Interactions of ribosome nascent chain complexes of the chloroplast-encoded D1 thylakoid membrane protein with cpSRP54

Protein Targeting Into the Thylakoid Membrane Through Different Pathways

In higher plants, chloroplasts are essential semi-autonomous organelles with complex compartments. As part of these sub-organellar compartments, the sheet-like thylakoid membranes contain abundant light-absorbing chlorophylls bound to the light-harvesting proteins and to some of the reaction center proteins. About half of the thylakoid membrane proteins are encoded by nuclear genes and synthesized in the cytosol as precursors before being imported into the chloroplast. After translocation across the chloroplast envelope by the Toc/Tic system, these proteins are subsequently inserted into or translocated across the thylakoid membranes through distinct pathways. The other half of thylakoid proteins are encoded by the chloroplast genome, synthesized in the stroma and integrated into the thylakoid through a cotranslational process. Much progress has been made in identification and functional characterization of new factors involved in protein targeting into the thylakoids, and new insights into this process have been gained. In this review, we introduce the distinct transport systems mediating the translocation of substrate proteins from chloroplast stroma to the thylakoid membrane, and present the recent advances in the identification of novel components mediating these pathways. Finally, we raise some unanswered questions involved in the targeting of chloroplast proteins into the thylakoid membrane, along with perspectives for future research.

A homolog of GuidedEntry of Tail-anchored proteins3 functions in membrane-specific protein targeting in chloroplasts of Arabidopsis

The chloroplasts and mitochondria of photosynthetic eukaryotes contain proteins that are closely related to cytosolic Guided Entry of Tail-anchored proteins3 (Get3). Get3 is a targeting factor that efficiently escorts tail-anchored (TA) proteins to the ER. Because other components of the cytosolic-targeting pathway appear to be absent in organelles, previous investigators have asserted that organellar Get3 homologs are unlikely to act as targeting factors. However, we show here both that the Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplast homolog designated as GET3B is structurally similar to cytosolic Get3 proteins and that it selectively binds a thylakoid-localized TA protein. Based on genetic interactions between a get3b mutation and mutations affecting the chloroplast signal recognition particle-targeting pathway, as well as changes in the abundance of photosynthesis-related proteins in mutant plants, we propose that GET3B acts primarily to direct proteins to the thylakoids. Furthermore, through molecular complementation experiments, we show that function of GET3B depends on its ability to hydrolyze ATP, and this is consistent with action as a targeting factor. We propose that GET3B and related organellar Get3 homologs play a role that is analogous to that of cytosolic Get3 proteins, and that GET3B acts as a targeting factor in the chloroplast stroma to deliver TA proteins in a membrane-specific manner.

Functional studies of CpSRP54 in diatoms show that the mechanism of thylakoid protein insertion differs from that in plants and green algae

The chloroplast signal recognition particle 54 kDa (CpSRP54) protein is a member of the CpSRP pathway known to target proteins to thylakoid membranes in plants and green algae. Loss of CpSRP54 in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum lowers the accumulation of a selection of chloroplast-encoded subunits of photosynthetic complexes, indicating a role in the co-translational part of the CpSRP pathway. In contrast to plants and green algae, absence of CpSRP54 does not have a negative effect on the content of light-harvesting antenna complex proteins and pigments in P. tricornutum, indicating that the diatom CpSRP54 protein has not evolved to function in the post-translational part of the CpSRP pathway. Cpsrp54 KO mutants display altered photophysiological responses, with a stronger induction of photoprotective mechanisms and lower growth rates compared to wild type when exposed to increased light intensities. Nonetheless, their phenotype is relatively mild, thanks to the activation of mechanisms alleviating the loss of CpSRP54, involving upregulation of chaperones. We conclude that plants, green algae, and diatoms have evolved differences in the pathways for co-translational and post-translational insertion of proteins into the thylakoid membranes.

Protein Sorting within Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts have multiple suborganellar membranes. Correct and efficient translocation of chloroplast proteins from their site of synthesis into or across membranes to their functional compartments are fundamental processes. In recent years, several new components and regulatory mechanisms involved in chloroplast protein import and sorting have been explored. Moreover, the formation of liquid-liquid phase transition (LLPT) has been recently reported as a novel mechanism for regulating chloroplast protein sorting. Here, we overview the recent advances of both nuclear- and chloroplast-encoded protein trafficking to their final destination within chloroplasts, and discuss the novel components and regulatory mechanisms of intrachloroplast sorting. Furthermore, we propose that LLPT may be a universal and conserved mechanism for driving organelle protein trafficking and organelle biogenesis.

Chloroplast SRP54s are Essential for Chloroplast Development in Rice

BACKGROUND

The chloroplast signal recognition particle 54 (cpSRP54) is known for targeting the light-harvesting complex proteins to thylakoids and plays a critical role for chloroplast development in Arabidopsis, but little is known in rice. Here, we reported two homologous cpSRP54s that affect chloroplast development and plant survival in rice.

RESULTS

Two rice cpSRP54 homologues, OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b, were identified in present study. The defective OscpSRP54a (LOC_Os11g05552) was responsible for the pale green leaf phenotype of the viable pale green leaf 14 (pgl14) mutant. A single nucleotide substitution from G to A at the position 278, the first intron splicing site, was detected in LOC_Os11g05552 in pgl14. The wild type allele could rescue the mutant phenotype. Knockout lines of OscpSRP54b (LOC_Os11g05556) exhibited similar pale green phenotype to pgl14 with reduced chlorophyll contents and impaired chloroplast development, but showed apparently arrested-growth and died within 3 weeks. Both OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b were constitutively expressed mainly in shoots and leaves at the vegetative growth stage. Subcellular location indicated that both OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b were chloroplast-localized. Both OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b were able to interact with OscpSRP43, respectively. The transcript level of OscpSRP43 was significantly reduced while the transcript level of OscpSRP54b was apparently increased in pgl14. In contrast, the transcript levels of OscpSRP54a, OscpSRP43 and OscpSRP54b were all significantly decreased in OscpSRP54b knockout lines.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that both OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b were essential for normal chloroplast development by interacting with OscpSRP43 in rice. OscpSRP54a and OscpSRP54b might play distinct roles in transporting different chloroplast proteins into thylakoids through cpSRP-mediated pathway.

Co-Translational Protein Folding and Sorting in Chloroplasts

Cells depend on the continuous renewal of their proteome composition during the cell cycle and in order to replace aberrant proteins or to react to changing environmental conditions. In higher eukaryotes, protein synthesis is achieved by up to five million ribosomes per cell. With the fast kinetics of translation, the large number of newly made proteins generates a substantial burden for protein homeostasis and requires a highly orchestrated cascade of factors promoting folding, sorting and final maturation. Several of the involved factors directly bind to translating ribosomes for the early processing of emerging nascent polypeptides and the translocation of ribosome nascent chain complexes to target membranes. In plant cells, protein synthesis also occurs in chloroplasts serving the expression of a relatively small set of 60–100 protein-coding genes. However, most of these proteins, together with nucleus-derived subunits, form central complexes majorly involved in the essential processes of photosynthetic light reaction, carbon fixation, metabolism and gene expression. Biogenesis of these heterogenic complexes adds an additional level of complexity for protein biogenesis. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about co-translationally binding factors in chloroplasts and discuss their role in protein folding and ribosome translocation to thylakoid membranes.

