Systematic Mendelian Randomization Exploring Druggable Genes for Hemorrhagic Strokes

Patients with hemorrhagic stroke have high rates of morbidity and mortality, and drugs for prevention are very limited. Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis can increase the success rate of drug development by providing genetic evidence. Previous MR analyses only analyzed the role of individual drug target genes in hemorrhagic stroke; therefore, we used MR analysis to systematically explore the druggable genes for hemorrhagic stroke. We sequentially performed summary-data-based MR analysis and two-sample MR analysis to assess the associations of all genes within the database with intracranial aneurysm, intracerebral hemorrhage, and their subtypes. Validated genes were further analyzed by colocalization. Only genes that were positive in all three analyses and were druggable were considered desirable genes. We also explored the mediators of genes affecting hemorrhagic stroke incidence. Finally, the associations of druggable genes with other cardiovascular diseases were analyzed to assess potential side effects. We identified 56 genes that significantly affected hemorrhagic stroke incidence. Moreover, TNFSF12, SLC22A4, SPARC, KL, RELT, and ADORA3 were found to be druggable. The inhibition of TNFSF12, SLC22A4, and SPARC can reduce the risk of intracranial aneurysm, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and intracerebral hemorrhage. Gene-induced hypertension may be a potential mechanism by which these genes cause hemorrhagic stroke. We also found that blocking these genes may cause side effects, such as ischemic stroke and its subtypes. Our study revealed that six druggable genes were associated with hemorrhagic stroke, and the inhibition of TNFSF12, SLC22A4, and SPARC had preventive effects against hemorrhagic strokes.

Research progress on the role of ET-1 in diabetic kidney disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the common complications of diabetes mellitus, which usually progresses to end-stage renal disease and causes great damage to the health of patients. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a molecule closely associated with the progression of DKD, has increased expression in response to high glucose stimulation and is involved in hemodynamic changes, inflammation, glomerular and tubular dysfunction in the kidney, causing an increase in proteinuria and a decrease in glomerular filtration function, ultimately leading to glomerulosclerosis and renal failure. This paper aims to review the molecular level changes, regulatory mechanisms, and mechanisms of action of ET-1 under DKD, clinical trials of ET-1 receptor antagonists in recent years and current problems, to provide basic information and new research directions and ideas for the treatment of DKD and ET-1-related research.

Low sCD163/TWEAK Ratio at First Day After Acute Myocardial Infarction Associated with Adverse Cardiac Remodeling in Non-Elderly Patients

Aim    In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of sCD163 / tumor necrosis factor-like weak apoptosis-inducing (TWEAK) ratio in cardiac remodeling in non-elderly patients diagnosed with first acute myocardial infarction (MI).Material and Methods    Forty-four patients (age ranges: 40–64 years) diagnosed with first-time acute ST-elevation MI in the emergency department were evaluated with cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging. Adverse remodeling (AR) was defined the increases of left ventricular end-diastolic volume by ≥12 % by CMR at 6‑month post-MI TWEAK and sCD163 were measured at the first day (baseline), 2 weeks and 6 weeks post-MI.Results    The average age of patients included in the study was 53.6±5.1 years. AR was detected in 18 patients at the 6 months post-MI. At the first day post-MI, median sCD163 concentration (116 069 vs 86 394 pg / mL, p=0.040) and median TWEAK concentration (759.4 vs 220.1 pg / mL, p<0.001) were higher in AR group compared to group without AR (the non-AR group), median sCD163 / TWEAK ratio (101.4 vs. 406.8; p<0.001) was lower. At the first day post-MI, concentrations of TWEAK and sCD163 showed a positive correlation in AR group and group without AR s. At 2 weeks post-MI, positive correlation continued in the non-AR group, but no significant correlation was found in the AR group. At the first day post-MI, sCD163 / TWEAK ratio was higher diagnostic performance compared to TWEAK and sCD163.Conclusion    In the early phase post-MI, the relationship between sCD163 – TWEAK may have an important role in AR pathogenesis. A lower sCD163 / TWEAK ratio on the first day after MI was associated with an increase in left ventricular end-diastolic volume after 6 months of follow-up.

