Effect of 5 years of exercise training on the cardiovascular risk profile of older adults: the Generation 100 randomized trial

Non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation and exercise capacity in healthy volunteers: a randomized trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Vagal parasympathetic dysfunction is strongly associated with impaired exercise tolerance, indicating that coordinated autonomic control is essential for optimizing exercise performance. This study tested the hypothesis that autonomic neuromodulation by non-invasive transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS) can improve exercise capacity in humans.

METHODS

This single-centre, randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, crossover trial in 28 healthy volunteers evaluated the effect of bilateral transcutaneous stimulation of vagal auricular innervation, applied for 30 min daily for 7 days, on measures of cardiorespiratory fitness (peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak)) during progressive exercise to exhaustion. Secondary endpoints included peak work rate, cardiorespiratory measures, and the whole blood inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide ex vivo.

RESULTS

tVNS applied for 30 min daily over 7 consecutive days increased VO2peak by 1.04 mL/kg/min (95% CI: .34-1.73; P = .005), compared with no change after sham stimulation (-0.54 mL/kg/min; 95% CI: -1.52 to .45). No carry-over effect was observed following the 2-week washout period. tVNS increased work rate (by 6 W; 95% CI: 2-10; P = .006), heart rate (by 4 bpm; 95% CI: 1-7; P = .011), and respiratory rate (by 4 breaths/min; 95% CI: 2-6; P < .001) at peak exercise. Analysis of the whole blood transcriptomic response to lipopolysaccharide in serial samples obtained from five participants showed that tVNS reduced the inflammatory response.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-invasive vagal stimulation improves measures of cardiorespiratory fitness and attenuates inflammation, offering an inexpensive, safe, and scalable approach to improve exercise capacity.

Global consensus on optimal exercise recommendations for enhancing healthy longevity in older adults (ICFSR)

Aging, a universal and inevitable process, is characterized by a progressive accumulation of physiological alterations and functional decline over time, leading to increased vulnerability to diseases and ultimately mortality as age advances. Lifestyle factors, notably physical activity (PA) and exercise, significantly modulate aging phenotypes. Physical activity and exercise can prevent or ameliorate lifestyle-related diseases, extend health span, enhance physical function, and reduce the burden of non-communicable chronic diseases including cardiometabolic disease, cancer, musculoskeletal and neurological conditions, and chronic respiratory diseases as well as premature mortality. Physical activity influences the cellular and molecular drivers of biological aging, slowing aging rates-a foundational aspect of geroscience. Thus, PA serves both as preventive medicine and therapeutic agent in pathological states. Sub-optimal PA levels correlate with increased disease prevalence in aging populations. Structured exercise prescriptions should therefore be customized and monitored like any other medical treatment, considering the dose-response relationships and specific adaptations necessary for intended outcomes. Current guidelines recommend a multifaceted exercise regimen that includes aerobic, resistance, balance, and flexibility training through structured and incidental (integrated lifestyle) activities. Tailored exercise programs have proven effective in helping older adults maintain their functional capacities, extending their health span, and enhancing their quality of life. Particularly important are anabolic exercises, such as Progressive resistance training (PRT), which are indispensable for maintaining or improving functional capacity in older adults, particularly those with frailty, sarcopenia or osteoporosis, or those hospitalized or in residential aged care. Multicomponent exercise interventions that include cognitive tasks significantly enhance the hallmarks of frailty (low body mass, strength, mobility, PA level, and energy) and cognitive function, thus preventing falls and optimizing functional capacity during aging. Importantly, PA/exercise displays dose-response characteristics and varies between individuals, necessitating personalized modalities tailored to specific medical conditions. Precision in exercise prescriptions remains a significant area of further research, given the global impact of aging and broad effects of PA. Economic analyses underscore the cost benefits of exercise programs, justifying broader integration into health care for older adults. However, despite these benefits, exercise is far from fully integrated into medical practice for older people. Many healthcare professionals, including geriatricians, need more training to incorporate exercise directly into patient care, whether in settings including hospitals, outpatient clinics, or residential care. Education about the use of exercise as isolated or adjunctive treatment for geriatric syndromes and chronic diseases would do much to ease the problems of polypharmacy and widespread prescription of potentially inappropriate medications. This intersection of prescriptive practices and PA/exercise offers a promising approach to enhance the well-being of older adults. An integrated strategy that combines exercise prescriptions with pharmacotherapy would optimize the vitality and functional independence of older people whilst minimizing adverse drug reactions. This consensus provides the rationale for the integration of PA into health promotion, disease prevention, and management strategies for older adults. Guidelines are included for specific modalities and dosages of exercise with proven efficacy in randomized controlled trials. Descriptions of the beneficial physiological changes, attenuation of aging phenotypes, and role of exercise in chronic disease and disability management in older adults are provided. The use of exercise in cardiometabolic disease, cancer, musculoskeletal conditions, frailty, sarcopenia, and neuropsychological health is emphasized. Recommendations to bridge existing knowledge and implementation gaps and fully integrate PA into the mainstream of geriatric care are provided. Particular attention is paid to the need for personalized medicine as it applies to exercise and geroscience, given the inter-individual variability in adaptation to exercise demonstrated in older adult cohorts. Overall, this consensus provides a foundation for applying and extending the current knowledge base of exercise as medicine for an aging population to optimize health span and quality of life.