Ribosome-Associated Chloroplast SRP54 Enables Efficient Cotranslational Membrane Insertion of Key Photosynthetic Proteins

Key proteins of the photosynthetic complexes are encoded in the chloroplast genome and cotranslationally inserted into the thylakoid membrane. However, the molecular details of this process are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate by ribosome profiling that the conserved chloroplast signal recognition particle subunit (cpSRP54) is required for efficient cotranslational targeting of several central photosynthetic proteins, such as the PSII PsbA (D1) subunit, in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). High-resolution analysis of membrane-associated and soluble ribosome footprints revealed that the SRP-dependent membrane targeting of PsbA is already initiated at an early translation step before exposure of the nascent chain from the ribosome. In contrast to cytosolic SRP, which contacts the ribosome close to the peptide tunnel exit site, analysis of the cpSRP54/ribosome binding interface revealed a direct interaction of cpSRP54 and the ribosomal subunit uL4, which is not located at the tunnel exit site but forms a part of the internal peptide tunnel wall by a loop domain. The plastid-specific C-terminal tail region of cpSRP54 plays a crucial role in uL4 binding. Our data indicate a novel mechanism of SRP-dependent membrane protein transport with the cpSRP54/uL4 interaction as a central element in early initiation of cotranslational membrane targeting.

Pausing of Chloroplast Ribosomes Is Induced by Multiple Features and Is Linked to the Assembly of Photosynthetic Complexes

Many mRNAs contain pause sites that briefly interrupt the progress of translation. Specific features that induce ribosome pausing have been described; however, their individual contributions to pause-site formation, and the overall biological significance of ribosome pausing, remain largely unclear. We have taken advantage of the compact genome of chloroplasts to carry out a plastid genome-wide survey of pause sites, as a basis for studying the impact of pausing on posttranslational processes. Based on ribosomal profiling of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) chloroplast mRNAs, we demonstrate that a combination of factors-mRNA secondary structure, internal Shine-Dalgarno sequences, and positively charged amino acids in the nascent peptide chain-explains 95% of the major pause sites on plastid mRNAs, whereas codon usage has little impact. The distribution of the pause sites is nonrandom and conforms to distinct patterns in the vicinity of sequences coding for transmembrane domains, which depend on their orientation within the membrane as well as being next to sequences coding for cofactor binding sites. We found strong indications that the mechanisms causing ribosomal pausing and at least some of the ribosomes pause sites are conserved between distantly related plant species. In addition, the positions of features that cause pausing are well conserved in photoautotrophic plants, but less so in their nonphotosynthetic, parasitic relatives, implying that the synthesis and assembly of photosynthetic multiprotein complexes requires localized ribosome pausing.

From bacteria to chloroplasts: evolution of the chloroplast SRP system

Chloroplasts derive from a prokaryotic symbiont that lost most of its genes during evolution. As a result, the great majority of chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus and are posttranslationally imported into the organelle. The chloroplast genome encodes only a few proteins. These include several multispan thylakoid membrane proteins which are synthesized on thylakoid-bound ribosomes and cotranslationally inserted into the membrane. During evolution, ancient prokaryotic targeting machineries were adapted and combined with novel targeting mechanisms to facilitate post- and cotranslational protein transport in chloroplasts. This review focusses on the chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) protein transport system, which has been intensively studied in higher plants. The cpSRP system derived from the prokaryotic SRP pathway, which mediates the cotranslational protein transport to the bacterial plasma membrane. Chloroplasts contain homologs of several components of the bacterial SRP system. The function of these conserved components in post- and/or cotranslational protein transport and chloroplast-specific modifications of these transport mechanisms are described. Furthermore, recent studies of cpSRP systems in algae and lower plants are summarized and their impact on understanding the evolution of the cpSRP system are discussed.

Suppressors of the Chloroplast Protein Import Mutant tic40 Reveal a Genetic Link between Protein Import and Thylakoid Biogenesis

To extend our understanding of chloroplast protein import and the role played by the import machinery component Tic40, we performed a genetic screen for suppressors of chlorotic tic40 knockout mutant Arabidopsis thaliana plants. As a result, two suppressor of tic40 loci, stic1 and stic2, were identified and characterized. The stic1 locus corresponds to the gene ALBINO4 (ALB4), which encodes a paralog of the well-known thylakoid protein targeting factor ALB3. The stic2 locus identified a previously unknown stromal protein that interacts physically with both ALB4 and ALB3. Genetic studies showed that ALB4 and STIC2 act together in a common pathway that also involves cpSRP54 and cpFtsY. Thus, we conclude that ALB4 and STIC2 both participate in thylakoid protein targeting, potentially for a specific subset of thylakoidal proteins, and that this targeting pathway becomes disadvantageous to the plant in the absence of Tic40. As the stic1 and stic2 mutants both suppressed tic40 specifically (other TIC-related mutants were not suppressed), we hypothesize that Tic40 is a multifunctional protein that, in addition to its originally described role in protein import, is able to influence downstream processes leading to thylakoid biogenesis.

Domain Organization in the 54-kDa Subunit of the Chloroplast Signal Recognition Particle

Chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) is a heterodimer composed of an evolutionarily conserved 54-kDa GTPase (cpSRP54) and a unique 43-kDa subunit (cpSRP43) responsible for delivering light-harvesting chlorophyll binding protein to the thylakoid membrane. While a nearly complete three-dimensional structure of cpSRP43 has been determined, no high-resolution structure is yet available for cpSRP54. In this study, we developed and examined an in silico three-dimensional model of the structure of cpSRP54 by homology modeling using cytosolic homologs. Model selection was guided by single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer experiments, which revealed the presence of at least two distinct conformations. Small angle x-ray scattering showed that the linking region among the GTPase (G-domain) and methionine-rich (M-domain) domains, an M-domain loop, and the cpSRP43 binding C-terminal extension of cpSRP54 are predominantly disordered. Interestingly, the linker and loop segments were observed to play an important role in organizing the domain arrangement of cpSRP54. Further, deletion of the finger loop abolished loading of the cpSRP cargo, light-harvesting chlorophyll binding protein. These data highlight important structural dynamics relevant to cpSRP54's role in the post- and cotranslational signaling processes.

Revisiting the photosystem II repair cycle

The ability of photosystem (PS) II to catalyze the light-driven oxidation of water comes along with its vulnerability to oxidative damage, in particular of the D1 core subunit. Photodamaged PSII undergoes repair in a multi-step process involving (i) reversible phosphorylation of PSII core subunits; (ii) monomerization and lateral migration of the PSII core from grana to stroma thylakoids; (iii) partial disassembly of PSII; (iv) proteolytic degradation of damaged D1; (v) replacement of damaged D1 protein with a new copy; (vi) reassembly of PSII monomers and migration back to grana thylakoids for dimerization and supercomplex assembly. Here we review the current knowledge on the PSII repair cycle.

