1
|
Zanfaño L, Carro-Huerga G, Rodríguez-González Á, Mayo-Prieto S, Cardoza RE, Gutiérrez S, Casquero PA. Trichoderma carraovejensis: a new species from vineyard ecosystem with biocontrol abilities against grapevine trunk disease pathogens and ecological adaptation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1388841. [PMID: 38835860 PMCID: PMC11148300 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1388841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Trichoderma strains used in vineyards for the control of grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) present a promising alternative to chemical products. Therefore, the isolation and characterization of new indigenous Trichoderma strains for these purposes is a valuable strategy to favor the adaptation of these strains to the environment, thus improving their efficacy in the field. In this research, a new Trichoderma species, Trichoderma carraovejensis, isolated from vineyards in Ribera de Duero (Spain) area, has been identified and phylogenetically analyzed using 20 housekeeping genes isolated from the genome of 24 Trichoderma species. A morphological description and comparison of the new species has also been carried out. In order to corroborate the potential of T. carraovejensis as a biological control agent (BCA), confrontation tests against pathogenic fungi, causing various GTDs, have been performed in the laboratory. The compatibility of T. carraovejensis with different pesticides and biostimulants has also been assessed. This new Trichoderma species demonstrates the ability to control pathogens such as Diplodia seriata, as well as high compatibility with powdered sulfur-based pesticides. In conclusion, the autochthonous species T. carraovejensis can be an effective alternative to complement the currently used strategies for the control of wood diseases in its region of origin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Zanfaño
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Guzmán Carro-Huerga
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Álvaro Rodríguez-González
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Sara Mayo-Prieto
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Rosa E Cardoza
- Area of Microbiology, University School of Agricultural Engineers, Universidad de León, Ponferrada, Spain
| | - Santiago Gutiérrez
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Area of Microbiology, University School of Agricultural Engineers, Universidad de León, Ponferrada, Spain
| | - Pedro A Casquero
- Research Group of Engineering and Sustainable Agriculture, Natural Resources Institute, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ferara N, Špoljar S, Lugović-Mihić L, Gverić Grginić A, Rezo Vranješ V, Bešlić I, Perović J, Regović Džombeta T. Cutaneous Hyalohyphomycosis and Its Atypical Clinical Presentations in Immunosuppressed Patients. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:154. [PMID: 38276283 PMCID: PMC10817673 DOI: 10.3390/life14010154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
There has been a substantial increase in the number of cases of invasive fungal infections worldwide, which is associated with a growing number of immunosuppressed patients and a rise in antifungal resistance. Some fungi that were previously considered harmless to humans have become emerging pathogens. One of them is Purpureocillium lilacinum, a ubiquitous filamentous fungus commonly found in the environment, especially in the air and soil. P. lilacinum belongs to a bigger group of hyaline fungi that cause hyalohyphomycosis, a fungal infection caused by fungi with colorless hyphae. Although this is a heterogeneous group of fungi, there are similarities regarding their ubiquity, ways of transmission, affected patients, and difficulties in diagnostics and treatment. In hyalohyphomycosis, the skin is one of the most affected organs, which is why the involvement of dermatologists is crucial for the initial assessment, since the timely recognition and early diagnosis of this condition can prevent life-threatening infections and death. In this review, we covered cutaneous hyalohyphomycosis caused by P. lilacinum and other fungi in the same group, including Fusarium, Penicilium, Scedosporium, Scopulariopsis, Acremonium, and Trichoderma genera.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Ferara
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.F.); (S.Š.); (I.B.); (J.P.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Sanja Špoljar
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.F.); (S.Š.); (I.B.); (J.P.)
| | - Liborija Lugović-Mihić
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.F.); (S.Š.); (I.B.); (J.P.)
- School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ana Gverić Grginić
- Department of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hospital Infections, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Violeta Rezo Vranješ
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Microbiology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Iva Bešlić
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.F.); (S.Š.); (I.B.); (J.P.)