Intensity-specific physical activity measured by accelerometer and the risk of mortality among individuals with cardiometabolic diseases: A prospective study from the UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

While the health benefits of physical activity for general population are well-recognized, the prospective associations of physical activity volume and intensity with mortality among cardiometabolic disease individuals remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate the associations of accelerometer-measured intensity-specific physical activity with mortality risk among population with cardiometabolic disease.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Participants were recruited from the United Kingdom (UK) across 22 assessment centers from 2006 to 2010.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 9524 participants from the UK Biobank (median: 67.00 years, interquartile range: 61.00-70.00 years) were included in final study.

METHODS

Accelerometer-measured total volume, moderate-to-vigorous and light intensity physical activity collecting from 2013 to 2015 were quantified using a machine learning model. Multivariable restricted cubic splines and Cox proportional hazard models with hazard ratios (HRs) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) were employed to examine the associations of interests.

RESULTS

During the follow-up period (median: 6.87 years; interquartile range: 6.32-7.39 years), there were 659 (6.92 %) death events with 218 (2.29 %) cardiovascular disease-related deaths and 441 (4.63 %) non-cardiovascular disease-related deaths separately. In the fully adjusted models, compared with participants in the lowest quartiles of total volume, moderate-to-vigorous and light physical activities, the adjusted HRs (95 % CIs) of all-cause mortality for those in the highest quartiles were 0.40 (0.31, 0.52), 0.48 (0.37, 0.61), and 0.56 (0.44, 0.71) while those for cardiovascular diseases-related mortality were 0.35 (0.22, 0.55), 0.52 (0.35, 0.78) and 0.59 (0.39, 0.88), and for non-cardiovascular diseases-related mortality, they were 0.42 (0.30, 0.59), 0.40 (0.29, 0.54) and 0.54 (0.40, 0.73), separately. The optimal moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity level for cardiovascular diseases-related mortality reduction was found to be in the third quartile (17.75-35.33 min/day). Furthermore, the observed inverse associations were mainly non-linear.

CONCLUSIONS

Promoting physical activity, regardless of intensity, is essential for individuals with cardiometabolic disease to reduce mortality risk. For both all-cause and cardiovascular disease-related and non-cardiovascular disease-related mortality, the observed decrease in risk seems to level off at a moderate level. The current findings deriving from precise device-based physical activity data provide inference for secondary prevention of cardiometabolic disease.

