1
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Sherazi SAM, Abbasi A, Jamil A, Uzair M, Ikram A, Qamar S, Olamide AA, Arshad M, Fried PJ, Ljubisavljevic M, Wang R, Bashir S. Molecular hallmarks of long non-coding RNAs in aging and its significant effect on aging-associated diseases. Neural Regen Res 2022; 18:959-968. [PMID: 36254975 PMCID: PMC9827784 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.355751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is linked to the deterioration of many physical and cognitive abilities and is the leading risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. The growing aging population is a significant healthcare problem globally that researchers must investigate to better understand the underlying aging processes. Advances in microarrays and sequencing techniques have resulted in deeper analyses of diverse essential genomes (e.g., mouse, human, and rat) and their corresponding cell types, their organ-specific transcriptomes, and the tissue involved in aging. Traditional gene controllers such as DNA- and RNA-binding proteins significantly influence such programs, causing the need to sort out long non-coding RNAs, a new class of powerful gene regulatory elements. However, their functional significance in the aging process and senescence has yet to be investigated and identified. Several recent researchers have associated the initiation and development of senescence and aging in mammals with several well-reported and novel long non-coding RNAs. In this review article, we identified and analyzed the evolving functions of long non-coding RNAs in cellular processes, including cellular senescence, aging, and age-related pathogenesis, which are the major hallmarks of long non-coding RNAs in aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Aoun Mehmood Sherazi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic & Applied Sciences, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Asim Abbasi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Abdullah Jamil
- Department of Pharmacology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad Uzair
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic & Applied Sciences, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Ikram
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Shanzay Qamar
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Muhammad Arshad
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Basic & Applied Sciences, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Peter J. Fried
- Department of Neurology, Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (KS 158), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Milos Ljubisavljevic
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China,Mental Health Institute of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Shahid Bashir
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital, Dammam, Saudi Arabia,Correspondence to: Shahid Bashir, .
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2
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Perez Gomez AA, Karmakar M, Carroll RJ, Lawley KS, Amstalden K, Young CR, Threadgill DW, Welsh CJ, Brinkmeyer-Langford C. Genetic and immunological contributors to virus-induced paralysis. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 18:100395. [PMID: 34917987 PMCID: PMC8645428 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection by a single virus can evoke diverse immune responses, resulting in different neurological outcomes, depending on the host's genetic background. To study heterogenous viral response, we use Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus (TMEV) to model virally induced neurological phenotypes and immune responses in Collaborative Cross (CC) mice. The CC resource consists of genetically distinct and reproducible mouse lines, thus providing a population model with genetic heterogeneity similar to humans. We examined different CC strains for the effect of chronic stage TMEV-induced immune responses on neurological outcomes throughout 90 days post infection (dpi), with a particular focus on limb paralysis, by measuring serum levels of 23 different cytokines and chemokines. Each CC strain demonstrated a unique set of immune responses, regardless of presence or absence of TMEV RNA. Using stepwise regression, significant associations were identified between IL-1α, RANTES, and paralysis frequency scores. To better understand these interactions, we evaluated multiple aspects of the different CC genetic backgrounds, including haplotypes of genomic regions previously linked with TMEV pathogenesis and viral clearance or persistence, individual cytokine levels, and TMEV-relevant gene expression. These results demonstrate how loci previously associated with TMEV outcomes provide incomplete information regarding TMEV-induced paralysis in the CC strains. Overall, these findings provide insight into the complex roles of immune response in the pathogenesis of virus-associated neurological diseases influenced by host genetic background.
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Key Words
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, (ALS)
- Chromosome, (Chr)
- Chronic infection
- Collaborative Cross, (CC)
- Collaborative cross
- Cytokine
- Epstein-Barr Virus, (EBV)
- Host response
- IL-1 α
- Multiple Sclerosis, (MS)
- Paralysis
- Parkinson's disease, (PD)
- RANTES
- TMEV
- Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus, (TMEV)
- Viral infection
- blood brain barrier, (BBB)
- central nervous system, (CNS)
- days post infection, (dpi)
- experimental autoimmune encephalitis, (EAE)
- intraperitoneal, (IP)
- phosphate buffered saline, (PBS)
- plaque-forming units, (PFU)
- receptor for IL-1 α, (Il1r1)
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Affiliation(s)
- Aracely A. Perez Gomez
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Corresponding author. Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
| | - Moumita Karmakar
- Department of Statistics, College of Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Raymond J. Carroll
- Department of Statistics, College of Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Koedi S. Lawley
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Katia Amstalden
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Colin R. Young
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - David W. Threadgill
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - C. Jane Welsh
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Candice Brinkmeyer-Langford
- Interdisciplinary Faculty of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Texas A&M Institute for Neuroscience (TAMIN), Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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3
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Brinkmeyer-Langford C, Amstalden K, Konganti K, Hillhouse A, Lawley K, Perez-Gomez A, Young CR, Welsh CJ, Threadgill DW. Resilience in Long-Term Viral Infection: Genetic Determinants and Interactions. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111379. [PMID: 34768809 PMCID: PMC8584141 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Virus-induced neurological sequelae resulting from infection by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) are used for studying human conditions ranging from epileptic seizures to demyelinating disease. Mouse strains are typically considered susceptible or resistant to TMEV infection based on viral persistence and extreme phenotypes, such as demyelination. We have identified a broader spectrum of phenotypic outcomes by infecting strains of the genetically diverse Collaborative Cross (CC) mouse resource. We evaluated the chronic-infection gene expression profiles of hippocampi and thoracic spinal cords for 19 CC strains in relation to phenotypic severity and TMEV persistence. Strains were clustered based on similar phenotypic profiles and TMEV levels at 90 days post-infection, and we categorized distinct TMEV response profiles. The three most common profiles included "resistant" and "susceptible," as before, as well as a "resilient" TMEV response group which experienced both TMEV persistence and mild neurological phenotypes even at 90 days post-infection. Each profile had a distinct gene expression signature, allowing the identification of pathways and networks specific to each TMEV response group. CC founder haplotypes for genes involved in these pathways/networks revealed candidate response-specific alleles. These alleles demonstrated pleiotropy and epigenetic (miRNA) regulation in long-term TMEV infection, with particular relevance for resilient mouse strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice Brinkmeyer-Langford
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Katia Amstalden
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Kranti Konganti
- Texas A&M Institute for Genome Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.K.); (A.H.); (D.W.T.)
| | - Andrew Hillhouse
- Texas A&M Institute for Genome Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.K.); (A.H.); (D.W.T.)
| | - Koedi Lawley
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Aracely Perez-Gomez
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - Colin R. Young
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
| | - C. Jane Welsh
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.A.); (K.L.); (A.P.-G.); (C.R.Y.); (C.J.W.)