- School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Judita Perović
- Department of Dermatovenereology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Centre, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.F.); (S.Š.); (I.B.); (J.P.)
| | - Tihana Regović Džombeta
- Clinical Department of Pathology and Cytology, Sestre Milosrdnice University Hospital Center, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Department of Pathology, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Nagy VD, Zhumakayev A, Vörös M, Bordé Á, Szarvas A, Szűcs A, Kocsubé S, Jakab P, Monostori T, Škrbić BD, Mohai E, Hatvani L, Vágvölgyi C, Kredics L. Development of a Multicomponent Microbiological Soil Inoculant and Its Performance in Sweet Potato Cultivation. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11040914. [PMID: 37110337 PMCID: PMC10143537 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11040914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The cultivation and consumption of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) are increasing globally. As the usage of chemical fertilizers and pest control agents during its cultivation may lead to soil, water and air pollution, there is an emerging need for environment-friendly, biological solutions enabling increased amounts of healthy crop and efficient disease management. Microbiological agents for agricultural purposes gained increasing importance in the past few decades. Our goal was to develop an agricultural soil inoculant from multiple microorganisms and test its application potential in sweet potato cultivation. Two Trichoderma strains were selected: Trichoderma ghanense strain SZMC 25217 based on its extracellular enzyme activities for the biodegradation of plant residues, and Trichoderma afroharzianum strain SZMC 25231 for biocontrol purposes against fungal plant pathogens. The Bacillus velezensis strain SZMC 24986 proved to be the best growth inhibitor of most of the nine tested strains of fungal species known as plant pathogens, therefore it was also selected for biocontrol purposes against fungal plant pathogens. Arthrobacter globiformis strain SZMC 25081, showing the fastest growth on nitrogen-free medium, was selected as a component with possible nitrogen-fixing potential. A Pseudomonas resinovorans strain, SZMC 25872, was selected for its ability to produce indole-3-acetic acid, which is among the important traits of potential plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). A series of experiments were performed to test the selected strains for their tolerance to abiotic stress factors such as pH, temperature, water activity and fungicides, influencing the survivability in agricultural environments. The selected strains were used to treat sweet potato in two separate field experiments. Yield increase was observed for the plants treated with the selected microbial consortium (synthetic community) in comparison with the control group in both cases. Our results suggest that the developed microbial inoculant has the potential to be used in sweet potato plantations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the successful application of a fungal-bacterial consortium in sweet potato cultivation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Dávid Nagy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Anuar Zhumakayev
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Mónika Vörös
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ádám Bordé
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Szeged, Andrássy Street 15, 6800 Hódmezővásárhely, Hungary
| | - Adrienn Szarvas
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Szeged, Andrássy Street 15, 6800 Hódmezővásárhely, Hungary
| | - Attila Szűcs
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Sándor Kocsubé
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Péter Jakab
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Szeged, Andrássy Street 15, 6800 Hódmezővásárhely, Hungary
| | - Tamás Monostori
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Szeged, Andrássy Street 15, 6800 Hódmezővásárhely, Hungary
| | - Biljana D. Škrbić
- Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Edina Mohai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Lóránt Hatvani
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Kredics
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Dos Santos UR, Dos Santos JL. Trichoderma after crossing kingdoms: infections in human populations. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2023; 26:97-126. [PMID: 36748123 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2023.2172498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma is a saprophytic fungus that is used worldwide as a biocontrol and biofertilizer agent. Although considered nonpathogenic until recently, reports of human infections produced by members of the Trichoderma genus are increasing. Numerous sources of infection were proposed based upon patient data and phylogenetic analysis, including air, agriculture, and healthcare facilities, but the deficit of knowledge concerning Trichoderma infections makes patient treatment difficult. These issues are compounded by isolates that present profiles which exhibit high minimum inhibitory concentration values to available antifungal drugs. The aim of this review is to present the global distribution and sources of infections that affect both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts, clinical features, therapeutic strategies that are used to treat patients, as well as highlighting treatments with the best responses. In addition, the antifungal susceptibility profiles of Trichoderma isolates that have emerged in recent decades were examined and which antifungal drugs need to be further evaluated as potential candidates to treat Trichoderma infections are also indicated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Uener Ribeiro Dos Santos
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, State University of Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Jane Lima Dos Santos
