Missing links: the case for a social psychology of the life course

A Qualitative Study of the Social Relationship Experiences Across the Life Course Among Black/African American Women Aging With HIV in the South

ABSTRACT

Black/African American women continue to be disproportionately affected by HIV, facing multiple intersecting challenges that influence how they age and effectively manage their health. Supportive social relationships have been shown to help mitigate challenges and improve health in women with HIV, but little is known about Black/African American women's perceptions of social relationships. Guided by Life Course Theory, in-depth life history interviews were conducted with 18 Black/African American women aged 50+ years. In older adulthood, most important relationships among Black/African American women were with their adult children and grandchildren, intimate partners, God, and friends from the community. Factors that influenced relationships over time included: (a) a desire to build a community; (b) a need to empower oneself and give back; (c) yearning to engage the younger generation; and (d) battling HIV stigma. Older Black/African American women with HIV played a critical role in the education of the younger generation.

The Indirect Impact of Educational Attainment as a Distal Resource for Older Adults on Loneliness, Social Isolation, Psychological Resilience, and Technology Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cross-Sectional Quantitative Study

BACKGROUND

During the COVID-19 pandemic, government-mandated social distancing prevented the spread of the disease but potentially exacerbated social isolation and loneliness for older people, especially those already vulnerable to isolation. Older adults may have been able to draw from their personal resources such as psychological resilience (PR) and technology use (TU) to combat such effects. Educational attainment (EA) or early-life EA may potentially shape later-life personal resources and their impact on the effects of the pandemic lockdown on outcomes such as loneliness. The developmental adaptation model allows for the supposition that social isolation, TU, and PR may be affected by early EA in older adults.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the indirect impact of EA on pandemic-linked loneliness in a sample of older adults. The developmental adaptation model was used as the conceptual framework to view EA as a distal influence on loneliness, social isolation, PR, and TU. We hypothesized that EA would predict TU and PR and have a moderating impact on social isolation and loneliness. We also hypothesized that PR and TU would mediate the effect of EA on loneliness.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional observational study, in which data were gathered from 92 older adults aged ≥65 years in the United Kingdom from March 2020 to June 2021, when the country was under various pandemic-linked social mobility restrictions. The data captured demographic information including age, gender, ethnicity, and the highest degree of education achieved. The University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, Lubben Social Network Index, and Technology Experience Questionnaire were used as standardized measures. Pearson correlation, moderation, and mediation regression analyses were conducted to investigate the hypotheses.

RESULTS

We found a higher prevalence of loneliness in older adults than in prepandemic norms. EA was correlated with greater TU and PR and moderated the impact of social isolation on loneliness. PR mediated and TU partially mediated the relationship between EA and loneliness.

CONCLUSIONS

Early-life EA was confirmed as a distal resource for older adults and played an indirect role in affecting loneliness levels during the pandemic. It has an impact on present-day personal resources, such as PR and TU, which affect loneliness and also moderate the impact of social isolation on loneliness. Policymakers should be aware that older adults with low levels of EA may be more vulnerable to the harmful impacts of loneliness when isolated by choice.

The Lost Daughter: Gerontological Reflections on the Life Course Perspective's Missing Plot

Gyllenhaal's The Lost Daughter with its deeply troubling, turbulent and yet unwavering chaos allows us to rethink how the past is never really lost. It is in the uneasy dialectic between individual lives, social structures, and emotional states that The Lost Daughter finds an unexpected gerontological articulation. Specifically, this article utilizes one of the assured tools of gerontology- the life course perspective- to argue that the persisting effects of social-psychological states (e.g. guilt, reprieve, and resentment) experienced earlier in life have been overlooked in this paradigm due to its empirical emphasis on macro processes of cohorts, trajectories and family transitions. The article concludes with reflections on how this intersubjective reading of the life course contributes to the practice of gerontological social work.