Lifestyle factors as determinants of atherosclerotic cardiovascular health

A sedentary lifestyle, low levels of physical activity and fitness, poor dietary patterns, and psychosocial stress are strongly associated with increased morbidity and mortality from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Conversely, engaging in regular physical activity, maintaining optimal fitness levels, adhering to a heart-healthy dietary pattern, effectively managing body weight, ensuring adequate sleep, implementing stress-reduction strategies, and addressing psychosocial risk factors are associated with a reduced risk of ASCVD. This comprehensive review synthesizes current evidence from large observational studies and randomized controlled trials on lifestyle factors as determinants of ASCVD health. It also briefly reviews mechanistic insights into how factors such as low shear stress, increased reactive oxygen species production, chronic inflammation, platelets and coagulation activation, endothelial dysfunction, and sympathetic hyperactivity contribute to the initiation and exacerbation of ASCVD risk factors. These include obesity, hyperglycemia, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, subsequently leading to the development and progression of atherosclerosis, ultimately resulting in chronic ASCVD or acute cardiovascular events. To bridge the translational gap between epidemiologic and trial-based evidence and clinical practice, practical recommendations are summarized to facilitate the translation of scientific knowledge into actionable interventions to promote ASCVD health. Acknowledged is the gap between the evidence-based knowledge and adoption within healthcare systems, which remains a crucial objective in advancing cardiovascular health at the population level.

Selected morphological, cardiovascular and neuromuscular risk profiles among asymptomatic sedentary men performing Islamic prayer

Background

This study investigated morphological, cardiovascular and neuromuscular profiles among asymptomatic sedentary men performing the Islamic prayer (Salaah). This study emphasised the need for an inquiry into unique sedentary populations who perform Islamic prayer as physical activity.

Methods

An experimental study was conducted among male participants (n=20). Resting heart rate (RHR), resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), resting diastolic blood pressure (DBP), body mass index (BMI) and percentage body fat (BF%) were measured before a timed Salaah simulation activity. Electromyography (EMG) of the vastus medialis oblique (VMO) was measured for maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) and two movement transitions of the Islamic prayer (Salaah). Bilateral manual muscle strength (MMT) testing was also completed. Inferential and descriptive statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (IBM, V.27.0). Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine statistically significant relationships between variables. The level of significance was set at p<0.05.

Results

Negative correlations between post-Salaah SBP and MVC average (r=-0.19; p=0.42) and between the post-Salaah DBP and the MVC average (r=-0.40; p=0.08) were not significant. Weak correlations were found between the MVC average and the right (r=0.14; p=0.56) and left (r=0.18; p=0.44) quadriceps femoris MMT values.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that individuals who performed the Salaah were reasonably healthy in terms of BMI, BF%, RHR, resting SBP, resting DBP, MMT and MVC average values. The study further demonstrated the electromyographic activity of the VMO muscle through the Salaah for two movement transitions of the prayer. Verily, this demonstrates preliminary evidence of EMG activity for the VMO muscle in those who perform the Salaah.

Cocoa flavanols improve peakVO2 and exercise capacity in a randomized double blinded clinical trial in healthy elderly people

Background: Loss of functional capacity is one of the hallmarks in cardiovascular aging. Cocoa flavanols (CF) exert favorable effects on endothelial function, blood pressure, and inflammation. These cardiovascular health markers worsen with increasing age and limit functional exercise capacity. Aim: To investigate the effect of CF on cardiorespiratory-fitness in healthy elderly people. Methods: In a randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled, parallel-group dietary intervention trial, 68 healthy elderly people (55-79 years, 28 female) received either 500 mg of CF or a nutrient-matched control capsule twice a day for 30 days. Primary endpoint was defined as peak oxygen consumption (VO2) in a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET). Secondary endpoints were oxygen pulse (VO2 per heart rate (HR)), resting blood pressure (BP), and resting vascular function. Results: After 30 days of CF intake peakVO2 increased by 190 ml min-1 (95% CI 1-371 ml min-1) and peakVO2 per kg by 2.5 ml (min kg)-1 (95% CI 0.30-4.2 ml (min kg)-1). O2-pulse increased by 1.7 ml (95% CI 0.29-3.2 ml) and max exercise capacity by 9.6 W (95% CI 2.1-17.7 W). CF decreased resting systolic and diastolic BP by 5.4 mmHg (95% CI -10.7 to -0.1 mmHg) and 2.9 mmHg (95% CI -5.5 to -0.4 mmHg), respectively. Flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) increased by an absolute 1.3% (95% CI 0.76-1.79%) in the CF group. Indexes of pulmonary function were not affected. No changes for primary and secondary endpoints were detected in control. Conclusion: CF substantially improve markers of cardiorespiratory fitness in healthy elderly humans highlighting their potential to preserve cardiovascular health with increasing age.