Photoactivation: The Light-Driven Assembly of the Water Oxidation Complex of Photosystem II

Photosynthetic water oxidation is catalyzed by the Mn4CaO5 cluster of photosystem II. The assembly of the Mn4O5Ca requires light and involves a sequential process called photoactivation. This process harnesses the charge-separation of the photochemical reaction center and the coordination environment provided by the amino acid side chains of the protein to oxidize and organize the incoming manganese ions to form the oxo-bridged metal cluster capable of H2O-oxidation. Although most aspects of this assembly process remain poorly understood, recent advances in the elucidation of the crystal structure of the fully assembled cyanobacterial PSII complex help in the interpretation of the rich history of experiments designed to understand this process. Moreover, recent insights on the structure and stability of the constituent ions of the Mn4CaO5 cluster may guide future experiments. Here we consider the literature and suggest possible models of assembly including one involving single Mn(2+) oxidation site for all Mn but requiring ion relocation.

Cooperation between the chloroplast psbA 5'-untranslated region and coding region is important for translational initiation: the chloroplast translation machinery cannot read a human viral gene coding region

Chloroplast mRNA translation is regulated by the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR). Chloroplast 5'-UTRs also support translation of the coding regions of heterologous genes. Using an in vitro translation system from tobacco chloroplasts, we detected no translation from a human immunodeficiency virus tat coding region fused directly to the tobacco chloroplast psbA 5'-UTR. This lack of apparent translation could have been due to rapid degradation of mRNA templates or synthesized protein products. Replacing the psbA 5'-UTR with the E. coli phage T7 gene 10 5'-UTR, a highly active 5'-UTR, and substituting synonymous codons led to some translation of the tat coding region. The Tat protein thus synthesized was stable during translation reactions. No significant degradation of the added tat mRNAs was observed after translation reactions. These results excluded the above two possibilities and confirmed that the tat coding region prevented its own translation. The tat coding region was then fused to the psbA 5'-UTR with a cognate 5'-coding segment. Significant translation was detected from the tat coding region when fused after 10 or more codons. That is, translation could be initiated from the tat coding region once translation had started, indicating that the tat coding region inhibits translational initiation but not elongation. Hence, cooperation/compatibility between the 5'-UTR and its coding region is important for translational initiation.

Dual Protein Localization to the Envelope and Thylakoid Membranes Within the Chloroplast

The chloroplast houses various metabolic processes essential for plant viability. This organelle originated from an ancestral cyanobacterium via endosymbiosis and maintains the three membranes of its progenitor. Among them, the outer envelope membrane functions mainly in communication with cytoplasmic components while the inner envelope membrane houses selective transport of various metabolites and the biosynthesis of several compounds, including membrane lipids. These two envelope membranes also play essential roles in import of nuclear-encoded proteins and in organelle division. The third membrane, the internal membrane system known as the thylakoid, houses photosynthetic electron transport and chemiosmotic phosphorylation. The inner envelope and thylakoid membranes share similar lipid composition. Specific targeting pathways determine their defined proteomes and, thus, their distinct functions. Nonetheless, several proteins have been shown to exist in both the envelope and thylakoid membranes. These proteins include those that play roles in protein transport, tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, membrane dynamics, or transport of nucleotides or inorganic phosphate. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about proteins localized to both the envelope and thylakoid membranes in the chloroplast, discussing their roles in each membrane and potential mechanisms of their dual localization. Addressing the unanswered questions about these dual-localized proteins should help advance our understanding of chloroplast development, protein transport, and metabolic regulation.

The intriguing realm of protein biogenesis: Facing the green co-translational protein maturation networks

The ribosome is the cell's protein-making factory, a huge protein-RNA complex, that is essential to life. Determining the high-resolution structures of the stable "core" of this factory was among the major breakthroughs of the past decades, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2009. Now that the mysteries of the ribosome appear to be more traceable, detailed understanding of the mechanisms that regulate protein synthesis includes not only the well-known steps of initiation, elongation, and termination but also the less comprehended features of the co-translational events associated with the maturation of the nascent chains. The ribosome is a platform for co-translational events affecting the nascent polypeptide, including protein modifications, folding, targeting to various cellular compartments for integration into membrane or translocation, and proteolysis. These events are orchestrated by ribosome-associated protein biogenesis factors (RPBs), a group of a dozen or more factors that act as the "welcoming committee" for the nascent chain as it emerges from the ribosome. In plants these factors have evolved to fit the specificity of different cellular compartments: cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplast. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge of these factors and their interaction around the exit tunnel of dedicated ribosomes. Particular attention has been accorded to the plant system, highlighting the similarities and differences with other organisms.

In vitro reconstitution of co-translational D1 insertion reveals a role of the cpSec-Alb3 translocase and Vipp1 in photosystem II biogenesis

Photosystem II (PS II) is a multi-subunit complex localized in the thylakoid membrane that performs the light-dependent photosynthetic charge separation. The PS II reaction centre comprises, among others, the D1 protein. De novo synthesis and repair of PS II require efficient mechanisms for transport and insertion of plastid encoded D1 into the thylakoid membrane. To elucidate the process of D1 insertion, we used an in vitro translation system derived from pea chloroplasts to reconstitute the D1 insertion. Thereby, truncated D1 encoding psbA mRNAs lacking a stop codon were translated in the presence of thylakoid membranes and the translation was stalled by addition of chloramphenicol. The generated ribosome nascent chain complexes (RNCs) were tightly associated with the thylakoids. Subsequently, these D1 insertion intermediates were enriched from solubilized thylakoids by sucrose cushion centrifugation. Immunological analyses demonstrated the presence of the cpSec translocase, Alb3, cpFtsY, cpSRP54 and Vipp1 (vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1) in the enriched D1 insertion intermediates. A complex formation between cpSecY, Alb3, cpFtsY and Vipp1 in thylakoid membranes was shown by gel filtration chromatography, BN (Blue Native)/SDS-PAGE and co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Furthermore, a stimulating effect of recombinant Vipp1 on the formation of a D1 insertion intermediate was observed in vitro. These results suggest a co-operative function of these proteins in D1 insertion.

Ribosome nascent chain complexes of the chloroplast-encoded cytochrome b6 thylakoid membrane protein interact with cpSRP54 but not with cpSecY

We analysed the interplay between the cpSecY, cpSRP54 and the chloroplast-encoded cytochrome b6 via isolation of chloroplast ribosome nascent chain complexes and the use of cross-linking factors, antibodies and mass spectroscopy analyses. We showed that the cytochrome b6 nascent polypeptide complex is tightly associated with ribosomes and that the translation of cytochrome b6 was discontinuous. The causes of ribosome pausing and the functional significance of this phenomenon may be related to proper protein folding, insertion into thylakoid membranes and the association of cofactors during this process. It was also found that cpSecY was not in the vicinity of cytochrome b6 intermediates during the elongation process and does not act with mature cytochrome b6 after translation. Using the approach of cross-linking during elongation of the cytochrome b6 protein, we showed that cpSRP54 interacts strongly with the elongating nascent chain.