- Immunobiology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, State University of Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Guzmán-Guzmán P, Kumar A, de los Santos-Villalobos S, Parra-Cota FI, Orozco-Mosqueda MDC, Fadiji AE, Hyder S, Babalola OO, Santoyo G. Trichoderma Species: Our Best Fungal Allies in the Biocontrol of Plant Diseases-A Review. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12030432. [PMID: 36771517 PMCID: PMC9921048 DOI: 10.3390/plants12030432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Biocontrol agents (BCA) have been an important tool in agriculture to prevent crop losses due to plant pathogens infections and to increase plant food production globally, diminishing the necessity for chemical pesticides and fertilizers and offering a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option. Fungi from the genus Trichoderma are among the most used and studied microorganisms as BCA due to the variety of biocontrol traits, such as parasitism, antibiosis, secondary metabolites (SM) production, and plant defense system induction. Several Trichoderma species are well-known mycoparasites. However, some of those species can antagonize other organisms such as nematodes and plant pests, making this fungus a very versatile BCA. Trichoderma has been used in agriculture as part of innovative bioformulations, either just Trichoderma species or in combination with other plant-beneficial microbes, such as plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). Here, we review the most recent literature regarding the biocontrol studies about six of the most used Trichoderma species, T. atroviride, T. harzianum, T. asperellum, T. virens, T. longibrachiatum, and T. viride, highlighting their biocontrol traits and the use of these fungal genera in Trichoderma-based formulations to control or prevent plant diseases, and their importance as a substitute for chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Guzmán-Guzmán
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químico-Biológicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia 58030, Mexico
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Department of Postharvest Science, ARO, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | | | - Fannie I. Parra-Cota
- Campo Experimental Norman E. Borlaug, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP), Ciudad Obregón 85000, Mexico
| | | | - Ayomide Emmanuel Fadiji
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Sajjad Hyder
- Department of Botany, Government College Women University Sialkot, Sialkot 51310, Pakistan
| | - Olubukola Oluranti Babalola
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa
| | - Gustavo Santoyo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Químico-Biológicas, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia 58030, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hinterdobler W, Bacher M, Shi BB, Baurecht D, Krisai-Greilhuber I, Schmoll M, Brecker L, Valant-Vetschera K, Schinnerl J. New cytochalasans from an endophytic Xylaria species associated with Costa Rican Palicourea elata (Rubiaceae). Nat Prod Res 2023; 37:85-92. [PMID: 34311632 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2021.1956490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Four new leucine-derived cytochalasans, possessing a 5,6,5,8-ring (1) and a 5,6,11-ring core (2-4), were isolated from a cultivated endophytic fungus Xylaria sp. strain WH2D4 (Xylariaceae). This fungus was isolated from leaves of the neotropical tree species Palicourea elata (Sw.) Borhidi (Rubiaceae) collected in Costa Rica. The chemical structures were determined by employing IR, MS as well as 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments. The stereochemistry at C-15 of compound 4 was determined by quantum calculations. The isolated compounds did not affect germination and growth of Trichoderma reesei and the opportunistic human fungal pathogen T. longibrachiatum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Hinterdobler
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Center for Health & Bioresources, Tulln, Austria
| | - Markus Bacher
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Chemistry of Renewables, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Bao-Bao Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Dieter Baurecht
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Monika Schmoll
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Center for Health & Bioresources, Tulln, Austria
| | - Lothar Brecker
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Johann Schinnerl
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Schalamun M, Schmoll M. Trichoderma - genomes and genomics as treasure troves for research towards biology, biotechnology and agriculture. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2022; 3:1002161. [PMID: 37746224 PMCID: PMC10512326 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2022.1002161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
The genus Trichoderma is among the best studied groups of filamentous fungi, largely because of its high relevance in applications from agriculture to enzyme biosynthesis to biofuel production. However, the physiological competences of these fungi, that led to these beneficial applications are intriguing also from a scientific and ecological point of view. This review therefore summarizes recent developments in studies of fungal genomes, updates on previously started genome annotation efforts and novel discoveries as well as efforts towards bioprospecting for enzymes and bioactive compounds such as cellulases, enzymes degrading xenobiotics and metabolites with potential pharmaceutical value. Thereby insights are provided into genomes, mitochondrial genomes and genomes of mycoviruses of Trichoderma strains relevant for enzyme production, biocontrol and mycoremediation. In several cases, production of bioactive compounds could be associated with responsible genes or clusters and bioremediation capabilities could