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - David W. Threadgill
- Texas A&M Institute for Genome Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (K.K.); (A.H.); (D.W.T.)
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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4
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Petermann F, Pękowska A, Johnson CA, Jankovic D, Shih HY, Jiang K, Hudson WH, Brooks SR, Sun HW, Villarino AV, Yao C, Singleton K, Akondy RS, Kanno Y, Sher A, Casellas R, Ahmed R, O'Shea JJ. The Magnitude of IFN-γ Responses Is Fine-Tuned by DNA Architecture and the Non-coding Transcript of Ifng-as1. Mol Cell 2019; 75:1229-1242.e5. [PMID: 31377117 PMCID: PMC6754279 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2019.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Interferon gamma (IFN-γ), critical for host defense and tumor surveillance, requires tight control of its expression. Multiple cis-regulatory elements exist around Ifng along with a non-coding transcript, Ifng-as1 (also termed NeST). Here, we describe two genetic models generated to dissect the molecular functions of this locus and its RNA product. DNA deletion within the Ifng-as1 locus disrupted chromatin organization of the extended Ifng locus, impaired Ifng response, and compromised host defense. Insertion of a polyA signal ablated the Ifng-as1 full-length transcript and impaired host defense, while allowing proper chromatin structure. Transient knockdown of Ifng-as1 also reduced IFN-γ production. In humans, discordant expression of IFNG and IFNG-AS1 was evident in memory T cells, with high expression of this long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and low expression of the cytokine. These results establish Ifng-as1 as an important regulator of Ifng expression, as a DNA element and transcribed RNA, involved in dynamic and cell state-specific responses to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Petermann
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - Catrina A Johnson
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Dragana Jankovic
- Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Han-Yu Shih
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kan Jiang
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - William H Hudson
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Stephen R Brooks
- Biodata Mining and Discovery Section, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Hong-Wei Sun
- Biodata Mining and Discovery Section, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alejandro V Villarino
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Chen Yao
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kentner Singleton
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Rama S Akondy
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yuka Kanno
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Alan Sher
- Immunobiology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Rafael Casellas
- Lymphocyte Nuclear Biology, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - John J O'Shea
- Lymphocyte Cell Biology Section, Molecular Immunology and Inflammation Branch, NIAMS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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5
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Chen YG, Satpathy AT, Chang HY. Gene regulation in the immune system by long noncoding RNAs. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:962-972. [PMID: 28829444 PMCID: PMC9830650 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 493] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging as critical regulators of gene expression in the immune system. Studies have shown that lncRNAs are expressed in a highly lineage-specific manner and control the differentiation and function of innate and adaptive cell types. In this Review, we focus on mechanisms used by lncRNAs to regulate genes encoding products involved in the immune response, including direct interactions with chromatin, RNA and proteins. In addition, we address new areas of lncRNA biology, such as the functions of enhancer RNAs, circular RNAs and chemical modifications to RNA in cellular processes. We emphasize critical gaps in knowledge and future prospects for the roles of lncRNAs in the immune system and autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Grace Chen
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA.,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Ansuman T Satpathy
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA.,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Howard Y Chang
- Center for Personal Dynamic Regulomes and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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6
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Liu W, Ding C. Roles of LncRNAs in Viral Infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:205. [PMID: 28603696 PMCID: PMC5445353 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many proteins and signaling pathways participate in anti-viral host responses. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), a subset of non-coding RNAs greater than 200 nucleotides in length, have been recently described as critical regulators in viral infections. Accumulating research indicates that lncRNAs are important in the development and progression of infectious diseases. LncRNAs are not only involved in anti-viral responses, but in many different virus-host interactions, some of which may be beneficial to the virus. Here we review the current knowledge regarding host and viral lncRNAs and their roles in viral infections. In addition, the potential of using lncRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Liu
- Avian infectious Department, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural ScienceShanghai, China
| | - Chan Ding
- Avian infectious Department, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural ScienceShanghai, China
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7
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Long non-coding RNAs: Mechanism of action and functional utility. Noncoding RNA Res 2016; 1:43-50. [PMID: 30159410 PMCID: PMC6096411 DOI: 10.1016/j.ncrna.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent RNA sequencing studies have revealed that most of the human genome is transcribed, but very little of the total transcriptomes has the ability to encode proteins. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are non-coding transcripts longer than 200 nucleotides. Members of the non-coding genome include microRNA (miRNA), small regulatory RNAs and other short RNAs. Most of long non-coding RNA (lncRNAs) are poorly annotated. Recent recognition about lncRNAs highlights their effects in many biological and pathological processes. LncRNAs are dysfunctional in a variety of human diseases varying from cancerous to non-cancerous diseases. Characterization of these lncRNA genes and their modes of action may allow their use for diagnosis, monitoring of progression and targeted therapies in various diseases. In this review, we summarize the functional perspectives as well as the mechanism of action of lncRNAs.