Arabidopsis thaliana mutants lacking cpFtsY or cpSRP54 exhibit different defects in photosystem II repair

Photosystem II (PS II) is a multi subunit protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane of cyanobacteria and chloroplasts. As the PS II reaction center protein D1 is prone to a light induced damage that inhibits PS II function especially at elevated light intensities, a highly ordered repair process including synthesis, targeting and insertion of D1 has evolved. To elucidate the function of the chloroplast signal recognition particle subunits, cpSRP43 and cpSRP54, and the cpSRP-receptor cpFtsY in D1 biogenesis we investigated the efficiency of the PS II repair cycle in the corresponding mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana. Immunological analyses, PAM measurements and in vivo labeling experiments demonstrate an impaired replacement of damaged D1 in the cpftsy mutant, while the chaos and the ffc mutant lacking cpSRP43 and cpSRP54, respectively, were not or hardly affected. The defect in cpftsy was neither caused by an impaired psbA transcript accumulation, D1 translation initiation nor by an enhanced D1 degradation. Further experiments revealed a decreased amount of salt stable, thylakoid membrane-associated translating ribosomes in the cpftsy mutant, while the amount of membrane-associated translating ribosomes is unaltered in the chaos and the ffc mutants. Therefore, our data indicate that the lack of cpFtsY leads to an inefficient PS II repair cycle caused by an impaired binding of translating ribosomes to the thylakoid membrane.

Chloroplast SRP54 Was Recruited for Posttranslational Protein Transport via Complex Formation with Chloroplast SRP43 during Land Plant Evolution

In bacteria, membrane proteins are targeted cotranslationally via a signal recognition particle (SRP). During the evolution of higher plant chloroplasts from cyanobacteria, the SRP pathway underwent striking adaptations that enable the posttranslational transport of the abundant light-harvesting chlorophyll-a/b-binding proteins (LHCPs). The conserved 54-kDa SRP subunit in higher plant chloroplasts (cpSRP54) is not bound to an SRP RNA, an essential SRP component in bacteria, but forms a stable heterodimer with the chloroplast-specific cpSRP43. This heterodimeric cpSRP recognizes LHCP and delivers it to the thylakoid membrane whereby cpSRP43 plays a central role. This study shows that the cpSRP system in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii differs significantly from that of higher plants as cpSRP43 is not complexed to cpSRP54 in Chlamydomonas and cpSRP54 is not involved in LHCP recognition. This divergence is attributed to altered residues within the cpSRP54 tail and the second chromodomain of cpSRP43 that are crucial for the formation of the binding interface in Arabidopsis. These changes are highly conserved among chlorophytes, whereas all land plants contain cpSRP proteins with typical interaction motifs. These data demonstrate that the coevolution of LHCPs and cpSRP43 occurred independently of complex formation with cpSRP54 and that the interaction between cpSRP54 and cpSRP43 evolved later during the transition from chlorophytes to land plants. Furthermore, our data show that in higher plants a heterodimeric form of cpSRP is required for the formation of a low molecular weight transit complex with LHCP.

Genome-wide analysis of thylakoid-bound ribosomes in maize reveals principles of cotranslational targeting to the thylakoid membrane

Chloroplast genomes encode ∼ 37 proteins that integrate into the thylakoid membrane. The mechanisms that target these proteins to the membrane are largely unexplored. We used ribosome profiling to provide a comprehensive, high-resolution map of ribosome positions on chloroplast mRNAs in separated membrane and soluble fractions in maize seedlings. The results show that translation invariably initiates off the thylakoid membrane and that ribosomes synthesizing a subset of membrane proteins subsequently become attached to the membrane in a nuclease-resistant fashion. The transition from soluble to membrane-attached ribosomes occurs shortly after the first transmembrane segment in the nascent peptide has emerged from the ribosome. Membrane proteins whose translation terminates before emergence of a transmembrane segment are translated in the stroma and targeted to the membrane posttranslationally. These results indicate that the first transmembrane segment generally comprises the signal that links ribosomes to thylakoid membranes for cotranslational integration. The sole exception is cytochrome f, whose cleavable N-terminal cpSecA-dependent signal sequence engages the thylakoid membrane cotranslationally. The distinct behavior of ribosomes synthesizing the inner envelope protein CemA indicates that sorting signals for the thylakoid and envelope membranes are distinguished cotranslationally. In addition, the fractionation behavior of ribosomes in polycistronic transcription units encoding both membrane and soluble proteins adds to the evidence that the removal of upstream ORFs by RNA processing is not typically required for the translation of internal genes in polycistronic chloroplast mRNAs.

Photosystem II repair in plant chloroplasts--Regulation, assisting proteins and shared components with photosystem II biogenesis

Photosystem (PS) II is a multisubunit thylakoid membrane pigment-protein complex responsible for light-driven oxidation of water and reduction of plastoquinone. Currently more than 40 proteins are known to associate with PSII, either stably or transiently. The inherent feature of the PSII complex is its vulnerability in light, with the damage mainly targeted to one of its core proteins, the D1 protein. The repair of the damaged D1 protein, i.e. the repair cycle of PSII, initiates in the grana stacks where the damage generally takes place, but subsequently continues in non-appressed thylakoid domains, where many steps are common for both the repair and de novo assembly of PSII. The sequence of the (re)assembly steps of genuine PSII subunits is relatively well-characterized in higher plants. A number of novel findings have shed light into the regulation mechanisms of lateral migration of PSII subcomplexes and the repair as well as the (re)assembly of the complex. Besides the utmost importance of the PSII repair cycle for the maintenance of PSII functionality, recent research has pointed out that the maintenance of PSI is closely dependent on regulation of the PSII repair cycle. This review focuses on the current knowledge of regulation of the repair cycle of PSII in higher plant chloroplasts. Particular emphasis is paid on sequential assembly steps of PSII and the function of the number of PSII auxiliary proteins involved both in the biogenesis and repair of PSII. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chloroplast Biogenesis.

MET1 is a thylakoid-associated TPR protein involved in photosystem II supercomplex formation and repair in Arabidopsis

Photosystem II (PSII) requires constant disassembly and reassembly to accommodate replacement of the D1 protein. Here, we characterize Arabidopsis thaliana MET1, a PSII assembly factor with PDZ and TPR domains. The maize (Zea mays) MET1 homolog is enriched in mesophyll chloroplasts compared with bundle sheath chloroplasts, and MET1 mRNA and protein levels increase during leaf development concomitant with the thylakoid machinery. MET1 is conserved in C3 and C4 plants and green algae but is not found in prokaryotes. Arabidopsis MET1 is a peripheral thylakoid protein enriched in stroma lamellae and is also present in grana. Split-ubiquitin assays and coimmunoprecipitations showed interaction of MET1 with stromal loops of PSII core components CP43 and CP47. From native gels, we inferred that MET1 associates with PSII subcomplexes formed during the PSII repair cycle. When grown under fluctuating light intensities, the Arabidopsis MET1 null mutant (met1) showed conditional reduced growth, near complete blockage in PSII supercomplex formation, and concomitant increase of unassembled CP43. Growth of met1 in high light resulted in loss of PSII supercomplexes and accelerated D1 degradation. We propose that MET1 functions as a CP43/CP47 chaperone on the stromal side of the membrane during PSII assembly and repair. This function is consistent with the observed differential MET1 accumulation across dimorphic maize chloroplasts.