Endothelin-1 as a Mediator of Heme Oxygenase-1-Induced Stemness in Colorectal Cancer: Influence of p53

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an antioxidant protein implicated in tumor progression, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Elevated HO-1 expression is associated with stemness in several types of cancer, although this aspect has not yet been studied in colorectal cancer (CRC). Using an in vitro model, we demonstrated that HO-1 overexpression regulates stemness and resistance to 5-FU treatment, regardless of p53. In samples from CRC patients, HO-1 and endothelin converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) expression correlated significantly, and p53 had no influence on this result. Carbon monoxide (CO) activated the ECE-1/endothelin-1 (ET-1) pathway, which could account for the protumoral effects of HO-1 in p53 wild-type cells, as demonstrated after treatment with bosentan (an antagonist of both ETRA and ETRB endothelin-1 receptors). Surprisingly, in cells with a non-active p53 or a mutated p53 with gain-of-function, ECE-1-produced ET-1 acted as a protective molecule, since treatment with bosentan led to increased efficiency for spheres formation and percentage of cancer stem cells (CSCs) markers. In these cells, HO-1 could activate or inactivate certain unknown routes that could induce these contrary responses after treatment with bosentan in our cell model. However more research is warranted to confirm these results. Patients carrying tumors with a high expression of both HO-1 and ECE-1 and a non-wild-type p53 should be considered for HO-1 based-therapies instead of ET-1 antagonists-based ones.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha expression is increased in maternal microvascular endothelial cells in preeclampsia

Objective: The aim of this study was to explore the expression and effects of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) in maternal endothelial cells in preeclampsia (PE).Methods: Expression levels in primary microvascular endothelial cells (MVEC) isolated from patients with severe preeclampsia (PE) and normal pregnancies were determined by RT-qPCR with or without treatment of TNFα and inhibitors for downstream signaling.Results: PE MVEC exhibited increased basal TNFα expression. TNFα treatment increased TNFα, VCAM, and endocan expression in MVEC.Conclusion: TNFα expression is increased in PE MVEC and the treatment of these cells with exogenous TNFα modifies their gene expression.

Anti-TWEAK Antibody Alleviates Renal Interstitial Fibrosis by Increasing PGC-1α Expression in Lupus Nephritis

Purpose

Current studies on the mechanism of tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) in lupus nephritis (LN) mainly focus on the inflammatory pathway. Herein, we aimed to determine whether TWEAK could promote the progression of renal interstitial fibrosis by regulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression and intervening in lipid metabolism in LN.

Materials and Methods

MRL/lpr mice, an animal model of lupus, were treated with the anti-TWEAK antibody or co-treated with adeno-associated virus-mediated PGC-1α short hairpin RNA (shRNA). In addition, human proximal tubular epithelial cells (HK2 cells) were treated with recombinant human TWEAK (rhTWEAK) or ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) in vitro.

Results

The renal contents of free fatty acids and triglycerides were higher in MRL/lpr mice than in MRL/MpJ mice; however, these contents were decreased by treatment with the anti-TWEAK antibody. Based on immunofluorescence staining, the expression of PGC-1α was markedly more in the renal tubules of MRL/MpJ mice than in the glomeruli. However, treatment with anti-TWEAK antibody increased the levels of PGC-1α and its downstream target genes, which were remarkably lower in MRL/lpr mice than in MRL/MpJ mice. Anti-TWEAK antibody effectively eased renal interstitial fibrosis, which manifested as a decrease in the deposition of collagen fibers and the inhibition of type I collagen and fibronectin expression. However, the therapeutic effects of the anti-TWEAK antibody were abolished by PGC-1α shRNA. Treatment with rhTWEAK decreased PGC-1α expression in both dose- and time-dependent manners in HK2 cells in vitro. PDTC, an inhibitor of IκBα phosphorylation, suppressed the decrease in the PGC-1α protein level induced by rhTWEAK treatment.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that TWEAK prevents renal tubular PGC-1α expression by promoting NF-κB activation, resulting in a deficiency in lipid metabolism and the progress of renal interstitial fibrosis. The upregulation of renal tubular PGC-1α expression to improve lipid metabolism is one of the mechanisms employed by the anti-TWEAK antibody to treat renal interstitial fibrosis.

TWEAK/Fn14 axis in respiratory diseases

Tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) is a well known multifunctional cytokine extensively distributed in cell types and tissues. Accumulating evidence has shown that TWEAK binding to the receptor factor-inducible 14 (Fn14) participates in diverse pathologic processes including cell proliferation and death, angiogenesis, carcinogenesis and inflammation. Interestingly, alterations of intracellular signaling cascades are correlated to the development of respiratory disease. Recently, a several lines of evidence suggests that TWEAK in lung tissues are closely associated with these signaling pathways. In this review, we explore if TWEAK could provide a novel therapeutic strategy for managing respiratory disease in general and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS), asthma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), specifically.