Age-related decline in peak oxygen uptake: Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal findings. A review

Cardiorespiratory fitness is established as an important prognostic factor for cardiovascular and general health. In clinical settings cardiorespiratory fitness is often measured by cardiopulmonary exercise testing determining the gold-standard peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak). Due to the considerable impact of age and sex on VO_2peak, results from cardiopulmonary exercise testing are typically assessed in the context of age- and sex-specific reference values, and multiple studies have been conducted establishing reference materials by age and sex using cross-sectional designs. However, crossectional and longitudinal studies have shown somewhat conflicting results regarding age-related declines of VO_2peak, with larger declines reported in longitudinal studies. In this brief review, we compare findings from crossectional and longitudinal studies on age-related trajectories in VO_2peak to highlight differences in these estimates which should be acknowledged when clinicians interpret VO_2peak measurements repeated over time.

Effect of lifestyle interventions on carotid arterial structure - The DR's EXTRA study

No lifestyle-based interventions with medium-term duration on carotid atherosclerotic have been performed so far. We aimed to investigate whether guideline-based dietary and physical activity interventions slow the progression of atherosclerotic changes in the general elderly population. 1410 Finnish men and women from a representative population sample were randomly assigned to one of six groups in the four-year intervention study: 1) reference, 2) aerobic training, 3) resistance training, 4) Nordic Diet, 5) aerobic training + Nordic Diet, 6) resistance training + Nordic Diet. The primary outcome was mean common carotid artery intima-media thickness (cIMT). The lumen diameter of the common carotid artery (cLD) was also analyzed. 567 men and 565 women aged 57 to 78 years were included. None of the intervention groups significantly slowed cIMT progression compared to the reference group. A subgroup analysis showed that men in the diet group had significantly smaller cIMT progression than in the reference group (-0.078 mm, 95% CI: -0.146 to -0.009, p = 0.02) and no significant increase in cIMT (p = 0.23). No other group showed a slowed cIMT progression. Among guideline-based lifestyle interventions, only diet leads to a significantly smaller progression of cIMT in older men of a representative population sample. No other lifestyle intervention contributed to a slowing of the progression of structural carotid markers. It must be questioned whether the guideline-based recommendations for a lifestyle change that were in place until recently are adequate to decelerate the atherosclerotic process.

Changes in cardiovascular-health blood biomarkers in response to exercise intervention among older adults with cognitive frailty: A scoping review

Introduction: Cardiovascular health contributes significantly to the incidence of cognitive impairment. Prior to conducting exercise-related intervention, it is crucial to explore cardiovascular health blood parameters that have been commonly used as guidance for the purpose of monitoring. Information on the effectiveness of exercise on cardiovascular-related biomarkers is lacking, especially among older adults with cognitive frailty. Therefore, we aimed to review existing evidence on cardiovascular-related blood parameters and their changes following exercise intervention among older adults with cognitive frailty. Methods: A systematic search was conducted on PubMed, Cochrane, and Scopus databases. Related studies involving only human and full text in either English or Malay language were selected. Types of impairment were limited to cognitive impairment, frailty, and cognitive frailty. Studies were restricted to randomized controlled trial and clinical trial design studies. For charting purposes, all variables were extracted and tabulated. Trends in types of parameters studied were explored. Results: A total of 607 articles were screened, and the final 16 were included in this review. Four cardiovascular-related blood parameter categories were extracted: inflammatory, glucose homeostasis, lipid profile, and hemostatic biomarkers. The common parameters monitored were IGF-1 and HbA1c, glucose, and insulin sensitivity in some studies. Out of the nine studies on inflammatory biomarkers, exercise interventions showed a reduction in pro-inflammatory markers, namely, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-15, leptin, and C-reactive protein and an increase in anti-inflammatory markers, namely, IFN-γ and IL-10. Similarly, in all eight studies, glucose homeostasis-related biomarkers had improved with exercise intervention. The lipid profile was tested in five studies, with four studies showing improvements with exercise intervention via a decrease in total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein and an increase in high-density lipoprotein. A decrease in pro-inflammatory biomarkers and an increase in anti-inflammatory biomarkers were demonstrated with multicomponent exercise, including aerobic exercise in six studies and aerobic exercise on its own in the remaining two studies. Meanwhile, four out of six studies that yielded improvements in glucose homeostasis biomarkers involved only aerobic exercise and the remaining two studies involved multicomponent with aerobic exercise. Conclusion: The most consistent blood parameters studied were glucose homeostasis and inflammatory biomarkers. These parameters have been shown to improve with multicomponent exercise programs, particularly with the inclusion of aerobic exercise.