Plastid mRNA translation

Overall translational machinery in plastids is similar to that of E. coli. Initiation is the crucial step for translation and this step in plastids is somewhat different from that of E. coli. Unlike the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in E. coli, cis-elements for translation initiation are not well conserved in plastid mRNAs. Specific trans-acting factors are generally required for translation initiation and its regulation in plastids. During translation elongation, ribosomes pause sometimes on photosynthesis-related mRNAs due probably to proper insertion of nascent polypeptides into membrane complexes. Codon usage of plastid mRNAs is different from that of E. coli and mammalian cells. Plastid mRNAs do not have the so-called rare codons. Translation efficiencies of several synonymous codons are not always correlated with codon usage in plastid mRNAs.

RBF1, a plant homolog of the bacterial ribosome-binding factor RbfA, acts in processing of the chloroplast 16S ribosomal RNA

Plastids (chloroplasts) possess 70S ribosomes that are very similar in structure and function to the ribosomes of their bacterial ancestors. While most components of the bacterial ribosome (ribosomal RNAs [rRNAs] and ribosomal proteins) are well conserved in the plastid ribosome, little is known about the factors mediating the biogenesis of plastid ribosomes. Here, we have investigated a putative homolog of the bacterial RbfA (for ribosome-binding factor A) protein that was identified as a cold-shock protein and an auxiliary factor acting in the 5' maturation of the 16S rRNA. The unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the vascular plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) both encode a single RbfA-like protein in their nuclear genomes. By generating specific antibodies against this protein, we show that the plant RbfA-like protein functions exclusively in the plastid, where it is associated with thylakoid membranes. Analysis of mutants for the corresponding gene (termed RBF1) reveals that the gene function is essential for photoautotrophic growth. Weak mutant alleles display reduced levels of plastid ribosomes, a specific depletion in 30S ribosomal subunits, and reduced activity of plastid protein biosynthesis. Our data suggest that, while the function in ribosome maturation and 16S rRNA 5' end processing is conserved, the RBF1 protein has assumed an additional role in 3' end processing. Together with the apparent absence of a homologous protein from plant mitochondria, our findings illustrate that the assembly process of the 70S ribosome is not strictly conserved and has undergone some modifications during organelle evolution.

Structural diversity of signal recognition particle RNAs in plastids

One of the pathways for protein targeting to the plasma membrane in bacteria utilizes the co-translationally acting signal recognition particle (SRP), a universally conserved ribonucleoprotein complex consisting of a 54 kDa protein and a functional RNA. An interesting exception is the higher plant chloroplast SRP, which lacks the otherwise essential RNA component. Furthermore, green plant chloroplasts have an additional post-translational SRP-dependent transport system in which the chloroplast-specific cpSRP43 protein binds to imported substrate proteins and to the conserved 54 kDa SRP subunit (cpSRP54). While homologs to the bacterial SRP protein and RNA component previously have been identified in genome sequences of red algae and diatoms, a recent study investigated the evolution of the green plant SRP system.1 Analysis of hundreds of plastid and nuclear genomes showed a surprising pattern of multiple losses of the plastid SRP RNA during evolution and a widespread presence in all non-spermatophyte plants and green algae. Contrary to expectations, all green organisms that have an identified cpSRP RNA also contain a cpSRP43. Notably, the structure of the plastid SRP RNAs is much more diverse than that of bacterial SRP RNAs. The apical GNRA tetraloop is only conserved in organisms of the red lineage and basal organisms of the green lineage, whereas further chloroplast SRP RNAs are characterized by atypical, mostly enlarged apical loops.

YGL138(t), encoding a putative signal recognition particle 54 kDa protein, is involved in chloroplast development of rice

BACKGROUND

Normal development of chloroplast is vitally important to plants, but its biological mechanism is still far from fully being understood, especially in rice.

RESULTS

In this study, a novel yellow-green leaf mutant, ygl138, derived from Nipponbare (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica) treated by ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS), was isolated. The mutant exhibited a distinct yellow-green leaf phenotype throughout development, reduced chlorophyll level, and arrested chloroplast development. The phenotype of the ygl138 mutant was caused by a single nuclear gene, which was tentatively designed as YGL138(t). The YGL138(t) locus was mapped to chromosome 11 and isolated into a confined region of 91.8 kb by map-based cloning. Sequencing analysis revealed that, Os11g05552, which was predicted to encode a signal recognition particle 54 kDa (SRP54) protein and act as a chloroplast precursor, had 18 bp nucleotides deletion in the coding region of ygl138 and led to a frameshift. Furthermore, the identity of Os11g05552 was verified by transgenic complementation.

CONCLUSIONS

These results are very valuable for further study on YGL138(t) gene and illuminating the mechanism of SRP54 protein involving in chloroplast development of rice.

Protein targeting to subcellular organelles via MRNA localization

Cells have complex membranous organelles for the compartmentalization and the regulation of most intracellular processes. Organelle biogenesis and maintenance requires newly synthesized proteins, each of which needs to go from the ribosome translating its mRNA to the correct membrane for insertion or transclocation to an a organellar subcompartment. Decades of research have revealed how proteins are targeted to the correct organelle and translocated across one or more organelle membranes ro the compartment where they function. The paradigm examples involve interactions between a peptide sequence in the protein, localization factors, and various membrane embedded translocation machineries. Membrane translocation is either cotranslational or posttranslational depending on the protein and target organelle. Meanwhile research in embryos, neurons and yeast revealed an alternative targeting mechanism in which the mRNA is localized and only then translated to synthesize the protein in the correct location. In these cases, the targeting information is coded by the cis-acting sequences in the mRNA ("Zipcodes") that interact with localization factors and, in many cases, are transported by the molecular motors on the cytoskeletal filaments. Recently, evidence has been found for this "mRNA based" mechanism in organelle protein targeting to endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and the photosynthetic membranes within chloroplasts. Here we review known and potential roles of mRNA localization in protein targeting to and within organelles. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

Photosystem II assembly: from cyanobacteria to plants

Photosystem II (PSII) is an integral-membrane, multisubunit complex that initiates electron flow in oxygenic photosynthesis. The biogenesis of this complex machine involves the concerted assembly of at least 20 different polypeptides as well as the incorporation of a variety of inorganic and organic cofactors. Many factors have recently been identified that constitute an integrative network mediating the stepwise assembly of PSII components. One recurring theme is the subcellular organization of the assembly process in specialized membranes that form distinct biogenesis centers. Here, we review our current knowledge of the molecular components and events involved in PSII assembly and their high degree of evolutionary conservation.