MAP3K kinases and kidney injury

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) are functionally connected kinases that regulate key cellular process involved in kidney disease such as all survival, death, differentiation and proliferation. The typical MAP kinase module is composed by a cascade of three kinases: a MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K) that phosphorylates and activates a MAP kinase kinase (MAP2K) which phosphorylates a MAP kinase (MAPK). While the role of MAPKs such as ERK, p38 and JNK has been well characterized in experimental kidney injury, much less is known about the apical kinases in the cascade, the MAP3Ks. There are 24 characterized MAP3K (MAP3K1 to MAP3K21 plus RAF1, BRAF and ARAF). We now review current knowledge on the involvement of MAP3K in non-malignant kidney disease and the therapeutic tools available. There is in vivo interventional evidence clearly supporting a role for MAP3K5 (ASK1) and MAP3K14 (NIK) in the pathogenesis of experimental kidney disease. Indeed, the ASK1 inhibitor Selonsertib has undergone clinical trials for diabetic kidney disease. Additionally, although MAP3K7 (MEKK7, TAK1) is required for kidney development, acutely targeting MAP3K7 protected from acute and chronic kidney injury; and targeting MAP3K8 (TPL2/Cot) protected from acute kidney injury. By contrast MAP3K15 (ASK3) may protect from hypertension and BRAF inhibitors in clinical use may induced acute kidney injury and nephrotic syndrome. Given their role as upstream regulators of intracellular signaling, MAP3K are potential therapeutic targets in kidney injury, as demonstrated for some of them. However, the role of most MAP3K in kidney disease remains unexplored.

TRAIL, OPG, and TWEAK in kidney disease: biomarkers or therapeutic targets?

Ligands and receptors of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily regulate immune responses and homeostatic functions with potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Kidney disease represents a global public health problem, whose prevalence is rising worldwide, due to the aging of the population and the increasing prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and immune disorders. In addition, chronic kidney disease is an independent risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease, which further increases kidney-related morbidity and mortality. Recently, it has been shown that some TNF superfamily members are actively implicated in renal pathophysiology. These members include TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), its decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG), and TNF-like weaker inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK). All of them have shown the ability to activate crucial pathways involved in kidney disease development and progression (e.g. canonical and non-canonical pathways of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B), as well as the ability to regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, necrosis, inflammation, angiogenesis, and fibrosis with double-edged effects depending on the type and stage of kidney injury. Here we will review the actions of TRAIL, OPG, and TWEAK on diabetic and non-diabetic kidney disease, in order to provide insights into their full clinical potential as biomarkers and/or therapeutic options against kidney disease.

Decrease in inflammatory biomarker concentration by intervention with selenium and coenzyme Q10: a subanalysis of osteopontin, osteoprotergerin, TNFr1, TNFr2 and TWEAK

Background

Inflammation is central to the pathogenesis of many diseases. Supplementation with selenium and coenzyme Q10 has been shown to reduce cardiovascular mortality, and increase cardiac function in elderly persons with a low intake of selenium. There are indications that one of the mechanisms of this positive effect is a decrease in inflammation.

Methods

Osteopontin, osteoprotegerin, sTNF receptor 1, sTNF receptor 2 and the tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis called TWEAK, were determined in plasma after 6 months and 42 months in 219 community-living elderly persons, of whom 119 received supplements of selenium (200 μg/day) and coenzyme Q10 (200 mg/day), and 101 received a placebo. Repeated measures of variance were used to evaluate the levels, and the results were validated through ANCOVA analyses with adjustments for important covariates.

Results

Significantly lower concentrations of four of the five biomarkers for inflammation were observed as a result of the intervention with the supplements. Only TWEAK did not show significant differences.

Conclusion

In this sub-analysis of the intervention with selenium and coenzyme Q10 or placebo in an elderly community-living population, biomarkers for inflammation were evaluated. A significantly lower concentration in four of the five biomarkers tested could be demonstrated as a result of the supplementation, indicating a robust effect on the inflammatory system. The decrease in inflammation could be one of the mechanisms behind the positive clinical results on reduced cardiovascular morbidity and mortality reported earlier as a result of the intervention. The study is small and should be regarded as hypothesis-generating, but nonetheless adds important data about mechanisms presently known to increase the risk of clinical effects such as reduced cardiovascular mortality, increased cardiac function and better health-related quality of life scoring, as previously demonstrated in the active treatment group .