Association of Smartphone‐Recorded Steps Over Years and Change in Cardiovascular Risk Factors Among Working‐Age Adults

Background

Few data exist on long‐term steps and their relation to changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors. We aimed to examine the associations using long‐term smartphone‐recorded steps.

Methods and Results

The present analysis made use of data from 2 national databases and a commercial app database. We evaluated the associations between smartphone‐recorded daily steps over 2 years and 2‐year changes in the cardiovascular disease risk factors. A total of 15 708 participants with mean (SD) age of 44.1 (9.5) and 23.5% women were included. After adjustment for potential confounders, differences in weight were almost linearly associated with 2‐year steps in men (estimate [SE] per 1000 steps/d: −0.33 [0.029] kg), and inversely related only above 5000 steps/d in women (−0.18 [0.054] kg). An inverse linear association with systolic blood pressure was observed in men (−0.34 [0.097] mm Hg) but not in women. Greater steps were associated with change in high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides (0.61 [0.068] and −3.4 [0.61] mg/dL in men; 0.64 [0.17] and −2.3 [0.67] mg/dL in women), while changes in low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol were evident in men only (−0.59 [0.17] mg/dL). A significant negative association with hemoglobin A1c was observed only in women (−0.012 [0.0043] %).

Conclusions

In a large cohort of Japanese adults, smartphone‐recorded steps over years were associated with beneficial changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors, with some differences between men and women in the associational patterns. The findings support the benefit of long‐term physical activity for cardiovascular disease health and suggest a useful role of smartphone‐recorded steps for monitoring cardiovascular disease risk over the long term.

An Intelligent Cardiopulmonary Training System and Adherence to Training Intensity: A Feasibility Study

Objective: Our aim was to evaluate the feasibility of our developed intelligent cardiopulmonary training system (ICTS) and of the percentage of time spent within the target HR range (%time) as an indicator of adherence to training intensity. Methods: In this noncontrolled trial, nine participants with sedentary lifestyles were recruited from the outpatient rehabilitation department of a teaching hospital. All participants received twelve 30 min sessions of cycling ergometer exercises (5 min warm up, 20 min training phase, and 5 min cool down) with the ICTS three times per week. Training intensity was determined at 60−80% heart rate reserve using cardiopulmonary exercise (CPET) pretests. During training, pedaling resistance was automatically adjusted by the ICTS to keep the user’s heart rate at the predetermined intensity range. Workload-peak and peak oxygen uptake (VO2-peak) were measured during the pretests and post-tests. We recorded the percentage of time spent within the target heart rate range (%time) during the 20 min training phase for each training session as an indicator of adherence. The correlation between %time and gains in VO2-peak was assessed. Results: After 4 weeks of training on the ICTS, workload-peak and VO2-peak significantly improved by 13.6 ± 7.2 w (mean ± SD, p = 0.008) and 1.5 ± 1.1 mL/kg/min (p = 0.011), respectively. The 12-session average %time ranged from 10.6% to 93.1% among the participants, and five participants achieved an average %time >80%. A positive correlation between average %time and training efficacy was found (rs = 0.85, p = 0.004). Conclusions: Cardiopulmonary training with an ICTS is feasible, and the percentage of time spent within the target heart rate range seems to be a reasonable indicator for monitoring training-intensity adherence.