be supported or predicted using genome information. Insights into evolution of the genus Trichoderma revealed large scale horizontal gene transfer, predominantly of CAZyme genes, but also secondary metabolite clusters. Investigation of sexual development showed that Trichoderma species are competent of repeat induced point mutation (RIP) and in some cases, segmental aneuploidy was observed. Some random mutants finally gave away their crucial mutations like T. reesei QM9978 and QM9136 and the fertility defect of QM6a was traced back to its gene defect. The Trichoderma core genome was narrowed down to 7000 genes and gene clustering was investigated in the genomes of multiple species. Finally, recent developments in application of CRISPR/Cas9 in Trichoderma, cloning and expression strategies for the workhorse T. reesei as well as the use genome mining tools for bioprospecting Trichoderma are highlighted. The intriguing new findings on evolution, genomics and physiology highlight emerging trends and illustrate worthwhile perspectives in diverse fields of research with Trichoderma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Schalamun
- Center for Health and Bioresources, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Monika Schmoll
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Division of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sal E, Stemler J, Salmanton-García J, Falces-Romero I, Kredics L, Meyer E, Würstl B, Lass-Flörl C, Racil Z, Klimko N, Cesaro S, Kindo AJ, Wisplinghoff H, Koehler P, Cornely OA, Seidel D. Invasive Trichoderma spp. infections: clinical presentation and outcome of cases from the literature and the FungiScope® registry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:2850-2858. [PMID: 35929089 PMCID: PMC9525085 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkac235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trichoderma spp. are filamentous fungi causing invasive fungal diseases in patients with haematological malignancies and in peritoneal dialysis patients. Objectives To analyse clinical presentation, predisposing factors, treatment and outcome of Trichoderma infections. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted for published cases of invasive Trichoderma infection in PubMed until December 2021 and by reviewing the included studies’ references. Cases from the FungiScope® registry were added to a combined analysis. Results We identified 50 invasive infections due to Trichoderma species, including 11 in the FungiScope® registry. The main underlying conditions were haematological malignancies in 19 and continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) in 10 cases. The most prevalent infection sites were lung (42%) and peritoneum (22%). Systemic antifungal therapy was administered in 42 cases (84%), mostly amphotericin B (n = 27, lipid-based formulation 13/27) and voriconazole in 15 cases (30%). Surgical interventions were performed in 13 cases (26%). Overall mortality was 48% (n = 24) and highest for allogeneic HSCT and solid organ transplantation (SOT) recipients [80% (4/5) and 77% (7/9), respectively]. In patients treated with amphotericin B, voriconazole and caspofungin, mortality was 55% (15/27), 46% (7/15) and 28% (2/7), respectively. Three out of four patients treated with a combination therapy of voriconazole and caspofungin survived. Conclusions Despite treatment with antifungal therapies and surgery, invasive Trichoderma infections are life-threatening complications in immunocompromised patients, especially after HSCT and SOT. In addition, Trichoderma spp. mainly affect the lungs in patients with haematological malignancies and the peritoneum in CAPD patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ertan Sal
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jannik Stemler
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Jon Salmanton-García
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Iker Falces-Romero
- Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Department, University Hospital La Paz, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - László Kredics
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Elisabeth Meyer
- Stabsstelle Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionsprävention, München Klinik, München, Germany
| | - Benjamin Würstl
- Stabsstelle Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionsprävention, München Klinik, München, Germany
| | - Cornelia Lass-Flörl
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM-EC), Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Zdenek Racil
- Institute of Haematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague, Czech Republic.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nikolay Klimko
- Department of Clinical Mycology, Allergology and Immunology, North Western State Medical University, St Petersburg, Russia
| | - Simone Cesaro
- Pediatric Haematology-Oncology, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Anupma Jyoti Kindo
- Department of Microbiology, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Sri Ramachandra University, Porur, Chennai, India
| | - Hilmar Wisplinghoff
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Philipp Koehler
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany
| | - Oliver A Cornely
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Clinical Trials Centre Cologne (ZKS Köln), Cologne, Germany
| | - Danila Seidel
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany.,University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine, Center for Integrated Oncology Aachen Bonn Cologne Duesseldorf (CIO ABCD) and Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), Cologne, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Bonn-Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Luković J, Potočnik I, Šantrić L, Radivojević L, Todorović B, Milijašević-Marčić S, Szűcs A, Kredics L, Vágvölgyi C, Hatvani L. Response of the mushroom pathogen Cladobotryum mycophilum to prochloraz and metrafenone fungicides and Streptomyces flavovirens actinobacteria. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2022; 57:636-643. [PMID: 35833259 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2022.2096360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