Trial registration

The intervention study was registered at Clinicaltrials.gov, and has the identifier NCT01443780 and registered on 09/30/2011.

TSC1 deletion in fibroblasts alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute kidney injury

Mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling is active in inflammation, but its involvement in septic acute kidney injury (AKI) has not been shown. mTORC1 activation (p-S6) in renal fibroblasts was increased in a mouse AKI model induced by 1.5 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Deletion of tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (TSC1), an mTORC1 negative regulator, in fibroblasts (Fibro-TSC1^-/-) inhibited the elevation of serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen in AKI compared with that in TSC1^fl/fl control mice. Endothelin-1 (EDN1) and phospho-Jun-amino-terminal kinase (p-JNK) were up-regulated in Fibro-TSC1^-/- renal fibroblasts after LPS challenge. Rapamycin, an mTORC1 inhibitor, and bosentan, an EDN1 antagonist, eliminated the difference in renal function between TSC1^fl/fl and Fibro-TSC1^-/- mice after LPS injection. Rapamycin restored LPS-induced up-regulation of EDN1, endothelin converting enzyme-1 (ECE1), and p-JNK in TSC1-knockdown mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). SP600125, a Jun-amino-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor, attenuated LPS-induced enhancement of EDN1 and ECE1 in TSC1-knockdown MEFs without a change in phospho-S6 ribosomal protein (p-S6) level. The results indicate that mTORC1-JNK-dependent up-regulation of ECE1 elevated EDN1 in TSC1-knockout renal fibroblasts and contributed to improvement of renal function in Fibro-TSC1^-/- mice with LPS-induced AKI. Renal fibroblast mTORC1 plays an important role in septic AKI.

Hypertension: Focus on autoimmunity and oxidative stress

Understanding the causal role of the immune and inflammatory responses in hypertension has led to questions regarding the links between hypertension and autoimmunity. Immune pathology in primary hypertension mimics several autoimmune mechanisms observed in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and periodontitis. More importantly, the prevalence of hypertension in patients with these autoimmune diseases is significantly increased, when compared to control populations. Clinical and epidemiological evidence is reviewed along with possible mechanisms linking hypertension and autoimmunity. Inflammation and oxidative stress are linked in a self-perpetuating cycle that significantly contributes to the vascular dysfunction and renal damage associated with hypertension. T cell, B cell, macrophage and NK cell infiltration into these organs is essential for this pathology. Effector cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-17 affect Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers in the kidney. In blood vessels, they lead to endothelial dysfunction and loss of nitric oxide bioavailability and cause vasoconstriction. Both renal and vascular effects are, in part, mediated through induction of reactive oxygen species-producing enzymes such as superoxide anion generating NADPH oxidases and dysfunction of anti-oxidant systems. These mechanisms have recently become important therapeutic targets of novel therapies focused on scavenging oxidative (isolevuglandin) modification of neo-antigenic peptides. Effects of classical immune targeted therapies focused on immunosuppression and anti-cytokine treatments are also reviewed.

Attenuation of the degenerative effects of endothelin-1 on cartilaginous end plate cells by the endothelin receptor antagonist BQ-123 via the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is an inflammatory mediator associated with cartilage end plate (CEP) degeneration in the intervertebral disc (IVD). SOX9 is downregulated during CEP degeneration, along with its targets, collagen II and aggrecan. Wnt/β-catenin signaling is associated with CEP degeneration and a downstream target of SOX9; however, the precise mechanism of CEP degeneration and the role of ET-1 are largely unknown.

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the influence of the endothelin-A receptor antagonist, BQ-123, on ET-1-induced effects on cartilaginous end plate cells (CECs) associated with CEP degeneration via the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.

STUDY DESIGN/SETTING

The influence of ET-1 on the expression levels of collagen II, aggrecan, and SOX9 in CECs and the effect of BQ-123 in this context were investigated.

METHODS

To establish a model for CEP degeneration, three lumbar discs (L3-L4, L4-L5, and L5-L6 levels) in New Zealand white rabbits were punctured close to the vertebral end plate using a 14G needle. Intervertebral disc degeneration was evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging 4 weeks after vertebral end plate injury. CECs were then isolated from the degenerated CEPs to allow evaluation of the role of ET-1 and BQ-123 and to investigate their effects on the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. The expression of ET-1 in CECs from degenerated CEPs was analyzed by immunofluorescent staining. Changes in the levels of collagen II, aggrecan, and SOX9 were evaluated in CECs by real-time polymerase chain reaction and by Western blotting. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was also investigated by Western blotting.