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8
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Tan SZK, Tan MZY, Prabakaran M. Saffold virus, an emerging human cardiovirus. Rev Med Virol 2016; 27. [PMID: 27723176 PMCID: PMC7169152 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Saffold virus (SAFV) is an emerging human cardiovirus that has been shown to be ubiquitous. Initial studies of SAFV focused on respiratory and gastrointestinal infection; however, it has also recently been associated with diverse clinical symptoms including the endocrine, cardiovascular, and neurological systems. Given the systemic nature of SAFV, and its high prevalence, understanding its pathogenicity and clinical impact is of utmost importance. This comprehensive review highlights and discusses recent developments in epidemiology, human pathogenicity, animal, and molecular studies related to SAFV. It also provides detailed insights into the neuropathogenicity of SAFV. We argue that human studies have been confounded by coinfections and therefore require support from robust molecular and animal research. Thereby, we aim to provide foresight into further research to better understand this emerging virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Zheng Kai Tan
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
| | - Mark Zheng Yi Tan
- Critical Care Unit, Central Manchester Foundation NHS Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Mookkan Prabakaran
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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9
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Tan SZK, Chua KB, Xu Y, Prabakaran M. The Pathogenesis of Saffold Virus in AG129 Mice and the Effects of Its Truncated L Protein in the Central Nervous System. Viruses 2016; 8:v8020024. [PMID: 26901216 PMCID: PMC4776182 DOI: 10.3390/v8020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Saffold Virus (SAFV) is a human cardiovirus that has been suggested to cause severe infection of the central nervous system (CNS). Compared to a similar virus, Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), SAFV has a truncated Leader (L) protein, a protein essential in the establishment of persistent CNS infections. In this study, we generated a chimeric SAFV by replacing the L protein of SAFV with that of TMEV. We then compared the replication in cell cultures and pathogenesis in a mouse model. We showed that both SAFV and chimeric SAFV are able to infect Vero and Neuro2a cells well, but only chimeric SAFV was able to infect RAW264.7. We then showed that mice lacking IFN-α/β and IFN-γ receptors provide a good animal model for SAFV infection, and further identified the locality of the infection to the ventral horn of the spine and several locations in the brain. Lastly, we showed that neither SAFV nor chimeric SAFV causes persistence in this model. Overall, our results provide a strong basis on which the mechanisms underlying Saffold virus induced neuropathogenesis can be further studied and, hence, facilitating new information about its pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Zheng Kai Tan
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
| | - Kaw Bing Chua
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
| | - Yishi Xu
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
| | - Mookkan Prabakaran
- Temasek Life Science Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
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10
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Abstract
Dynamic gene expression during cellular differentiation is tightly coordinated by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. An emerging theme is the central role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the regulation of this specificity. Recent advances demonstrate that lncRNAs are expressed in a lineage-specific manner and control the development of several cell types in the hematopoietic system. Moreover, specific lncRNAs are induced to modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. lncRNAs can function via RNA-DNA, RNA-RNA, and RNA-protein target interactions. As a result, they affect several stages of gene regulation, including chromatin modification, mRNA biogenesis, and protein signaling. We discuss recent advances, future prospects, and challenges in understanding the roles of lncRNAs in immunity and immune-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansuman T Satpathy
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Howard Y Chang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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11
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Kim J, Kim KM, Noh JH, Yoon JH, Abdelmohsen K, Gorospe M. Long noncoding RNAs in diseases of aging. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2015; 1859:209-21. [PMID: 26141605 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2015.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Revised: 06/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aging is a process during which progressive deteriorating of cells, tissues, and organs over time lead to loss of function, disease, and death. Towards the goal of extending human health span, there is escalating interest in understanding the mechanisms that govern aging-associated pathologies. Adequate regulation of expression of coding and noncoding genes is critical for maintaining organism homeostasis and preventing disease processes. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are increasingly recognized as key regulators of gene expression at all levels--transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational. In this review, we discuss our emerging understanding of lncRNAs implicated in aging illnesses. We focus on diseases arising from age-driven impairment in energy metabolism (obesity, diabetes), the declining capacity to respond homeostatically to proliferative and damaging stimuli (cancer, immune dysfunction), and neurodegeneration. We identify the lncRNAs involved in these ailments and discuss the rising interest in lncRNAs as diagnostic and therapeutic targets to ameliorate age-associated pathologies and prolong health. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Clues to long noncoding RNA taxonomy1, edited by Dr. Tetsuro Hirose and Dr. Shinichi Nakagawa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyoung Kim
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Kyoung Mi Kim
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Ji Heon Noh
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Je-Hyun Yoon
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Kotb Abdelmohsen
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Myriam Gorospe
- Laboratory of Genetics, National Institute on Aging-Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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12
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Qu K, Zaba LC, Giresi PG, Li R, Longmire M, Kim YH, Greenleaf WJ, Chang HY. Individuality and variation of personal regulomes in primary human T cells. Cell Syst 2015; 1:51-61. [PMID: 26251845 DOI: 10.1016/j.cels.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Here we survey variation and dynamics of active regulatory elements genome-wide using longitudinal samples from human individuals. We applied Assay of Transposase Accessible Chromatin with sequencing (ATAC-seq) to map chromatin accessibility in primary CD4+ T cells isolated from standard blood draws of 12 healthy volunteers over time, from cancer patients, and during T cell activation. Over 4,000 predicted regulatory elements (7.2%) showed reproducible variation in accessibility between individuals. Gender was the most significant attributable source of variation. ATAC-seq revealed previously undescribed elements that escape X chromosome inactivation and predicted gender-specific gene regulatory networks across autosomes, which coordinately affect genes with immune function. Noisy regulatory elements with personal variation in accessibility are significantly enriched for autoimmune disease loci. Over one third of regulome variation lacked genetic variation in cis, suggesting contributions from environmental or epigenetic factors. These results refine concepts of human individuality and provide a foundational reference for comparing disease-associated regulomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Qu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Lisa C Zaba
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Paul G Giresi
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Rui Li
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Michelle Longmire
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Youn H Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - William J Greenleaf
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Howard Y Chang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Program in Epithelial Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
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13