The subjective life course framework: Integrating life course sociology with gerontological perspectives on subjective aging

The expansion of life expectancy has precipitated a cultural transformation of the life course - altering the perceived temporal contours of middle and later life. However, our understanding of these perceptions is limited by the absence of a framework within which to examine them. This paper builds on the life course perspective - which emphasizes the objective patterning of lives - by focusing on the subjective side of the life course. Drawing on theoretically, methodologically, and substantively diverse studies, this paper develops the concept of the subjective life course - a term we use to denote individuals' perceptions of the life course, including its structure and timing and their advancing location in it. We outline two dimensions of the subjective life course - the target of the perception (i.e., generalized other versus self) and the temporal frame of reference (i.e., past, present, or future). Using the resulting framework as an organizational tool, we then discuss key constructs located at each intersection along these dimensions, providing examples, where possible, of empirical studies examining them. We close with a discussion of two broad directions for research: leveraging the framework to yield insight on the subjective life course and exploring links between objective and subjective dimensions of the life course.

Life Quality in Care Homes: Chinese and Danish Older Adults' Perspectives

The demand for care homes appears to be emerging as a key future trend in response to the burgeoning population of older adults, with the need for care provision increasing accordingly. Life quality, happiness and well-being are important factors associated with the care of older residents. This qualitative study explores how older adults moving into care homes view their life quality, from their own perspectives, in two quite different cultural contexts, Chinese and Danish. Older care residents in Shanghai and Denmark participated in the study by means of semi-structured and in-depth interviews. An interpretive phenomenological analysis approach was used for data analysis. Four interrelated themes were identified: positive transfer; positive environment; positive capability and positive experience. The findings demonstrated that older adults considered their quality of life as the result of a dynamic process. Their pursuit of a harmonious status, centered on "change" as the core value, which encompassed both the simplicities and complexities of life. Both older adult groups cared more about their emotional wellbeing, which focused mainly on positive emotions being stimulated while negative emotions were shunned. In the situations when they were "harmonized" by society systems, there was an important emotional thread which continued throughout their whole life that was strongly associated with life quality which was the relationship with family members - be it in the past, present or future.

It was all planned … now what? Claiming agency in later life in reforming China

This study explores the social construction of agency and wellbeing among 20 Chinese urban retirees aged between 50 and 82 years old (averaging 67), with a special focus on the impact of earlier life experiences in shaping later-life pathways. Today's retirees in urban China have experienced the communist collectivist ideology during the Mao era as well as the changes to everyday life brought about by the economic transformation from centrally planned socialism to a market-orientated economy. Thereby, life in retirement for Chinese elders becomes more than just an issue of dealing with increases in discretionary time after exit from full-time work, but also one of making sense of their earlier life experiences in the midst of dramatic social changes. A grounded theory approach with semi-structured, in-depth, face-to-face interviews was used for data collection and analysis. Three interrelated themes emerged: (a) reminiscence as a mechanism of meaning-making, (b) discovery and exercise of agency in later life in contrast to a rigidly structured earlier life, and (c) varying pathways to constructing the life-stage of retirement. The findings have refuted gerontological literature and public discourse that often portray Chinese elders as passive care recipients or helpless dependants. Further, the present study has practical implications for developing policies, designing programmes and providing services to improve the quality of life for today's older Chinese people.

Exploring the suitability and acceptability of peer support for older veterans

Purpose

Informal social support is often sought by veterans to support reminiscence or cope with traumatic memories. However, it can also encourage unhelpful ways of coping, such as avoidance, or may be absent altogether. This project is borrowed from the growing peer support literature. The purpose of this paper is to explore the suitability of peer support services to enhance the wellbeing for older veterans, when naturally occurring support is absent or unhelpful.

Design/methodology/approach

This was a sequentially staged research programme involving a scoping review of current practice and evidence, and a consultation with veterans. In total, ten veterans (nine male, one female) took part in the consultation (M=66 years).

Findings

Peer support was considered suitable, particularly in addressing loneliness and social isolation. There was an understandable concern regarding its use with more complex issues such as trauma. An added issue was the implicit assumption that this consultation concerned transition; supporting younger veteran as they move from military to civilian life. This mirrored the focus of current UK policy and affected the focus of the consultation. Issues were also raised around the sustainability of services more broadly.

Social implications

Peer support is appropriate in supporting older veterans, but must be implemented in a sustainable way. Raising awareness of the needs of older veterans in older adult services is an important implication for service development and delivery.