RESULTS

After 4 weeks, IVDs with vertebral end plate injury exhibited clear signs of disc degeneration. Immunofluorescent staining showed that ET-1 was expressed in the cytoplasm of CECs. Endothelin-1 stimulation significantly inhibited the expression of collagen II, aggrecan, and SOX9 in CECs, whereas BQ-123 increased the levels of these three molecules. In addition, ET-1 stimulation increased the expression of β-catenin, cyclin D1, and Dvl1 in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway of CECs from degenerated discs and reduced the expression of GSK-3β, whereas BQ-123 had the opposite effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Endothelin-1 can reduce levels of collagen II, aggrecan, and SOX9 in CECs through activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, whereas BQ-123 attenuates these negative effects, highlighting a new molecular mechanism with potential for exploitation for treatment of CEP degeneration.

TRAF3IP2 mediates TWEAK/TWEAKR-induced pro-fibrotic responses in cultured cardiac fibroblasts and the heart

Persistent inflammation promotes development and progression of heart failure (HF). TWEAK (TNF-Related WEAK Inducer Of Apoptosis), a NF-κB- and/or AP-1-responsive proinflammatory cytokine that signals via TWEAK receptor (TWEAKR), is expressed at high levels in human and preclinical models of HF. Since the adapter molecule TRAF3IP2 (TRAF3 Interacting Protein 2) is an upstream regulator of various proinflammatory pathways, including those activated by NF-κB and AP-1, we hypothesized that targeting TRAF3IP2 inhibits TWEAK-induced proinflammatory and pro-fibrotic responses in vitro and in vivo. Consistent with the hypothesis, forced expression of TRAF3IP2 upregulated TWEAK and its receptor expression in cultured adult mouse cardiac fibroblasts (CF). Further, exogenous TWEAK upregulated TRAF3IP2 expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner, suggesting a positive-feedback regulation of TRAF3IP2 and TWEAK. TWEAK also promoted TRAF3IP2 nuclear translocation. Confirming its critical role in TWEAK signaling, silencing TRAF3IP2 inhibited TWEAK autoregulation, TWEAKR upregulation, p38 MAPK, NF-κB and AP-1 activation, inflammatory cytokine expression, MMP and TIMP1 activation, collagen expression and secretion, and importantly, proliferation and migration. Recapitulating these in vitro results, continuous infusion of TWEAK for 7 days increased systolic blood pressure (SBP), upregulated TRAF3IP2 expression, activated p38 MAPK, NF-κB and AP-1, induced the expression of multiple proinflammatory and pro-fibrotic mediators, and interstitial fibrosis in hearts of wild type mice. These proinflammatory and pro-fibrotic changes occurred in conjunction with myocardial hypertrophy and contractile dysfunction. Importantly, genetic ablation of TRAF3IP2 inhibited these TWEAK-induced adverse cardiac changes independent of increases in SBP, indicating that TRAF3IP2 plays a causal role, and thus a therapeutic target, in chronic inflammatory and fibro-proliferative diseases.

IRE1α Implications in Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Development and Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Diseases

Inositol-requiring transmembrane kinase/endoribonuclease 1α (IRE1α) is the most prominent and evolutionarily conserved endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein. This transduces the signal of misfolded protein accumulation in the ER, named as ER stress, to the nucleus as “unfolded protein response (UPR).” The ER stress-mediated IRE1α signaling pathway arbitrates the yin and yang of cell life. IRE1α has been implicated in several physiological as well as pathological conditions, including immune disorders. Autoimmune diseases are caused by abnormal immune responses that develop due to genetic mutations and several environmental factors, including infections and chemicals. These factors dysregulate the cell immune reactions, such as cytokine secretion, antigen presentation, and autoantigen generation. However, the mechanisms involved, in which these factors induce the onset of autoimmune diseases, are remaining unknown. Considering that these environmental factors also induce the UPR, which is expected to have significant role in secretory cells and immune cells. The role of the major UPR molecule, IRE1α, in causing immune responses is well identified, but its role in inducing autoimmunity and the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases has not been clearly elucidated. Hence, a better understanding of the role of IRE1α and its regulatory mechanisms in causing autoimmune diseases could help to identify and develop the appropriate therapeutic strategies. In this review, we mainly center the discussion on the molecular mechanisms of IRE1α in the pathophysiology of autoimmune diseases.