Equipment-free, unsupervised high intensity interval training elicits significant improvements in the physiological resilience of older adults

Background

Reduced cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an independent risk factor for dependency, cognitive impairment and premature mortality. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a proven time-efficient stimulus for improving both CRF and other facets of cardiometabolic health also known to decline with advancing age. However, the efficacy of equipment-free, unsupervised HIIT to improve the physiological resilience of older adults is not known.

Methods

Thirty independent, community-dwelling older adults (71(SD: 5) years) were randomised to 4 weeks (12 sessions) equipment-free, supervised (in the laboratory (L-HIIT)) or unsupervised (at home (H-HIIT)) HIIT, or a no-intervention control (CON). HIIT involved 5, 1-minute intervals of a bodyweight exercise each interspersed with 90-seconds recovery. CRF, exercise tolerance, blood pressure (BP), body composition, muscle architecture, circulating lipids and glucose tolerance were assessed at baseline and after the intervention period.

Results

When compared to the control group, both HIIT protocols improved the primary outcome of CRF ((via anaerobic threshold) mean difference, L-HIIT: +2.27, H-HIIT: +2.29, both p < 0.01) in addition to exercise tolerance, systolic BP, total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol and m. vastus lateralis pennation angle, to the same extent. There was no improvement in these parameters in CON. There was no change in diastolic BP, glucose tolerance, whole-body composition or HDL cholesterol in any of the groups.

Conclusions

This is the first study to show that short-term, time-efficient, equipment-free, HIIT is able to elicit improvements in the CRF of older adults irrespective of supervision status. Unsupervised HIIT may offer a novel approach to improve the physiological resilience of older adults, combating age-associated physiological decline, the rise of inactivity and the additional challenges currently posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Trial registration

This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov and coded: NCT03473990.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12877-022-03208-y.

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids and Exercise Training: Breaking the Myths and Dealing With Better Outcome in Sarcopenia

Sarcopenia is an emerging clinical condition determined by the reduction in physical function and muscle mass, being a health concern since it impairs quality of life and survival. Exercise training is a well-known approach to improve physical capacities and body composition, hence managing sarcopenia progression and worsening. However, it may be an ineffective treatment for many elderly with exercise-intolerant conditions. Thus, the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) may be a plausible strategy, since these drugs can increase physical function and muscle mass. The decision to initiate AAS treatment should be guided by an evidence-based patient-centric perspective, once the balance between risks and benefits may change depending on the clinical condition coexisting with sarcopenia. This mini-review points out a critical appraisal of evidence and limitation of exercise training and AAS to treat sarcopenia.

Acute Effects of Strength and Endurance Training on Bone Turnover Markers in Young Adults and Elderly Men

CONTEXT

Exercise is recognized as an important strategy to prevent bone loss, but its acute effects on bone turnover markers (BTMs) and related markers remain uncertain.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the acute effects of two different exercise modes on BTMs and related markers in young adults of both sexes and elderly men.

DESIGN SETTING PARTICIPANTS

This was a three-group crossover within-subjects design study with a total of 53 participants-19 young women (aged 22-30), 20 young men (aged 21-30 years), and 14 elderly men (aged 63-74 years)-performing two different exercise sessions [strength training (ST) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT)] separated by 2 weeks, in a supervised laboratory setting.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Plasma volume-corrected serum measurements of the BTMs C-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (CTX-I) and procollagen of type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), total osteocalcin (OC), sclerostin, and lipocalin-2 (LCN2) at baseline, immediately after, and 3 and 24 h after each of the two exercise modes were performed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Analyses revealed sex- and age-dependent differences in BTMs and related bone markers at baseline and time-, sex-, and age-dependent differences in response to exercise. No differences between exercise modes were observed for BTM response except for sclerostin in young men and LCN2 in elderly men. An acute, transient, and uniform increase in P1NP/CTX-1 ratio was found in young participants, demonstrating that beneficial skeletal effects on bone metabolism can be attained through both aerobic endurance and resistance exercise, although this effect seems to be attenuated with age. The acute effects of exercise on bone-related biomarkers were generally blunted after 24 h, suggesting that persistent alterations following prolonged exercise interventions should be assessed at later time points.