After an outbreak of cobweb disease of cultivated button mushroom in Serbia in 2003, the isolated fungal pathogen was initially identified as Cladobotryum dendroides (teleomorph Hypomyces rosellus) based on morpho-physiological traits. Molecular analysis indicated re-classification of two strains (isolated in 2004 and 2007) as Cladobotryum mycophilum (teleomorph Hypomyces odoratus). However, subsequent analysis of further five strains (isolated over the period 2003-2010) within the frames of the present study, also confirmed their identification as the exclusive cobweb causal agent C. mycophilum. After artificial inoculation, the symptoms observed on harvested and growing mushrooms were consistent with the appearance of cobweb disease. Pathogen sensitivity to fungicides was estimated by probit analyses. Fungicide susceptibility tests showed that C. mycophilum strains were highly sensitive both to prochloraz (ED50<0.087 µg mL-1) and the newly introduced metrafenone (ED50<0.15 µg mL-1). Furthermore, the growth of all examined strains of C. mycophilum was significantly inhibited by the indigenous actinobacterial strain Streptomyces flavovirens A06. A dual culture assay showed after 72 h that the percentage of radial growth inhibition of the pathogen ranged from 22.38 to 55.73%. Our findings suggest that the antagonistic S. flavovirens A06 might be a potential candidate for controlling the cobweb disease of cultivated button mushroom.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Luković
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Potočnik
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ljiljana Šantrić
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Biljana Todorović
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Attila Szűcs
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Kredics
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Lóránt Hatvani
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Trichodermosis: Human Infections Caused by Trichoderma Species. Fungal Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-91650-3_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
11
|
Holden N, Kredics L, Barak J. Thematic issue on Human Pathogens in the Environment: biology and risk factors. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 367:5831761. [PMID: 32379326 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Holden
- Cell & Molecular Sciences, the James Hutton Institute, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
| | - László Kredics
- Department of Microbiology, Facuclty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép fasor 52 H-6726 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Jeri Barak
- University of Wisconsin, Department of Plant Pathology, 790 Russell Labs, 1630 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Cai F, Druzhinina IS. In honor of John Bissett: authoritative guidelines on molecular identification of Trichoderma. FUNGAL DIVERS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-020-00464-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
AbstractModern taxonomy has developed towards the establishment of global authoritative lists of species that assume the standardized principles of species recognition, at least in a given taxonomic group. However, in fungi, species delimitation is frequently subjective because it depends on the choice of a species concept and the criteria selected by a taxonomist. Contrary to it, identification of fungal species is expected to be accurate and precise because it should predict the properties that are required for applications or that are relevant in pathology. The industrial and plant-beneficial fungi from the genus Trichoderma (Hypocreales) offer a suitable model to address this collision between species delimitation and species identification. A few decades ago, Trichoderma diversity was limited to a few dozen species. The introduction of molecular evolutionary methods resulted in the exponential expansion of Trichoderma taxonomy, with up to 50 new species recognized per year. Here, we have reviewed the genus-wide taxonomy of Trichoderma and compiled a complete inventory of all Trichoderma species and DNA barcoding material deposited in public databases (the inventory is available at the website of the International Subcommission on Taxonomy of Trichodermawww.trichoderma.info). Among the 375 species with valid names as of July 2020, 361 (96%) have been cultivated in vitro and DNA barcoded. Thus, we have developed a protocol for molecular identification of Trichoderma that requires analysis of the three DNA barcodes (ITS, tef1, and rpb2), and it is supported by online tools that are available on www.trichokey.info. We then used all the whole-genome sequenced (WGS) Trichoderma strains that are available in public databases to provide versatile practical examples of molecular identification, reveal shortcomings, and discuss possible ambiguities. Based on the Trichoderma example, this study shows why the identification of a fungal species is an intricate and laborious task that requires a background in mycology, molecular biological skills, training in molecular evolutionary analysis, and knowledge of taxonomic literature. We provide an in-depth discussion of species concepts that are applied in Trichoderma taxonomy, and conclude that these fungi are particularly suitable for the implementation of a polyphasic approach that was first introduced in Trichoderma taxonomy by John Bissett (1948–2020), whose work inspired the current study. We also propose a regulatory and unifying role of international commissions on the taxonomy of particular fungal groups. An important outcome of this work is the demonstration of an urgent need for cooperation between Trichoderma researchers to get prepared to the efficient use of the upcoming wave of Trichoderma genomic data.