TRAF3IP2 mediates high glucose-induced endothelin-1 production as well as endothelin-1-induced inflammation in endothelial cells

Hyperglycemia-induced production of endothelin (ET)-1 is a hallmark of endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. Although the detrimental vascular effects of increased ET-1 are well known, the molecular mechanisms regulating endothelial synthesis of ET-1 in the setting of diabetes remain largely unidentified. Here, we show that adapter molecule TRAF3 interacting protein 2 (TRAF3IP2) mediates high glucose-induced ET-1 production in endothelial cells and ET-1-mediated endothelial cell inflammation. Specifically, we found that high glucose upregulated TRAF3IP2 in human aortic endothelial cells, which subsequently led to activation of JNK and IKKβ. shRNA-mediated silencing of TRAF3IP2, JNK1, or IKKβ abrogated high-glucose-induced ET-converting enzyme 1 expression and ET-1 production. Likewise, overexpression of TRAF3IP2, in the absence of high glucose, led to activation of JNK and IKKβ as well as increased ET-1 production. Furthermore, ET-1 transcriptionally upregulated TRAF3IP2, and this upregulation was prevented by pharmacological inhibition of ET-1 receptor B using BQ-788, or inhibition of NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species using gp91ds-tat and GKT137831. Notably, we found that knockdown of TRAF3IP2 abolished ET-1-induced proinflammatory and adhesion molecule (IL-1β, TNF-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin) expression and monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells. Finally, we report that TRAF3IP2 is upregulated and colocalized with CD31, an endothelial marker, in the aorta of diabetic mice. Collectively, findings from the present study identify endothelial TRAF3IP2 as a potential new therapeutic target to suppress ET-1 production and associated vascular complications in diabetes. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study provides the first evidence that the adapter molecule TRAF3 interacting protein 2 mediates high glucose-induced production of endothelin-1 by endothelial cells as well as endothelin-1-mediated endothelial cell inflammation. The findings presented herein suggest that TRAF3 interacting protein 2 may be an important therapeutic target in diabetic vasculopathy characterized by excess endothelin-1 production.

Hyperphosphatemia induces senescence in human endothelial cells by increasing endothelin-1 production

Hyperphosphatemia is related to some pathologies, affecting vascular cell behavior. This work analyzes whether high concentration of extracellular phosphate induces endothelial senescence through up‐regulation of endothelin‐1 (ET‐1), exploring the mechanisms involved. The phosphate donor β‐glycerophosphate (BGP) in human endothelial cells increased ET‐1 production, endothelin‐converting enzyme‐1 (ECE‐1) protein, and mRNA expression, which depend on the AP‐1 activation through ROS production. In parallel, BGP also induced endothelial senescence by increasing p16 expression and the senescence‐associated β‐galactosidase (SA‐ß‐GAL) activity. ET‐1 itself was able to induce endothelial senescence, increasing p16 expression and SA‐ß‐GAL activity. In addition, senescence induced by BGP was blocked when different ET‐1 system antagonists were used. BGP increased ROS production at short times, and the presence of antioxidants prevented the effect of BGP on AP1 activation, ECE‐1 expression, and endothelial senescence. These findings were confirmed in vivo with two animal models in which phosphate serum levels were increased: seven/eight nephrectomized rats as chronic kidney disease models fed on a high phosphate diet and aged mice. Both models showed hyperphosphatemia, higher levels of ET‐1, and up‐regulation in aortic ECE‐1, suggesting a direct relationship between hyperphosphatemia and ET‐1. Present results point to a new and relevant role of hyperphosphatemia on the regulation of ET‐1 system and senescence induction at endothelial level, both in endothelial cells and aorta from two animal models. The mechanism involved showed a higher ROS production, which probably activates AP‐1 transcription factor and, as a result, ECE‐1 expression, increasing ET‐1 synthesis, which in consequence induces endothelial senescence.

Role of Perinatal Inflammation in Neonatal Arterial Ischemic Stroke

Based on the review of the literature, perinatal inflammation often induced by infection is the only consistent independent risk factor of neonatal arterial ischemic stroke (NAIS). Preclinical studies show that acute inflammatory processes take place in placenta, cerebral arterial wall of NAIS-susceptible arteries and neonatal brain. A top research priority in NAIS is to further characterize the nature and spatiotemporal features of the inflammatory processes involved in multiple levels of the pathophysiology of NAIS, to adequately design randomized control trials using targeted anti-inflammatory vasculo- and neuroprotective agents.