Originality/value

There is a considerable lack of research concerning older veterans, particularly concerning their formal and informal social support needs. This paper addresses the current gap in the literature.

Aging and Informal Caregiving to People with HIV/AIDS

This article reviews the growing research dealing with informal caregivers to peoplewith HIV infection or AIDS, focusing particularly on the intersection of this workwith research on aging. It contrasts AIDS caregiving with what is known aboutcaregiving in general, which is often associated with caring for a frail older person.This comparison points to a scholarly literature in which aging, gender, generationaldifferences, and life-course issues have been a central concern. In addition, using datafrom the UCSF Care Study, this article presents some results from analyses concernedspecifically with the interpretation of age-related effects and caregiving. It emphasizesthe diversity among AIDS caregivers, who may be friends, partners, or familyrelatives, and the diversity of their experiences with caregiving, loss, and aging. Italso outlines important methodological and conceptual links between a life-courseperspective on aging and AIDS caregiving and suggests how each scholarly concernmay inform the other.

The Life-Course Trajectory toward Living Alone

Objectives: Dramatic increases in living alone in late life have been associated with higher incomes and better health, obscuring the risk to subgroups living alone with diminished health and socioeconomic resources. This study describes race differences in the stability and life-course antecedents of living alone. Method: The prospective cohort study used data from the Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly at Duke University ( n = 4,132) to estimate 10-yearprevalence, incidence, and predictors of living alone among Black and White elders. Results: New episodes of living alone were equally likely. Black elders’lower prevalence of living alone was a function of their 80 percent greater probability of a new coresident episode. Home ownership, residential tenure, and perceived good health were lower among Blacks living alone, compared to Whites, who had fewer living children. Stressful life events had similar effects on household size. Discussion: Race differences in late life household size were primarily dependent on decisions embedded in midlife.

The Normative Anticipation of Retirement by Older Workers

The scope of explanation for retirement behavior could be greatly enlarged by acknowledging workers’ extended engagement with the question before the event—its “givenness” in their future, and their course of action toward it. This study provides evidence for such extended involvement among workers aged 51 to 61 in the 1992 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) who saw themselves being within 15 years of retiring. To the extent that workers foresaw less time left at work, they reported more frequent thinking and talking about retirement. This pattern was quite general. The consideration given to retirement was, as expected, more frequent in circumstances that might orient workers toward the future. However, even absent these circumstances, subjective proximity still predicted the topicality of retirement. Widely held, albeit individual, timetables for retirement demonstrate its embeddedness in the subjective life course of older workers.

The Transition to Adulthood: Life Course Structures and Subjective Perceptions

We examine the relationships between objective life course structures and the subjective sense of timing of adult roles and acquisition of adult identity. Hierarchical latent class analysis is applied to longitudinal data from the Youth Development Study, describing roles related to school, work, family formation, and living arrangements from age 17 to 30. The transition to adulthood in this cohort is well-represented by five pathways probabilistically mapping the timing and sequencing of these roles and their configurations. Three pathways are characterized by a school-to-work transition with on-time, delayed, or negligible family formation. The remaining pathways involve early parenthood with either a partner and stable full-time work or the lack of a partner and low labor force attachment. We then show that the subjective sense of timing with respect to certain adult roles and adult identity acquisition is empirically tied to these life course structures.

Reconceptualizing Agency within the Life Course: The Power of Looking Ahead

Empirical treatments of agency have not caught up with theoretical explication; empirical projects almost always focus on concurrent beliefs about one's ability to act successfully without sufficiently attending to temporality. The authors suggest that understanding the modern life course necessitates a multidimensional understanding of subjective agency involving (a) perceived capacities and (b) perceived life chances, or expectations about what life holds in store. The authors also suggest that a proper understanding of agency's potential power within a life course necessitates moving beyond the domain-specific expectations more typical of past sociological work. Using the Youth Development Study, the authors employ a scale of general life expectations in adolescence to explore the potential influence of a general sense of optimistic life expectations in addition to the traditional approach on a range of important outcomes.