Collapse
|
13
|
Ding M, Chen W, Ma X, Lv B, Jiang S, Yu Y, Rahimi M, Gao R, Zhao Z, Cai F, Druzhinina I. Emerging salt marshes as a source of Trichoderma arenarium sp. nov. and other fungal bioeffectors for biosaline agriculture. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 130:179-195. [PMID: 32590882 PMCID: PMC7818382 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Sustainable agriculture requires effective and safe biofertilizers and biofungicides with low environmental impact. Natural ecosystems that closely resemble the conditions of biosaline agriculture may present a reservoir for fungal strains that can be used as novel bioeffectors. METHODS AND RESULTS We isolated a library of fungi from the rhizosphere of three natural halotolerant plants grown in the emerging tidal salt marshes on the south-east coast of China. DNA barcoding of 116 isolates based on the rRNA ITS1 and 2 and other markers (tef1 or rpb2) revealed 38 fungal species, including plant pathogenic (41%), saprotrophic (24%) and mycoparasitic (28%) taxa. The mycoparasitic fungi were mainly species from the hypocrealean genus Trichoderma, including at least four novel phylotypes. Two of them, representing the taxa Trichoderma arenarium sp. nov. (described here) and T. asperelloides, showed antagonistic activity against five phytopathogenic fungi, and significant growth promotion on tomato seedlings under the conditions of saline agriculture. CONCLUSIONS Trichoderma spp. of salt marshes play the role of natural biological control in young soil ecosystems with a putatively premature microbiome. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The saline soil microbiome is a rich source of halotolerant bioeffectors that can be used in biosaline agriculture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M.‐Y. Ding
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - W. Chen
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste UtilizationJiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Solid Organic WastesEducational Ministry Engineering Center of Resource‐Saving FertilizersNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - X.‐C. Ma
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste UtilizationJiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Solid Organic WastesEducational Ministry Engineering Center of Resource‐Saving FertilizersNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - B.‐W. Lv
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste UtilizationJiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Solid Organic WastesEducational Ministry Engineering Center of Resource‐Saving FertilizersNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - S.‐Q. Jiang
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Y.‐N. Yu
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste UtilizationJiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Solid Organic WastesEducational Ministry Engineering Center of Resource‐Saving FertilizersNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - M.J. Rahimi
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE)TU WienViennaAustria
| | - R.‐W. Gao
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - Z. Zhao
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
| | - F. Cai
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
- Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab of Solid Organic Waste UtilizationJiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Solid Organic WastesEducational Ministry Engineering Center of Resource‐Saving FertilizersNanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE)TU WienViennaAustria
| | - I.S. Druzhinina
- Fungal Genomics Laboratory (FungiG)Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjingP.R. China
- Institute of Chemical, Environmental and Bioscience Engineering (ICEBE)TU WienViennaAustria
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Luković J, Milijašević-Marčić S, Hatvani L, Kredics L, Szűcs A, Vágvölgyi C, Duduk N, Vico I, Potočnik I. Sensitivity of Trichoderma strains from edible mushrooms to the fungicides prochloraz and metrafenone. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2020; 56:54-63. [PMID: 33156729 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2020.1838821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Twenty-two strains of Trichoderma spp. (T. harzianum species complex [THSC], Trichoderma aggressivum f. europaeum, Trichoderma pleuroti, and Trichoderma pleuroticola) causing green mold disease on edible mushrooms (button mushroom, shiitake and oyster mushroom), collected during 2004-2018 from four countries (Serbia, North Macedonia, Croatia, and Hungary) were examined. Based on their ITS (internal transcribed spacer) sequences, strains from shiitake mushroom in Serbia were identified as members of the THSC, while in samples obtained from Serbian and North-Macedonian oyster mushroom farms THSC, T. pleuroti and T. pleuroticola were detected, which represent the first findings in the region. In fungicide susceptibility tests, all examined Trichoderma strains were found to be highly sensitive to prochloraz (ED50<0.4 µg mL-1) and considerably susceptible to metrafenone (ED50 < 4 µg mL-1). The most sensitive taxon to both fungicides was THSC from oyster mushroom. The toxicity of metrafenone was satisfying and strains from oyster mushroom showed the highest sensitivity (ED50 < 1.43 µg mL-1), while strains originating from button mushroom and shiitake displayed similar susceptibilities (ED50 < 3.64 µg mL-1). After additional in vivo trials, metrafenone might also be recommended for the control of green mold disease in mushroom farms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Luković