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Noncoding RNA Expression During Viral Infection: The Long and the Short of It. MICRORNAS AND OTHER NON-CODING RNAS IN INFLAMMATION 2015. [PMCID: PMC7123390 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-13689-9_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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14
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Li Z, Rana TM. Decoding the noncoding: prospective of lncRNA-mediated innate immune regulation. RNA Biol 2014; 11:979-85. [PMID: 25482890 PMCID: PMC4615744 DOI: 10.4161/rna.29937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system is the first line of defense against microbial pathogens, but tight regulation of gene expression is necessary to prevent the detrimental effects of unrestrained activation. Although the functions of most long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs; >200 nucleotides) are unknown, many have been shown to regulate diverse cellular activities. Recent reports by us and others have suggested that lncRNAs may also play critical roles in transcriptional regulation of gene expression during innate immune responses. Following engagement of Toll-like receptors, lncRNAs form functional RNA–protein complexes that recruit activators or remove repressors of transcription, leading to rapid expression of inflammatory mediators. These discoveries suggest that lncRNAs may contribute to the gene regulatory networks that govern host–pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhonghan Li
- a Program for RNA Biology; Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute ; La Jolla , CA USA
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15
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Abstract
Progress in complex trait mapping in mice has been accelerated by the development of new populations suited to high-resolution mapping and by statistical methodologies that control for population structure. When combined with newly acquired catalogs of sequence variation in inbred strains, the genetic architecture of these new populations makes it possible to dissect complex traits down to the level of single variants. These analyses have shown not only that complex traits are caused by multiple contributing loci but also that each locus is likely due to the combined effects of multiple causal DNA variants. In combination with new rapid methods for producing transgenic mice that make it efficient to test candidate genes and variants, these advances significantly enhance the mouse genetics toolbox for dissecting quantitative traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Mott
- Wellcome Trust Center for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom; ,
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16
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Gomez JA, Wapinski OL, Yang YW, Bureau JF, Gopinath S, Monack DM, Chang HY, Brahic M, Kirkegaard K. The NeST long ncRNA controls microbial susceptibility and epigenetic activation of the interferon-γ locus. Cell 2013; 152:743-54. [PMID: 23415224 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 528] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 07/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are increasingly appreciated as regulators of cell-specific gene expression. Here, an enhancer-like lncRNA termed NeST (nettoie Salmonella pas Theiler's [cleanup Salmonella not Theiler's]) is shown to be causal for all phenotypes conferred by murine viral susceptibility locus Tmevp3. This locus was defined by crosses between SJL/J and B10.S mice and contains several candidate genes, including NeST. The SJL/J-derived locus confers higher lncRNA expression, increased interferon-γ (IFN-γ) abundance in activated CD8(+) T cells, increased Theiler's virus persistence, and decreased Salmonella enterica pathogenesis. Transgenic expression of NeST lncRNA alone was sufficient to confer all phenotypes of the SJL/J locus. NeST RNA was found to bind WDR5, a component of the histone H3 lysine 4 methyltransferase complex, and to alter histone 3 methylation at the IFN-γ locus. Thus, this lncRNA regulates epigenetic marking of IFN-γ-encoding chromatin, expression of IFN-γ, and susceptibility to a viral and a bacterial pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Antonio Gomez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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17
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Abstract
In this review, we focus on the roles of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), including cellular and viral lncRNAs, in virus replication in infected cells. We survey the interactions and functions of several cellular lncRNAs such as XIST, HOTAIR, NEAT1, BIC, and several virus-encoded lncRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zhang
- Molecular Virology Section, Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0460, USA
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18
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Yalcin B, Flint J. Association studies in outbred mice in a new era of full-genome sequencing. Mamm Genome 2012; 23:719-26. [PMID: 22847376 PMCID: PMC3463788 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-012-9409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Thousands of loci that contribute to quantitative traits in outbred crosses of mice have been reported over the last two decades. In this review we discuss how outbred mouse populations can be used to map and identify the genes and sequence variants that give rise to quantitative variation. We discuss heterogeneous stocks, the diversity outbred, and commercially available outbred populations of mice. All of these populations are descended from a small number of progenitor strains. The availability of the complete sequence of laboratory strains means that in many cases it will be possible to reconstruct the genomes of the outbred animals so that in a genetic association study we can detect the effect of all variants, a situation that has so far eluded studies in completely outbred populations. These resources constitute a major advance and make it possible to progress from a quantitative trait locus to a gene at an unprecedented speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binnaz Yalcin
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology, 67404 Illkirch, France
| | - Jonathan Flint
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7BN UK
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19
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Moore TC, Al-Salleeh FM, Brown DM, Petro TM. IRF3 polymorphisms induce different innate anti-Theiler's virus immune responses in RAW264.7 macrophages. Virology 2011; 418:40-8. [PMID: 21810534 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2011.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2011] [Revised: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Persistent viral infections can lead to disease such as myocarditis. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infects macrophages of SJL/J (H-2s) mice establishing persistent infections leading to demyelinating disease. In contrast macrophages from B10.S (H-2s) mice clear TMEV. Activation of the transcription factor IRF3 induces IFNβ, ISG56, and apoptosis for viral clearance, but also inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-23 and IL6, which contribute to disease. Here we identify polymorphisms in the IRF3 of SJL/J versus B10.S mice that are located in DNA binding, nuclear localization, and autoinhibitory domains. SJL-IRF3 expression in RAW264.7 macrophage cells with or without TMEV infection decreased IL-23p19 promoter activity compared with B10S-IRF3. In contrast SJL-IRF3 increased IL-6, ISG56 and IFNβ in response to TMEV. B10S-IRF3 expression augmented apoptotic caspase activation and decreased viral RNA in TMEV-infected macrophages while SJL-IRF3 increased viral replication with less caspase activation. Therefore IRF3 polymorphisms contribute to viral persistence and altered cytokine expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler C Moore
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0740, USA
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20
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Flint J. Mapping quantitative traits and strategies to find quantitative trait genes. Methods 2010; 53:163-74. [PMID: 20643209 PMCID: PMC3036800 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2010.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1999 a meeting took place at the Jackson Laboratory, a large mouse research centre in Bar Harbor, Maine, to consider the value of systematically collecting phenotypes on inbred strains of mice (Paigen and Eppig (2000) [1]). The group concluded that cataloguing the extensive phenotypic diversity present among laboratory mice, and in particular providing the research community with data from cohorts of animals, phenotyped according to standardized protocols, was essential if we were to take advantage of the possibilities of mouse genetics. Beginning with the collection of basic physiological, biochemical and behavioral data on nine commonly used inbred strains, the project has expanded so that by the beginning of 2010 data for 178 strains had been collected, with 105 phenotype projects yielding over 2000 different measurements (Bogue et al. (2007) [2].