Exploring Ethnic Variation in the Relationship Between Stress, Social Networks, and Depressive Symptoms Among Older Black Americans

The relationship between different types of stressors and depressive symptoms among older Black populations is poorly understood. Even less is known about the social networks that might buffer different stressors on individuals within Black ethnic groups. The purpose of this study was to examine whether there are differences in the relationship between stress and social networks on depressive symptoms by ethnic group while ethnicity functioned as a proxy for culture. Data were drawn from the National Survey of American Life, which includes older African Americans ( N = 837) and Caribbean Blacks ( N = 271). In this survey, the measures of stress were perceived discrimination and material hardship; measures of social networks were social support and social connectedness. The association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was significant for both groups while the association between material hardship and depressive symptoms was only significant for older African Americans. Results also indicate that compared with African Americans, Caribbean Blacks derived greater protective effects against depression from social support and social connectedness in late life.

A life course perspective on socioeconomic inequalities in health: a critical review of conceptual frameworks

Social scientists and public health researchers have long known that social position is related to health and that socioeconomic inequalities in health persist in later life. Increasingly, a life course perspective is adopted to understand the socioeconomic position (SEP)-health dynamic. This paper critically reviews the conceptual perspectives underlying empirical research seeking to better understand socioeconomic inequalities in health in the context of the life course. I comment on the contributions of this work, but also its limitations. In particular, I note the emphasis on understanding the mechanisms linking SEP to health, to the exclusion of research on the institutional and structural factors associated with socioeconomic inequalities over the life course. I also critique the relative absence of gender in this work, and how, by not linking individual experiences to the social policy contexts that shape resources and opportunities, the proximal, rather than the structural or institutional determinants of health are emphasized. I suggest that moving forward, a return to some of the key tenets of life course theory, including contributions from the comparative welfare states literature, may better inform life course analyses of socioeconomic inequalities in health. Specific suggestions for life scholarship are discussed.

Socio-economic Status and Self-Rated Health Among Older Canadians

Although previous research has examined the various correlates of self-rated health, little attention has been paid to how position in the social structure influences this important measure of health. Drawing upon the social structure and personality perspective, I examine whether the relationship between socio-economic status (income adequacy and education) and self-rated health is mediated by financial stress, self-esteem, mastery, social support, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical activity, using data from the 1994 National Population Health Survey. Results show that almost one-third of the relationship can be explained by the mediating effect of these variables. Income adequacy and education, however, remain significantly related to self-rated health net of these variables. Further research with a broader array of variables related to social position is required to specify the mechanisms connecting socio-economic status and perceived health.

Age Identity in Context

The passage of time is fundamentally experienced through people’s interaction with their social worlds. Life-course scholars acknowledge the multiple aspects of time-based experience but have given little attention to age identity in a dynamic context. Drawing from a stress-process model, we expected that turbulence within people’s family relations and health declines would produce increases in subjective age. Family role transitions were also examined as potential factors that would hasten subjective aging, but only to the extent that they produced stress. We used the Midlife Development in the United States study, a nationally representative longitudinal survey. Regression results show that turbulence within one’s family accelerated age identity and that the effect of diminishing psychosocial resources explained this relationship. For the most part, however, changes within family roles did not affect age identity. On the other hand, the incidence of chronic health problems increased subjective ages, and this relationship too was mediated by the depletion of psychosocial resources. The findings demonstrate an interconnection between the stress process and age identity. Broadening our conception of time-based experience with attention to the stress process offers exciting directions for future theory and research in life course sociology.

Social Change and Socioeconomic Disparities in Health over the Life Course in China: A Cohort Analysis

This article examines social stratification in individual health trajectories for multiple cohorts in the context of China's dramatically changing macro-social environment. Using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, we find significant socioeconomic status (SES) differences in the mean level of health and that these SES differentials generally diverge over the life course. We also find strong cohort variations in SES disparities in the mean levels of health and health trajectories. The effect of education on health slightly decreases across successive cohorts. By contrast, the income gap in health trajectories diverges for earlier cohorts but converges for most recent cohorts. Both effects are more pronounced in rural areas. Given that these cohort effects are opposite those reported in recent U.S. studies, we discuss China's unique social, economic, and political settings. We highlight the association between SES and health behaviors, China's stage of epidemiologic transition, and the changing power of the state government and its implications for health care.