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Lóránt Hatvani
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Kredics
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Attila Szűcs
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Nataša Duduk
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Vico
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Potočnik
- Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Belgrade, Serbia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Dos Santos UR, Costa MC, de Freitas GJC, de Oliveira FS, Santos BR, Silva JF, Santos DA, Dias AAM, de Carvalho LD, Augusto DG, Dos Santos JL. Exposition to Biological Control Agent Trichoderma stromaticum Increases the Development of Cancer in Mice Injected With Murine Melanoma. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:252. [PMID: 32547964 PMCID: PMC7272596 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological control agents (BCA) are an alternative to chemical pesticides and an emerging strategy to safely eliminate plant pathogens. Trichoderma spp. are the most common fungi used as BCAs. They produce spores that are released into the air and can potentially interact with immune system of mammals. We previously showed that Trichoderma affects expression of genes encoding pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and cytokines in mice. PRRs are involved in the recognition of microorganisms and can lead to pro-tumoral signaling. Here, we evaluated if mice injected with low doses of murine melanoma exhibited increased development of lung tumor when treated with conidia of T. stromaticum. Mice treated with T. stromaticum and inoculated with B16-F10 melanoma cells exhibited significant increase in tumor uptake (p = 0.006) and increased number of visible nodules in the lungs (p = 0.015). We also analyzed mRNA expression levels of genes encoding PRRs in lung of mice exposed to T. stromaticum and demonstrated that mice treated with T. stromaticum conidia exhibited lower expression levels of Clec7a and increased expression of Tlr4 (toll like receptor 4) compared to non-treated controls. The expression levels of Clec7a and Tlr2 were increased in mice treated with T. stromaticum and inoculated with murine melanoma compared to controls only inoculated with melanoma. Our results demonstrate that intranasal exposition to T. stromaticum increases tumor in the B16-F10 model, which may raise concerns regarding the safety of its use in agriculture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Uener R Dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | - Marliete C Costa
- Departamento de Microbiologia, ICB - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Gustavo J C de Freitas
- Departamento de Microbiologia, ICB - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Flávia S de Oliveira
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução - ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bianca R Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | - Juneo F Silva
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | - Daniel A Santos
- Departamento de Microbiologia, ICB - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Adriana A M Dias
- Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução - ICB, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Luciana D de Carvalho
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| | - Danillo G Augusto
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética, Universidade Federal Do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Jane L Dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Changes in Peptaibol Production of Trichoderma Species during In Vitro Antagonistic Interactions with Fungal Plant Pathogens. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10050730. [PMID: 32392805 PMCID: PMC7277233 DOI: 10.3390/biom10050730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma species are widely used as biofungicides for the control of fungal plant pathogens. Several studies have been performed to identify the main genes and compounds involved in Trichoderma–plant–microbial pathogen cross-talks. However, there is not much information about the exact mechanism of this profitable interaction. Peptaibols secreted mainly by Trichoderma species are linear, 5–20 amino acid residue long, non-ribosomally synthesized peptides rich in α-amino isobutyric acid, which seem to be effective in Trichoderma–plant pathogenic fungus interactions. In the present study, reversed phase (RP) high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS) was used to detect peptaibol profiles of Trichoderma strains during interactions with fungal plant pathogens. MS investigations of the crude extracts deriving from in vitro confrontations of Trichoderma asperellum and T. longibrachiatum with different plant pathogenic fungi (Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum species complex, Alternaria solani and Rhizoctonia solani) were performed to get a better insight into the role of these non-ribosomal antimicrobial peptides. The results revealed an increase in the total amount of peptaibols produced during the interactions, as well as some differences in the peptaibol profiles between the confrontational and control tests. Detection of the expression level of the peptaibol synthetase tex1 by qRT-PCR showed a significant increase in T. asperellum/R. solani interaction in comparison to the control. In conclusion, the interaction with plant pathogens highly influenced the peptaibol production of the examined Trichoderma strains.
Collapse
|