Evolution from the prokaryotic to the higher plant chloroplast signal recognition particle: the signal recognition particle RNA is conserved in plastids of a wide range of photosynthetic organisms

The protein targeting signal recognition particle (SRP) pathway in chloroplasts of higher plants has undergone dramatic evolutionary changes. It disposed of its RNA, which is an essential SRP component in bacteria, and uses a unique chloroplast-specific protein cpSRP43. Nevertheless, homologs of the conserved SRP54 and the SRP receptor, FtsY, are present in higher plant chloroplasts. In this study, we analyzed the phylogenetic distribution of SRP components in photosynthetic organisms to elucidate the evolution of the SRP system. We identified conserved plastid SRP RNAs within all nonspermatophyte land plant lineages and in all chlorophyte branches. Furthermore, we show the simultaneous presence of cpSRP43 in these organisms. The function of this novel SRP system was biochemically and structurally characterized in the moss Physcomitrella patens. We show that P. patens chloroplast SRP (cpSRP) RNA binds cpSRP54 but has lost the ability to significantly stimulate the GTPase cycle of SRP54 and FtsY. Furthermore, the crystal structure at 1.8-Å resolution and the nucleotide specificity of P. patens cpFtsY was determined and compared with bacterial FtsY and higher plant chloroplast FtsY. Our data lead to the view that the P. patens cpSRP system occupies an intermediate position in the evolution from bacterial-type SRP to higher plant-type cpSRP system.

Intra-plastid protein trafficking: how plant cells adapted prokaryotic mechanisms to the eukaryotic condition

Protein trafficking and localization in plastids involve a complex interplay between ancient (prokaryotic) and novel (eukaryotic) translocases and targeting machineries. During evolution, ancient systems acquired new functions and novel translocation machineries were developed to facilitate the correct localization of nuclear encoded proteins targeted to the chloroplast. Because of its post-translational nature, targeting and integration of membrane proteins posed the biggest challenge to the organelle to avoid aggregation in the aqueous compartments. Soluble proteins faced a different kind of problem since some had to be transported across three membranes to reach their destination. Early studies suggested that chloroplasts addressed these issues by adapting ancient-prokaryotic machineries and integrating them with novel-eukaryotic systems, a process called 'conservative sorting'. In the last decade, detailed biochemical, genetic, and structural studies have unraveled the mechanisms of protein targeting and localization in chloroplasts, suggesting a highly integrated scheme where ancient and novel systems collaborate at different stages of the process. In this review we focus on the differences and similarities between chloroplast ancestral translocases and their prokaryotic relatives to highlight known modifications that adapted them to the eukaryotic situation. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Import and Quality Control in Mitochondria and Plastids.

Nucleoid-enriched proteomes in developing plastids and chloroplasts from maize leaves: a new conceptual framework for nucleoid functions

Plastids contain multiple copies of the plastid chromosome, folded together with proteins and RNA into nucleoids. The degree to which components of the plastid gene expression and protein biogenesis machineries are nucleoid associated, and the factors involved in plastid DNA organization, repair, and replication, are poorly understood. To provide a conceptual framework for nucleoid function, we characterized the proteomes of highly enriched nucleoid fractions of proplastids and mature chloroplasts isolated from the maize (Zea mays) leaf base and tip, respectively, using mass spectrometry. Quantitative comparisons with proteomes of unfractionated proplastids and chloroplasts facilitated the determination of nucleoid-enriched proteins. This nucleoid-enriched proteome included proteins involved in DNA replication, organization, and repair as well as transcription, mRNA processing, splicing, and editing. Many proteins of unknown function, including pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR), tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR), DnaJ, and mitochondrial transcription factor (mTERF) domain proteins, were identified. Strikingly, 70S ribosome and ribosome assembly factors were strongly overrepresented in nucleoid fractions, but protein chaperones were not. Our analysis strongly suggests that mRNA processing, splicing, and editing, as well as ribosome assembly, take place in association with the nucleoid, suggesting that these processes occur cotranscriptionally. The plastid developmental state did not dramatically change the nucleoid-enriched proteome but did quantitatively shift the predominating function from RNA metabolism in undeveloped plastids to translation and homeostasis in chloroplasts. This study extends the known maize plastid proteome by hundreds of proteins, including more than 40 PPR and mTERF domain proteins, and provides a resource for targeted studies on plastid gene expression. Details of protein identification and annotation are provided in the Plant Proteome Database.

A plant secretory signal peptide targets plastome-encoded recombinant proteins to the thylakoid membrane

Plastids are considered promising bioreactors for the production of recombinant proteins, but the knowledge of the mechanisms regulating foreign protein folding, targeting, and accumulation in these organelles is still incomplete. Here we demonstrate that a plant secretory signal peptide is able to target a plastome-encoded recombinant protein to the thylakoid membrane. The fusion protein zeolin with its native signal peptide expressed by tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) transplastomic plants was directed into the chloroplast thylakoid membranes, whereas the zeolin mutant devoid of the signal peptide, Δzeolin, is instead accumulated in the stroma. We also show that zeolin folds in the thylakoid membrane where it accumulates as trimers able to form disulphide bonds. Disulphide bonds contribute to protein accumulation since zeolin shows a higher accumulation level with respect to stromal Δzeolin, whose folding is hampered as the protein accumulates at low amounts in a monomeric form and it is not oxidized. Thus, post-transcriptional processes seem to regulate the stability and accumulation of plastid-synthesized zeolin. The most plausible zeolin targeting mechanism to thylakoid is discussed herein.

Strategies for psbA gene expression in cyanobacteria, green algae and higher plants: from transcription to PSII repair

The Photosystem (PS) II of cyanobacteria, green algae and higher plants is prone to light-induced inactivation, the D1 protein being the primary target of such damage. As a consequence, the D1 protein, encoded by the psbA gene, is degraded and re-synthesized in a multistep process called PSII repair cycle. In cyanobacteria, a small gene family codes for the various, functionally distinct D1 isoforms. In these organisms, the regulation of the psbA gene expression occurs mainly at the level of transcription, but the expression is fine-tuned by regulation of translation elongation. In plants and green algae, the D1 protein is encoded by a single psbA gene located in the chloroplast genome. In chloroplasts of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii the psbA gene expression is strongly regulated by mRNA processing, and particularly at the level of translation initiation. In chloroplasts of higher plants, translation elongation is the prevalent mechanism for regulation of the psbA gene expression. The pre-existing pool of psbA transcripts forms translation initiation complexes in plant chloroplasts even in darkness, while the D1 synthesis can be completed only in the light. Replacement of damaged D1 protein requires also the assistance by a number of auxiliary proteins, which are encoded by the nuclear genome in green algae and higher plants. Nevertheless, many of these chaperones are conserved between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here, we describe the specific features and fundamental differences of the psbA gene expression and the regeneration of the PSII reaction center protein D1 in cyanobacteria, green algae and higher plants. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Photosystem II.

Inserting membrane proteins: the YidC/Oxa1/Alb3 machinery in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts

The evolutionarily conserved YidC/Oxa1p/Alb3 family of proteins plays important roles in the membrane biogenesis in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. The members in this family function as novel membrane protein insertases, chaperones, and assembly factors for transmembrane proteins, including energy transduction complexes localized in the bacterial and mitochondrial inner membrane, and in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane. In this review, we will present recent progress with this class of proteins in membrane protein biogenesis and discuss the structure/function relationships. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Protein translocation across or insertion into membranes.