Does timing and sequencing of transitions to adulthood make a difference? Stress, smoking, and physical activity among young Australian women

The major changes of the transition to adulthood are argued to be stressful, and health-related behaviors such as smoking and physical activity may be adopted, consolidated, or abandoned at this time. On the other hand, research has suggested that the normative transitions of emerging adulthood, although involving considerable change, may be associated with low stress because they are perceived as both positive and normal at this life stage. This article examines relations between the timing and sequencing of life transitions and stress and health-related behaviors, focusing on the transition to young adulthood among Australian women. A total of 853 women aged 22 to 27 provided information about the timing and sequencing of 6 life transitions: moving out of home, stopping full-time education, starting full-time work, having the first live-in relationship, marriage, and motherhood-and stress, smoking, and physical activity. Most had moved out of home, stopped full-time education, and started full-time work, but only 14% had undertaken all 6 transitions. Overall, 70% of participants had made transitions "in order." Overall, the findings suggest that the relations between timing and sequencing of transitions, and indicators of health, are moderate for smoking, but small for stress and for physical activity. These effects remained after controlling for socioeconomic status of the participants' families of origin. Matching current social norms for the timing and sequencing of life changes may be of less importance for women's well-being than is commonly believed. Although the significant relations between early or "out of order" transitions and smoking are of concern, the smaller relations with stress and with sedentariness suggest that such transitions may have limited negative consequences, and support the view that individuals are active in choosing the life path that is appropriate for them and their circumstances.

A descriptive epidemiology of lifetime trauma and the physical health status of older adults

Three issues are evaluated in this study. The 1st involves examining the relationship between exposure to trauma over the life course and physical health status in old age. The 2nd has to do with seeing whether the relationship between trauma and health varies across 3 cohorts of older adults: the young-old (ages 65-74), the old-old (ages 75-84), and the oldest old (age 85 and over). The 3rd issue involves seeing whether the age at which a trauma was encountered is related to health in late life. Data from a nationwide survey of older people (N=1,518) reveal that trauma is associated with worse health. Moreover, the young-old appear to be at greatest risk. Finally, data suggest that trauma arising between the ages of 18 and 30 years, as well as ages 31 to 64 years, has the strongest relationship with current health.

Social structural influences on emotional support from parents early in life and adult health status

The authors' purpose in this study was to identify social structural predictors of receiving emotional support from parents early in life and structural factors responsible for variations in the associations between early parental support and adult health status. Data from a US representative sample of 2,786 adults aged 25-74 years suggest that men, non-Whites, and individuals from socioeconomically advantaged families report having received higher levels of early parental support. Furthermore, these analyses suggest that although adult health status is predicted by early parental support in general, health status among adults is particularly sensitive to levels of support received from a same-sex parent during childhood. These findings emphasize the pervasive influence of gender in American society and add focus to researchers' understanding of the long-term health effects of early parental support.

Emotional Support From Parents Early in Life, Aging, and Health

The purpose of this study is to estimate the relationship between receiving emotional support from parents early in life and an individual's health in adulthood. Analysis of data from a nationally representative sample of adults ages 25-74 years suggests that a lack of parental support during childhood is associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms and chronic conditions in adulthood. These associations between early parental support and adult health persist with increasing age throughout adulthood. Personal control, self-esteem, and social relationships during adulthood account for a large portion of these long-term associations. These findings underscore the importance of adopting a life course perspective in studying the social determinants of health among adults.

Race, religion, and abstinence from alcohol in late life

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to see whether involvement in religion helps explain why older Blacks are more likely to avoid drinking alcohol than older Whites.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted with a nationwide sample of older Whites and older Blacks. Survey items were administered to assess whether study participants consume alcohol, whether they affiliate with fundamentalist congregations, how often they attend religious services, how often they pray privately, and whether they derive a sense of meaning from their faith.

RESULTS

The findings reveal that older people who affiliate with fundamentalist churches and who find meaning in religion are more likely to avoid drinking. However, neither church attendance nor private prayer are related to alcohol use. Race differences in the odds of drinking were no longer statistically significant once the religion measures were added to the model.

DISCUSSION

The findings highlight the importance of religion in shaping the health behaviors of older adults.