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Flint
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK.
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21
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Abstract
We compare and contrast the genetic architecture of quantitative phenotypes in two genetically well-characterized model organisms, the laboratory mouse, Mus musculus, and the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, with that found in our own species from recent successes in genome-wide association studies. We show that the current model of large numbers of loci, each of small effect, is true for all species examined, and that discrepancies can be largely explained by differences in the experimental designs used. We argue that the distribution of effect size of common variants is the same for all phenotypes regardless of species, and we discuss the importance of epistasis, pleiotropy, and gene by environment interactions. Despite substantial advances in mapping quantitative trait loci, the identification of the quantitative trait genes and ultimately the sequence variants has proved more difficult, so that our information on the molecular basis of quantitative variation remains limited. Nevertheless, available data indicate that many variants lie outside genes, presumably in regulatory regions of the genome, where they act by altering gene expression. As yet there are very few instances where homologous quantitative trait loci, or quantitative trait genes, have been identified in multiple species, but the availability of high-resolution mapping data will soon make it possible to test the degree of overlap between species.
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22
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Levillayer F, Mas M, Levi-Acobas F, Brahic M, Bureau JF. Interleukin 22 is a candidate gene for Tmevp3, a locus controlling Theiler's virus-induced neurological diseases. Genetics 2007; 176:1835-44. [PMID: 17483407 PMCID: PMC1931528 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.107.073536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Accepted: 04/26/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
After intracerebral inoculation, Theiler's virus induces in its natural host, the mouse, an acute encephalomyelitis followed, in susceptible animals, by chronic inflammation and primary demyelination. Susceptibility to demyelination among strains of laboratory mice is explained by the capacity of the immune system to control viral load during persistence. Also, differences of susceptibility to viral load between the susceptible SJL strain and the resistant B10.S strain are mainly due to two loci, Tmevp2 and Tmevp3, located close to the Ifng locus on chromosome 10. In this article, we show that the Tmevp3 locus controls both mortality during the acute encephalomyelitis and viral load during persistence. Most probably, two genes located in the Tmevp3 interval control these two different phenotypes with efficiencies that depend on the age of the mouse at inoculation. Il22, a member of the IL-10 cytokine family, is a candidate gene for the control of mortality during the acute encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Levillayer
- Unité des Virus Lents, URA CNRS1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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23
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Mi W, Young CR, Storts RW, Steelman AJ, Meagher MW, Welsh CJR. Restraint stress facilitates systemic dissemination of Theiler's virus and alters its pathogenecity. Microb Pathog 2006; 41:133-43. [PMID: 16949789 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2006.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2005] [Accepted: 06/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), a Picornavirus used as a viral model for multiple sclerosis (MS), causes an acute encephalomyelitis and chronic demyelination. The failure to clear the virus, which can result from stress, is a prerequisite for development of the later disease. Similarly, stressful life events have been associated with the development of MS. In the present study, a restraint stress (RS) model was used to investigate the effect of stress on the systemic dissemination of TMEV during the early stage of disease. Experimental data demonstrated that repeated RS remarkably facilitated the spread of virus from the CNS to such systemic organs as the spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, lungs and heart and compromised the ability of viral clearance within those tissues. RS also altered the pathogenecity of TMEV, enabling it to become cardiotropic, resulting in higher myocardial infectivity. These results demonstrate the profound impact that RS has upon both the tissue and organ dissemination of the virus, and the organ tropism of TMEV. An additional finding associated with stress was hepatic necrosis in the restrained animals, regardless of whether or not they were infected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Mi
- Genetics Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4458, USA
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24
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Mott R. Finding the molecular basis of complex genetic variation in humans and mice. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 361:393-401. [PMID: 16524828 PMCID: PMC1609339 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
I survey the state of the art in complex trait analysis, including the use of new experimental and computational technologies and resources becoming available, and the challenges facing us. I also discuss how the prospects of rodent model systems compare with association mapping in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Mott
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK.
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25
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Brahic M, Bureau JF, Michiels T. The genetics of the persistent infection and demyelinating disease caused by Theiler's virus. Annu Rev Microbiol 2006; 59:279-98. [PMID: 16153171 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's virus causes a persistent and demyelinating infection of the central nervous system of the mouse, which is one of the best animal models to study multiple sclerosis. This review focuses on the mechanism of persistence. The virus infects neurons for a few weeks and then shifts to white matter, where it persists in glial cells and macrophages. Oligodendrocytes are crucial host cells, as shown by the resistance to persistent infection of mice bearing myelin mutations. Two viral proteins, L and L*, contribute to persistence by interfering with host defenses. L, a small zinc-finger protein, restricts the production of interferon. L*, a unique example of a picornaviral protein translated from an overlapping open reading frame, facilitates the infection of macrophages. Susceptibility to persistent infection, which varies among inbred mouse strains, is multigenic. H2 class I genes have a major effect on susceptibility. Among several non-H2 susceptibility loci, Tmevp3 appears to regulate the expression of important cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Brahic
- Unité des Virus Lents, URA CNRS 1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France.
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26
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Flint J, Valdar W, Shifman S, Mott R. Strategies for mapping and cloning quantitative trait genes in rodents. Nat Rev Genet 2005; 6:271-86. [PMID: 15803197 DOI: 10.1038/nrg1576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 381] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 15 years, more than 2,000 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been identified in crosses between inbred strains of mice and rats, but less than 1% have been characterized at a molecular level. However, new resources, such as chromosome substitution strains and the proposed Collaborative Cross, together with new analytical tools, including probabilistic ancestral haplotype reconstruction in outbred mice, Yin-Yang crosses and in silico analysis of sequence variants in many inbred strains, could make QTL cloning tractable. We review the potential of these strategies to identify genes that underlie QTLs in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Flint
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford University, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom.