Component interactions, regulation and mechanisms of chloroplast signal recognition particle-dependent protein transport

The chloroplast proteome comprises nuclear- and plastome-encoded proteins. In order to function correctly these proteins must be transported, either cotranslationally or posttranslationally, to their final destination in the chloroplast. Here the chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) which is present in two different stromal pools plays an essential role. On the one hand, the conserved 54kDa subunit (cpSRP54) is associated with 70S ribosomes to function in the cotranslational transport of the plastid-encoded thylakoid membrane protein D1. On the other hand, the cpSRP consists of cpSRP54 and a unique 43kDa subunit (cpSRP43) and facilitates the transport of nuclear-encoded light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding proteins (LHCPs), the most abundant membrane proteins of the thylakoids. In addition to cpSRP, the cpSRP receptor cpFtsY and the thylakoid membrane protein Alb3 are required for posttranslational LHCP integration in a GTP-dependent manner. In contrast to the universally conserved cytosolic SRP, the chloroplast SRP of higher plants lacks an SRP-RNA component. Interestingly, cpSRP-RNA genes have been identified in the plastome of lower plants, indicating that their cpSRP structure resembles the cytosolic SRP.

Megadalton complexes in the chloroplast stroma of Arabidopsis thaliana characterized by size exclusion chromatography, mass spectrometry, and hierarchical clustering

To characterize MDa-sized macromolecular chloroplast stroma protein assemblies and to extend coverage of the chloroplast stroma proteome, we fractionated soluble chloroplast stroma in the non-denatured state by size exclusion chromatography with a size separation range up to approximately 5 MDa. To maximize protein complex stability and resolution of megadalton complexes, ionic strength and composition were optimized. Subsequent high accuracy tandem mass spectrometry analysis (LTQ-Orbitrap) identified 1081 proteins across the complete native mass range. Protein complexes and assembly states above 0.8 MDa were resolved using hierarchical clustering, and protein heat maps were generated from normalized protein spectral counts for each of the size exclusion chromatography fractions; this complemented previous analysis of stromal complexes up to 0.8 MDa (Peltier, J. B., Cai, Y., Sun, Q., Zabrouskov, V., Giacomelli, L., Rudella, A., Ytterberg, A. J., Rutschow, H., and van Wijk, K. J. (2006) The oligomeric stromal proteome of Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplasts. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 5, 114-133). This combined experimental and bioinformatics analyses resolved chloroplast ribosomes in different assembly and functional states (e.g. 30, 50, and 70 S), which enabled the identification of plastid homologues of prokaryotic ribosome assembly factors as well as proteins involved in co-translational modifications, targeting, and folding. The roles of these ribosome-associating proteins will be discussed. Known RNA splice factors (e.g. CAF1/WTF1/RNC1) as well as uncharacterized proteins with RNA-binding domains (pentatricopeptide repeat, RNA recognition motif, and chloroplast ribosome maturation), RNases, and DEAD box helicases were found in various sized complexes. Chloroplast DNA (>3 MDa) was found in association with the complete heteromeric plastid-encoded DNA polymerase complex, and a dozen other DNA-binding proteins, e.g. DNA gyrase, topoisomerase, and various DNA repair enzymes. The heteromeric >or=5-MDa pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and the 0.8-1-MDa acetyl-CoA carboxylase complex associated with uncharacterized biotin carboxyl carrier domain proteins constitute the entry point to fatty acid metabolism in leaves; we suggest that their large size relates to the need for metabolic channeling. Protein annotations and identification data are available through the Plant Proteomics Database, and mass spectrometry data are available through Proteomics Identifications database.

Oxal/Alb3/YidC system for insertion of membrane proteins in mitochondria, chloroplasts and bacteria (Review)

Recent studies have shown that there is a pathway that is evolutionarily conserved for the insertion of proteins into the membrane in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacteria. In this pathway, the Oxa1/Alb3/YidC proteins are believed to function as membrane insertases that play an important role in the membrane protein biogenesis of respiratory and energy transduction proteins. Additional roles of the Oxa1/Alb3/YidC members may be in the lateral integration of proteins into the lipid bilayer, and in the folding and assembly of proteins into membrane protein complexes.

Quantitative proteomics of a chloroplast SRP54 sorting mutant and its genetic interactions with CLPC1 in Arabidopsis

cpSRP54 (for chloroplast SIGNAL RECOGNITION PARTICLE54) is involved in cotranslational and posttranslational sorting of thylakoid proteins. The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cpSRP54 null mutant, ffc1-2, is pale green with delayed development. Western-blot analysis of individual leaves showed that the SRP sorting pathway, but not the SecY/E translocon, was strongly down-regulated with progressive leaf development in both wild-type and ffc1-2 plants. To further understand the impact of cpSRP54 deletion, a quantitative comparison of ffc2-1 was carried out for total leaf proteomes of young seedlings and for chloroplast proteomes of fully developed leaves using stable isotope labeling (isobaric stable isotope labeling and isotope-coded affinity tags) and two-dimensional gels. This showed that cpSRP54 deletion led to a change in light-harvesting complex composition, an increase of PsbS, and a decreased photosystem I/II ratio. Moreover, the cpSRP54 deletion led in young leaves to up-regulation of thylakoid proteases and stromal chaperones, including ClpC. In contrast, the stromal protein homeostasis machinery returned to wild-type levels in mature leaves, consistent with the developmental down-regulation of the SRP pathway. A differential response between young and mature leaves was also found in carbon metabolism, with an up-regulation of the Calvin cycle and the photorespiratory pathway in peroxisomes and mitochondria in young leaves but not in old leaves. The Calvin cycle was down-regulated in mature leaves to adjust to the reduced capacity of the light reaction, while reactive oxygen species defense proteins were up-regulated. The significance of ClpC up-regulation was confirmed through the generation of an ffc2-1 clpc1 double mutant. This mutant was seedling lethal under autotrophic conditions but could be partially rescued under heterotrophic conditions.

Deletion of the chloroplast-localized AtTerC gene product in Arabidopsis thaliana leads to loss of the thylakoid membrane and to seedling lethality

Early seedling development in plants depends on the biogenesis of chloroplasts from proplastids, accompanied by the formation of thylakoid membranes. An Arabidopsis thaliana gene, AtTerC, whose gene product shares sequence similarity with bacterial tellurite resistance C (TerC), is shown to be involved in a critical step required for the normal organization of prothylakoids and transition into mature thylakoid stacks. The AtTerC gene encodes an integral membrane protein, which contains eight putative transmembrane helices, localized in the thylakoid of the chloroplast, as shown by localization of an AtTerC-GFP fusion product in protoplasts and by immunoblot analysis of subfractions of chloroplasts. T-DNA insertional mutation of AtTerC resulted in a pigment-deficient and seedling-lethal phenotype under normal light conditions. Transmission electron microscopic analysis revealed that mutant etioplasts had normal prolamellar bodies (PLBs), although the prothylakoids had ring-like shapes surrounding the PLBs. In addition, the ultrastructures of mutant chloroplasts lacked thylakoids, did not have grana stacks, and showed numerous globular structures of varying sizes. Also, the accumulation of thylakoid membrane proteins was severely defective in this mutant. These results suggest that the AtTerC protein plays a crucial role in prothylakoid membrane biogenesis and thylakoid formation in early chloroplast development.