Religious trajectories and transitions over the life course

This study examined patterns of change and stability in religiosity over the life course. Open-ended interviews with 129 adults aged 65 and older provided a rich source of data for applying a life course perspective to the study of religion. Two theoretical constructs from the life course perspective (i.e., trajectories and transitions) were used as a framework for understanding religion and aging. The interviews were content analyzed to identify: 1) dimensions of religiosity that exhibit change; 2) patterns of religious trajectories; and 3) social forces that promote changes in religiosity. These analyses revealed four distinct patterns: stable, increasing, decreasing, and curvilinear trajectories. Several forces were involved with either increasing religiosity (e.g., child rearing, adverse life experiences) or decreasing religiosity (e.g., disillusionment with church members, adverse life experiences). Directions for future research are discussed.

Competing risk of household expansion or institutionalization in late life

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to evaluate predictors of change in household size and institutionalization in late life.

METHODS

The Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly cohort (n = 3730) was assessed annually (1986-1996). Independent variables included home ownership, income, cognitive and functional ability, chronic illness, mood, household size, social support, and stressful life events. Competing risk of household expansion or institutionalization was modeled using (a) hazard of either event and (b) odds of household expansion or institutionalization among elders who experienced an event.

RESULTS

Hazard of either event was associated with younger age, Black race, lower income, cognitive problems and stability, functional abilities and deterioration, low chronic illness burden, being unmarried, having more living children, and recent life events. Among those who reported either event, odds of institutionalization (vs. household expansion) were associated with older age, White race, cognitive and functional problems, high chronic illness burden, being married, having fewer living children, smaller household size, social isolation, and exits of nonspouse coresidents.

DISCUSSION

Modeling separate effects of whether there was a household expansion or institutionalization, and if so, which type of event occurred, and taking into account acute and evolving states, enabled more precise understanding of the complex mechanisms involved in determining continued community residence or institutionalization.

Exposure to physical violence during childhood, aging, and health

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study is to estimate the relationship between exposure to physical violence administered by one's parents and adult health. In the process, the authors also examine factors that mediate and moderate this association.

METHODS

Hypothesized relationships were tested using ordinary least squares regression analyses with data collected from a nationwide sample of adults aged 25 to 74 in 1995.

RESULTS

The data suggest that exposure to childhood physical violence is associated with diminished mental and physical health in adulthood. These associations do not vary by respondent's age. Furthermore, the long-term effects of childhood physical violence are largely mediated by psychosocial resources.

DISCUSSION

These results support the idea that the effects of childhood trauma may persist into later life. Therefore, in studying the antecedents of current health problems among adults, it may be necessary to consider the influence of events that have occurred throughout the entire life course.

Contribution of education to health and life satisfaction in older adults mediated by negative affect

OBJECTIVES

The authors developed a model of relationships between two enduring attributes (educational attainment and negative affect) and two indicators of successful aging (health and life satisfaction).

METHODS

A probability sample of 1,177 participants (age 55 and older) were interviewed four times at 6-month intervals. Structural equation models were developed based on the authors' hypothetical model proposing a mediating effect of negative affect between health and successful aging.

RESULTS

As predicted, education and negative affect both were directly related to health and life satisfaction. Also, as predicted, negative affect mediated the relationship between education and successful aging indicators.

DISCUSSION

Education appears to confer a lifelong advantage for healthy aging. Part of this advantage is accounted for by the relationship between education and trait negative affect. Higher educational attainment is related to lower levels of trait negative affect; lower negative affect results in better health and life satisfaction.

Early parental loss, recent life events, and changes in health among older adults

The purpose of this study is to see whether older adults who lost a parent early in life are more vulnerable to the effects of recent stressful events than elderly people who were raised in an intact home. Data from a nationwide longitudinal survey of older adults provide support for this view. The findings indicate that the combined effects of early parental loss and recent stressful events are associated with a decline over time in global self-rated health, as well as the number of chronic and acute conditions. In contrast, significant effects failed to emerge with functional disability. This study contributes to the literature by suggesting that only certain kinds of recent events (i.e., stressors arising in highly valued roles) act in concert with early parental loss to compromise health in late life.