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27
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Abstract
The sequencing of the human and the mouse genomes has shown that the chromosomes of these two species contain approximately 30,000 genes. The biological systems that can be studied in an individual or in a tissue result from complex interactions within this multitude of genes. Before describing these interactions, it is necessary to understand the function of each gene. In the mouse, congenic strains are developed to introduce a chromosomal segment in a given inbred genetic background. One can then compare the biological effects of different alleles at the same locus in the same genetic background or the effect of a given allele in different genetic backgrounds. One can also introduce into different congenic strains with the same genetic background genes which control a complex genetic trait, then combine these genes by appropriate crosses to study their interactions. Although the chromosomal segment transferred into a congenic strain usually contains up to several hundreds of genes, molecular markers can be used to reduce this number as well as the number of crosses required for the development of congenic strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Montagutelli
- Unité de Génétique des mammifères, Institut Pasteur, 25, rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris 15, France.
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28
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Abstract
Gray has drawn upon genetic evidence to argue for the existence of rodent emotionality, a model of human neuroticism. With the advent of molecular mapping techniques it has become possible to test this hypothesis. Here I review the progress that has been made, largely in animal genetic studies, demonstrating that a common set of genes act pleiotropically on measures of emotionality. More recently, evidence has emerged supporting the view that the same genes influence variation in both rodent and human phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Flint
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK.
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29
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Oleszak EL, Chang JR, Friedman H, Katsetos CD, Platsoucas CD. Theiler's virus infection: a model for multiple sclerosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:174-207. [PMID: 14726460 PMCID: PMC321460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.17.1.174-207.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Both genetic background and environmental factors, very probably viruses, appear to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS). Lessons from viral experimental models suggest that many different viruses may trigger inflammatory demyelinating diseases resembling MS. Theiler's virus, a picornavirus, induces in susceptible strains of mice early acute disease resembling encephalomyelitis followed by late chronic demyelinating disease, which is one of the best, if not the best, animal model for MS. During early acute disease the virus replicates in gray matter of the central nervous system but is eliminated to very low titers 2 weeks postinfection. Late chronic demyelinating disease becomes clinically apparent approximately 2 weeks later and is characterized by extensive demyelinating lesions and mononuclear cell infiltrates, progressive spinal cord atrophy, and axonal loss. Myelin damage is immunologically mediated, but it is not clear whether it is due to molecular mimicry or epitope spreading. Cytokines, nitric oxide/reactive nitrogen species, and costimulatory molecules are involved in the pathogenesis of both diseases. Close similarities between Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans, include the following: major histocompatibility complex-dependent susceptibility; substantial similarities in neuropathology, including axonal damage and remyelination; and paucity of T-cell apoptosis in demyelinating disease. Both diseases are immunologically mediated. These common features emphasize the close similarities of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia L Oleszak
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, USA.
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30
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Nakane S, Zoecklein LJ, Gamez JD, Papke LM, Pavelko KD, Bureau J, Brahic M, Pease LR, Rodriguez M. A 40-cM region on chromosome 14 plays a critical role in the development of virus persistence, demyelination, brain pathology and neurologic deficits in a murine viral model of multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol 2004; 13:519-33. [PMID: 14655757 PMCID: PMC8095950 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2003.tb00482.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Theiler virus persists and induces immune-mediated demyelination in susceptible mice and serves as a model of multiple sclerosis. Previously, we identified 4 markers--D14Mit54, D14Mit60, D14Mit61, and D14Mit90--in a 40-cM region of chromosome 14 that are associated with demyelination in a cross between susceptible DBA/2 and resistant B10.D2 mice. We generated congenic-inbred mice to examine the contribution of this 40-cM region to disease. DBA Chr.14B10 mice, containing the chromosomal segment marked by the microsatellite polymorphisms, developed less spinal cord demyelination than did DBA/2 mice. More demyelination was found in the reciprocal congenic mouse B10.D2 Chr.14D2 than in the B10.D2 strain. Introduction of the DBA/2 chromosomal region onto the B10.D2 genetic background resulted in more severe disease in the striatum and cortex relative to B10.D2 mice. The importance of the marked region of chromosome 14 is indicated by the decrease in neurological performance using the Rotarod test during chronic disease in B10.D2 Chr.14D2 mice in comparison to B10.D2 mice. Viral replication was increased in B10.D2 Chr.14D2 mice as determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. These results indicate that the 40-cM region on chromosome 14 of DBA/2 mice contributes to viral persistence, subsequent demyelination, and loss of neurological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunya Nakane
- Department of Neurology and Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
| | | | - Jeffrey D. Gamez
- Department of Neurology and Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
| | - Louisa M. Papke
- Department of Neurology and Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
| | - Kevin D. Pavelko
- Department of Neurology and Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
| | | | - Michel Brahic
- Unité des Virus Lents, URA CNRS 1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Moses Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology and Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
- Immunology, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minn
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31
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Experimental Models of Virus-Induced Demyelination. MYELIN BIOLOGY AND DISORDERS 2004. [PMCID: PMC7155523 DOI: 10.1016/b978-012439510-7/50097-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This chapter reviews two of the most widely studied animal models of virus-induced demyelinating disease. These are Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus and murine hepatitis virus. Both viruses produce acute inflammatory encephalitis that is followed by chronic central-nervous-system (CNS) demyelinating disease. The clinical and pathologic correlates of virus-induced demyelination are largely immune mediated. Furthermore, several pathologic mechanisms have been proposed to explain the development of myelin damage and neurologic deficits, and each of the proposed mechanisms may play a role in disease progression depending on the genetic constitution of the infected animal. The induction of demyelinating disease by virus may be directly relevant to human MS. Several viruses are known to cause demyelination in humans and viral infection is an epidemiologic factor that is consistently associated with clinical exacerbation of MS. It is suggested that viral infection may be a cause of MS, although no specific virus has been identified as a causative agent.