Structural basis for specific substrate recognition by the chloroplast signal recognition particle protein cpSRP43

Secretory and membrane proteins carry amino-terminal signal sequences that, in cotranslational targeting, are recognized by the signal recognition particle protein SRP54 without sequence specificity. The most abundant membrane proteins on Earth are the light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding proteins (LHCPs). They are synthesized in the cytoplasm, imported into the chloroplast, and posttranslationally targeted to the thylakoid membrane by cpSRP, a heterodimer formed by cpSRP54 and cpSRP43. We present the 1.5 angstrom crystal structure of cpSRP43 characterized by a unique arrangement of chromodomains and ankyrin repeats. The overall shape and charge distribution of cpSRP43 resembles the SRP RNA, which is absent in chloroplasts. The complex with the internal signal sequence of LHCPs reveals that cpSRP43 specifically recognizes a DPLG peptide motif. We describe how cpSPR43 adapts the universally conserved SRP system to posttranslational targeting and insertion of the LHCP family of membrane proteins.

Cool temperatures interfere with D1 synthesis in tomato by causing ribosomal pausing

Photodamage occurs when leaves are exposed to light in excess of what can be used for photosynthesis and in excess of the capacity of ancillary photoprotective as well as repair mechanisms. An important site of photodamage is the chloroplast encoded D1 protein, a component of the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center. Even under optimal growth irradiance, D1 is photodamaged necessitating rapid turnover to prevent the accumulation of photodamaged PSII reaction centers and consequent inhibition of photosynthesis. However, this on-going process of D1 turnover and replacement was impeded in the chilling-sensitive tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants when exposed to high-growth light at cool temperature. The decrease in D1 turnover and replacement was found not to be due to changes in the steady-state level of the psbA message. While the recruitment of ribosomes to psbA transcript, initiation of D1 translation, and the association of polysomes with the thylakoid membrane occurred normally, chilling temperatures caused ribosomal pausing during D1 peptide elongation in tomato. The pause locations were non-randomly located on the D1 transcript. The interference with translation caused by ribosomal pausing allowed photodamaged PSII centers to accumulate leading to the consequent inhibition of photosynthesis.

Canonical signal recognition particle components can be bypassed for posttranslational protein targeting in chloroplasts

The chloroplast signal recognition particle (cpSRP) and its receptor (cpFtsY) target proteins both cotranslationally and posttranslationally to the thylakoids. This dual function enables cpSRP to utilize its posttranslational activities for targeting a family of nucleus-encoded light-harvesting chlorophyll binding proteins (LHCPs), the most abundant membrane proteins in plants. Previous in vitro experiments indicated an absolute requirement for all cpSRP pathway soluble components. In agreement, a cpFtsY mutant in Arabidopsis thaliana exhibits a severe chlorotic phenotype resulting from a massive loss of LHCPs. Surprisingly, a double mutant, cpftsy cpsrp54, recovers to a great extent from the chlorotic cpftsy phenotype. This establishes that in plants, a new alternative pathway exists that can bypass cpSRP posttranslational targeting activities. Using a mutant form of cpSRP43 that is unable to assemble with cpSRP54, we complemented the cpSRP43-deficient mutant and found that this subunit is required for the alternative pathway. Along with the ability of cpSRP43 alone to bind the ALBINO3 translocase required for LHCP integration, our results indicate that cpSRP43 has developed features to function independently of cpSRP54/cpFtsY in targeting LHCPs to the thylakoid membranes.

Chloroplast-encoded Polypeptide PsbT Is Involved in the Repair of Primary Electron Acceptor QA of Photosystem II during Photoinhibition in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

PsbT is a small chloroplast-encoded hydrophobic polypeptide associated with the D1/D2 heterodimer of the photosystem II (PSII) reaction center and is required for the efficient post-translational repair of photodamaged PSII. Here we addressed that role in detail in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii wild type and DeltapsbT cells by analyzing the activities of PSII, the assembly of PSII proteins, and the redox components of PSII during photoinhibition and repair. Strong illumination of cells for 15 min decreased the activities of electron transfer through PSII and Q(A) photoreduction by 50%, and it reduced the amount of atomic manganese by 20%, but it did not affect the steady-state level of PSII proteins, photoreduction of pheophytin (pheo(D1)), and the amount of bound plastoquinone (Q(A)), indicating that the decrease in PSII activity resulted mainly from inhibition of the electron transfer from pheo(D1) to Q(A). In wild type cells, we observed parallel recovery of electron transfer activity through PSII and Q(A) photoreduction, suggesting that the recovery of Q(A) activity is one of the rate-limiting steps of PSII repair. In DeltapsbT cells, the repairs of electron transfer activity through PSII and of Q(A) photoreduction activity were both impaired, but PSII protein turnover was unaffected. Moreover, about half the Q(A) was lost from the PSII core complex during purification. Since PsbT is intimately associated with the Q(A)-binding region on D2, we propose that this polypeptide enhances the efficient recovery of Q(A) photoreduction by stabilizing the structure of the Q(A)-binding region.

Mechanisms of protein import into thylakoids of chloroplasts

The thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts contains the major photosynthetic complexes, which consist of several either nuclear or chloroplast encoded subunits. The biogenesis of these thylakoid membrane complexes requires coordinated transport and subsequent assembly of the subunits into functional complexes. Nuclear-encoded thylakoid proteins are first imported into the chloroplast and then directed to the thylakoid using different sorting mechanisms. The cpSec pathway and the cpTat pathway are mainly involved in the transport of lumenal proteins, whereas the spontaneous pathway and the cpSRP pathway are used for the insertion of integral membrane proteins into the thylakoid membrane. While cpSec-, cpTat- and cpSRP-mediated targeting can be classified as 'assisted' mechanisms involving numerous components, 'unassisted' spontaneous insertion does not require additional targeting factors. However, even the assisted pathways differ fundamentally with respect to stromal targeting factors, the composition of the translocase and energy requirements.

A new in vitro translation system for non-radioactive assay from tobacco chloroplasts: effect of pre-mRNA processing on translation in vitro

We previously developed an in vitro translation system derived from tobacco chloroplasts. Here, we report a significantly improved in vitro translation system. By modifying preparation procedures for chloroplast extracts and reaction conditions, we achieved 100-fold higher translation activity than the previous system. The new system does not require the supplement of Escherichia coli tRNAs due to the omission of micrococcal nuclease treatment, thus the tRNA population reflects the intrinsic tRNA population in tobacco chloroplasts. The rate of translation initiation from a variety of chloroplast mRNAs may be measured by monitoring the fluorescence intensity of synthesized green fluorescent protein, which is a non-radioactive detection method. Incorporation of an amino acid linked to a fluorescent dye also allows detection of the translation products in vitro. Using our new system, we found that mRNAs carrying unprocessed or processed atpH and rbcL 5'-UTRs were efficiently translated at similar rates, whereas translation of mRNAs with processed atpB and psbB 5'-UTRs was more efficient than those with unprocessed 5'-UTRs. These results suggest that the role of 5'-UTR processing in the regulation of chloroplast gene expression differs between mRNAs. The new in vitro translation system will be a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of chloroplast mRNA translation.