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32
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Lee SH, Dimock K, Gray DA, Beauchemin N, Holmes KV, Belouchi M, Realson J, Vidal SM. Maneuvering for advantage: the genetics of mouse susceptibility to virus infection. Trends Genet 2003; 19:447-57. [PMID: 12902163 PMCID: PMC7127612 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-9525(03)00172-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies of host susceptibility to infection contribute to our understanding of an organism's response to pathogens at the immunological, cellular, and molecular levels. In this review we describe how the study of host genetics in mouse models has helped our understanding of host defense mechanisms against viral infection, and how this knowledge can be extended to human infections. We focus especially on the innate mechanisms that function as the host's first line of defense against infection. We also discuss the main issues that confront this field, as well as its future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Hwan Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1H 8M5
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33
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Vigneau S, Rohrlich PS, Brahic M, Bureau JF. Tmevpg1, a candidate gene for the control of Theiler's virus persistence, could be implicated in the regulation of gamma interferon. J Virol 2003; 77:5632-8. [PMID: 12719555 PMCID: PMC154023 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.10.5632-5638.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Tmevp3 locus controls the load of Theiler's virus RNA during persistent infection of the mouse central nervous system (CNS). We identified a candidate gene at this locus, Tmevpg1, by using a positional cloning approach. Tmevpg1 and its human ortholog, TMEVPG1, are expressed in the immune system and encode what appears to be a noncoding RNA. They are located in a cluster of cytokine genes that includes the genes for gamma interferon and one or two homolog of interleukin-10. We now report that Tmevpg1 is expressed in CNS-infiltrating immune cells of resistant B10.S mice, but not in those of susceptible SJL/J mice, following inoculation with Theiler's virus. The pattern of expression of Tmevpg1 is the same in B10.S mice and in SJL/J mice congenic for the resistant B10.S haplotype of Tmevp3. Nineteen polymorphisms were identified when the Tmevpg1 genes of B10.S and SJL/J mice were compared. Interestingly, Tmevpg1 is down regulated after in vitro stimulation of murine CD4(+) or CD8(+) splenocytes, whereas Ifng is up regulated. Similar patterns of expression of TMEVPG1 and IFNG were observed in human NK cells and CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Therefore, Tmevpg1 is a strong candidate gene for the Tmevp3 locus and may be involved in the control of Ifng gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soline Vigneau
- Unité des Virus Lents, CNRS URA 1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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34
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Butterfield RJ, Roper RJ, Rhein DM, Melvold RW, Haynes L, Ma RZ, Doerge RW, Teuscher C. Sex-specific quantitative trait loci govern susceptibility to Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelination. Genetics 2003; 163:1041-6. [PMID: 12663542 PMCID: PMC1462488 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/163.3.1041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Susceptibility to Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelination (TMEVD), a mouse model for multiple sclerosis (MS), is genetically controlled. Through a mouse-human comparative mapping approach, identification of candidate susceptibility loci for MS based on the location of TMEVD susceptibility loci may be possible. Composite interval mapping (CIM) identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling TMEVD severity in male and female backcross populations derived from susceptible DBA/2J and resistant BALBc/ByJ mice. We report QTL on chromosomes 1, 5, 15, and 16 affecting male mice. In addition, we identified two QTL in female mice located on chromosome 1. Our results support the existence of three linked sex-specific QTL on chromosome 1 with opposing effects on the severity of the clinical signs of TMEV-induced disease in male and female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell J Butterfield
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
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35
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Goris A, Heggarty S, Marrosu MG, Graham C, Billiau A, Vandenbroeck K. Linkage disequilibrium analysis of chromosome 12q14-15 in multiple sclerosis: delineation of a 118-kb interval around interferon-gamma (IFNG) that is involved in male versus female differential susceptibility. Genes Immun 2002; 3:470-6. [PMID: 12486605 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6363913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We have recently reported the association of a polymorphic intronic CA-repeat in the interferon-gamma gene (IFNG) with gender bias in susceptibility to multiple sclerosis (MS) in a Sardinian population. This association could refer to a functional polymorphism within IFNG or could be due to linkage disequilibrium between the IFNG marker and a neighbouring susceptibility locus. Within the average reach of linkage disequilibrium, various other candidate genes are located. Among these the most striking ones are the genes coding for the cytokines interleukin-22 (IL-22) and interleukin-26 (IL-26) that constitute together with IFNG a cytokine cluster on chromosome 12q14. To determine more precisely the location of this gender-associated susceptibility locus, we have now performed a more extensive linkage disequilibrium screen of this region using nine additional microsatellite markers. This locus appeared to be confined to a 118-kb interval that is bordered by the markers D12S313 and D12S2511, in which IFNG itself remains the main candidate gene. Haplotype analysis confirmed that this MS-associated locus protects males from developing MS according to a recessive or allele-dosage model. Our results indicate that the well-documented gender differences in susceptibility to MS are at least partially caused by genetic factors in the region surrounding IFNG.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Goris
- Rega Institute, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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36
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Aubagnac S, Brahic M, Bureau JF. Bone marrow chimeras reveal non-H-2 hematopoietic control of susceptibility to Theiler's virus persistent infection. J Virol 2002; 76:5807-12. [PMID: 11992010 PMCID: PMC137043 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.11.5807-5812.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The DA strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus persists in the white matter of the spinal cords of susceptible mice. Previous results showed that the difference in susceptibility to viral persistence between the susceptible SJL/J strain and the resistant B10.S strain was due to multiple non-H-2 loci. The respective roles of hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells in this difference have been evaluated with bone marrow chimeras. The results show that non-H-2 loci with a major effect on susceptibility are expressed in hematopoietic cells. However, the study of the SJL.B10-D10Mit180-D10Mit74 congenic line suggests that other loci expressed in nonhematopoietic cells also play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Aubagnac
- Unité des Virus Lents, CNRS URA 1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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37
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Norose K, Yano A, Zhang XM, Blankenhorn E, Heber-Katz E. Mapping of genes involved in murine herpes simplex virus keratitis: identification of genes and their modifiers. J Virol 2002; 76:3502-10. [PMID: 11884574 PMCID: PMC136007 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.7.3502-3510.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex keratitis (HSK) is an inflammatory response to viral infection and self antigens in the cornea and is a major cause of blindness. Using two strains of mice which are susceptible (129/SVEV) and resistant (C57BL/6) to herpes simplex virus (HSV) strain KOS, (129/SVEV x C57BL/6)F(2) mice were generated and examined for their disease susceptibility in terms of clinical symptoms, ocular disease, and antibody production following corneal scarification with HSV (KOS). A genome-wide screen was carried out using microsatellite markers to determine the genetic loci involved in this response. Loci on chromosomes 4, 5, 12, 13, and 14 were shown to be involved in general susceptibility to clinical disease, whereas loci on chromosomes 10 and 17 were shown to be unique to ocular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumi Norose
- Department of Infection and Host Defense, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, Japan
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38
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Vigneau S, Levillayer F, Crespeau H, Cattolico L, Caudron B, Bihl F, Robert C, Brahic M, Weissenbach J, Bureau JF. Homology between a 173-kb region from mouse chromosome 10, telomeric to the Ifng locus, and human chromosome 12q15. Genomics 2001; 78:206-13. [PMID: 11735227 DOI: 10.1006/geno.2001.6656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We sequenced a 173-kb region of mouse chromosome 10, telomeric to the Ifng locus, and compared it with the human homologous sequence located on chromosome 12q15 using various sequence analysis programs. This region has a low density of genes: one gene was detected in the mouse and the human sequences and a second gene was detected only in the human sequence. The mouse gene and its human orthologue, which are expressed in the immune system at a low level, produce a noncoding mRNA. Nonexpressed sequences show a higher degree of conservation than exons in this genomic region. At least three of these conserved sequences are also conserved in a third mammalian species (sheep or cow).
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Affiliation(s)
- S Vigneau
- Unité des Virus Lents (CNRS URA 1930), Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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39
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Thach DC, Kleeberger SR, Tucker PC, Griffin DE. Genetic control of neuroadapted sindbis virus replication in female mice maps to chromosome 2 and associates with paralysis and mortality. J Virol 2001; 75:8674-80. [PMID: 11507212 PMCID: PMC115112 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.18.8674-8680.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroadapted Sindbis virus (NSV) infection of mice causes hindlimb paralysis and 100% mortality in the C57BL/6 mouse strain, while adults of the BALB/cBy mouse strain are resistant to fatal encephalomyelitis. Levels of viral RNA are higher in the brains of infected C57BL/6 mice than in BALB/cBy mice (D. C. Thach et al., J. Virol. 74:6156-6161, 2000). These phenotypic differences between the two strains allowed us to map genetic loci involved in mouse susceptibility to NSV and to find relationships between mortality, paralysis, and viral RNA levels. Analysis of percent mortality in H2-congenic and F(1) mice suggested that the H2 locus, sex linkage, and imprinting were not involved in determining susceptibility and that resistance was partially dominant over susceptibility. Segregation analysis using CXB recombinant inbred (RI) mice indicated that the percent mortality was multigenic. Interval mapping detected a suggestive quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 2 near marker D2Mit447. Analysis of paralysis in the RI mice detected the same suggestive QTL. Viral RNA level in F(1) mice was intermediate. Interval mapping using viral RNA levels in RI mice detected a significant QTL near marker D2Mit447 that explained 69% of the genetic variance. This QTL was confirmed in F2 mice and was designated as Nsv1. Viral RNA level, percent paralyzed, and percent mortality were linearly correlated (r = 0.8 to 0.9). These results indicate that mortality, paralysis, and viral RNA levels are related complex traits and that Nsv1 controls early viral load and determines the likelihood of paralysis and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Thach
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205-2179, USA
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40
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Aubagnac S, Brahic M, Bureau JF. Viral load increases in SJL/J mice persistently infected by Theiler's virus after inactivation of the beta(2)m gene. J Virol 2001; 75:7723-6. [PMID: 11462045 PMCID: PMC115008 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.16.7723-7726.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We show that inactivating the beta(2)m gene increases the viral load of SJL/J mice persistently infected by Theiler's virus. Together with previous results, this shows that the characteristics of Tmevp1, a locus which controls the amount of viral RNA that persists in the central nervous system, are those of an H-2 class I gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Aubagnac
- Unité des Virus Lents, CNRS URA 1930, Institut Pasteur, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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41
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Blankenhorn EP, Butterfield RJ, Rigby R, Cort L, Giambrone D, McDermott P, McEntee K, Solowski N, Meeker ND, Zachary JF, Doerge RW, Teuscher C. Genetic analysis of the influence of pertussis toxin on experimental allergic encephalomyelitis susceptibility: an environmental agent can override genetic checkpoints. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:3420-5. [PMID: 10706738 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.6.3420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Pertussis toxin (PTX) is a potent ancillary adjuvant used to elicit several different autoimmune diseases, including experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). To delineate the genetics of PTX effect in EAE, we mapped EAE-modifying (eae-m) loci in cohorts of backcross mice immunized with and without PTX. In this study, we analyzed the genetic basis of EAE susceptibility and severity and the intermediate phenotypes of mononuclear cell infiltration, suppuration, and demyelination. In animals immunized with PTX, one major locus, eae9, controls disease susceptibility and severity. Eae9 also regulates the extent of mononuclear cell infiltration of the spinal cord in male mice. Without PTX, five eae-m loci were noted, including three new loci in intervals on chromosomes 8 (eae14), 10 (eae17), and 18 (eae18). Taken together, these results suggest that eae9 controls the effects of PTX in EAE susceptibility, and is capable of overriding the other genetic checkpoints in the pathogenesis of this disease.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Brain/pathology
- Crosses, Genetic
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/etiology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Female
- Genetic Markers
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease/etiology
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease/genetics
- Histamine/immunology
- Linear Models
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Pertussis Toxin
- Quantitative Trait, Heritable
- Severity of Illness Index
- Spinal Cord/pathology
- Virulence Factors, Bordetella/immunology
- Virulence Factors, Bordetella/toxicity
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Affiliation(s)
- E P Blankenhorn
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, MCP Hahnemann University, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.
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