Blockage of the NLRP3 inflammasome by MCC950 inhibits migration and invasion in adenomyosis

RESEARCH QUESTION

Does the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome have an effect in adenomyosis?

DESIGN

Fresh-frozen endometrial tissues and paraffin specimens were obtained from endometrial tissues from patients with adenomyosis and controls. Western blot, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were applied to assess expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome components. Primary eutopic endometrial stromal cells were isolated from the uteri of patients with adenomyosis. After NLRP3 was knocked down using small interfering RNA, proliferation, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) were evaluated using EdU, CCK8, transwell assays and western blot. Importantly, a mouse model of adenomyosis was established to evaluate the effects of the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950 on the formation of adenomyosis.

RESULTS

Expression of the NLRP3 inflammasome components was elevated in the ectopic or eutopic endometrium of patients with adenomyosis. NLRP3 knockdown inhibited migration, invasion and EMT in endometrial cells and primary endometrial cells (P < 0.0001). MCC950, which blocks the NLRP3 inflammasome, reduced migration and invasion of endometrial cells (P < 0.01) and primary endometrial cells (P < 0.0001) considerably. Importantly, in the mouse model of adenomyosis, MCC950 had a mitigating effect on the severity of adenomyosis (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

NLRP3 was found to enhance migration, invasion and EMT of human endometrial cells in adenomyosis. Notably, the NLRP3 inhibitor MCC950 reduced migration and invasion of endometrial cells effectively. Furthermore, in the mouse model of adenomyosis, MCC950 exhibited a therapeutic effect by alleviating the severity of adenomyosis.

Vaginal and rectal microbiome contribute to genital inflammation in chronic pelvic pain

BACKGROUND

Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is a multifactorial syndrome that can substantially affect a patient's quality of life. Endometriosis is one cause of CPP, and alterations of the immune and microbiome profiles have been observed in patients with endometriosis. The objective of this pilot study was to investigate differences in the vaginal and gastrointestinal microbiomes and cervicovaginal immune microenvironment in patients with CPP and endometriosis diagnosis compared to those with CPP without endometriosis and no CPP.

METHODS

Vaginal swabs, rectal swabs, and cervicovaginal lavages (CVL) were collected among individuals undergoing gynecologic laparoscopy. Participants were grouped based on patients seeking care for chronic pain and/or pathology results: CPP and endometriosis (CPP-Endo) (n = 35), CPP without endometriosis (n = 23), or patients without CPP or endometriosis (controls) (n = 15). Sensitivity analyses were performed on CPP with endometriosis location, stage, and co-occurring gynecologic conditions (abnormal uterine bleeding, fibroids). 16S rRNA sequencing was performed to profile the microbiome, and a panel of soluble immune mediators was quantified using a multiplex assay. Statistical analysis was conducted with SAS, R, MicrobiomeAnalyst, MetaboAnalyst, and QIIME 2.

RESULTS

Significant differences were observed between participants with CPP alone, CPP-Endo, and surgical controls for body mass index, ethnicity, diagnosis of ovarian cysts, and diagnosis of fibroids. In rectal microbiome analysis, both CPP alone and CPP-Endo exhibited lower alpha diversity than controls, and both CPP groups revealed enrichment of irritable bowel syndrome-associated bacteria. CPP-Endo exhibited an increased abundance of vaginal Streptococcus anginosus and rectal Ruminococcus. Patients with CPP and endometrioma (s) demonstrated increased vaginal Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, and Prevotella compared to other endometriosis sites. Further, abnormal uterine bleeding was associated with an increased abundance of bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria. Immunoproteomic profiles were distinctly clustered by CPP alone and CPP-Endo compared to controls. CPP-Endo was enriched in TNF⍺, MDC, and IL-1⍺.

CONCLUSIONS

Vaginal and rectal microbiomes were observed to differ between patients with CPP alone and CPP with endometriosis, which may be useful in personalized treatment for individuals with CPP and endometriosis from those with other causes of CPP. Further investigation is warranted in patients with additional co-occurring conditions, such as AUB/fibroids, which add additional complexity to these conditions and reveal the enrichment of distinct pathogenic bacteria in both mucosal sites. This study provides foundational microbiome-immunoproteomic knowledge related to chronic pelvic pain, endometriosis, and co-occurring gynecologic conditions that can help improve the treatment of patients seeking care for pain.

The Different Gene Expression Profile in the Eutopic and Ectopic Endometrium Sheds New Light on the Endometrial Seed in Endometriosis

The changes in endometrial cells, both in the eutopic endometrium of patients with and without endometriosis and in lesions at ectopic sites, are frequently described and often compared to tumorigenesis. In tumorigenesis, the concept of "seed and soil" is well established. The seed refers to tumor cells with metastatic potential, and the soil is any organ or tissue that provides a suitable environment for the seed to grow. In this systematic review (PRISMA-S), we specifically compared the development of endometriosis with the "seed and soil" hypothesis. To determine changes in the endometrial seed, we re-analyzed the mRNA expression data of the eutopic and ectopic endometrium, paying special attention to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). We found that the similarity between eutopic endometrium without and with endometriosis is extremely high (~99.1%). In contrast, the eutopic endometrium of patients with endometriosis has a similarity of only 95.3% with the ectopic endometrium. An analysis of EMT-associated genes revealed only minor differences in the mRNA expression levels of claudin family members without the loss of other cell-cell junctions that are critical for the epithelial phenotype. The array data suggest that the changes in the eutopic endometrium (=seed) are quite subtle at the beginning of the disease and that most of the differences occur after implantation into ectopic locations (=soil).

Environmental Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Its Association with Endometriosis Risk: Implications in the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Process

We aimed to explore the relationship of adipose tissue concentrations of some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with the risk of endometriosis and the endometriotic tissue expression profile of genes related to the endometriosis-related epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. This case-control study enrolled 109 women (34 cases and 75 controls) between January 2018 and March 2020. Adipose tissue samples and endometriotic tissues were intraoperatively collected to determine concentrations of nine POPs and the gene expression profiles of 36 EMT-related genes, respectively. Associations of POPs with endometriosis risk were explored with multivariate logistic regression, while the relationship between exposure and gene expression profiles was assessed through Spearman correlation or Mann-Whitney U tests. After adjustment, increased endometriosis risk was associated with p,p'-DDT, PCB-180, and ΣPCBs. POP exposure was also associated with reduced gene expression levels of the CLDN7 epithelial marker and increased levels of the ITGB2 mesenchymal marker and a variety of EMT promoters (HMGA1, HOXA10, FOXM1, DKK1, CCR1, TNFRSF1B, RRM2, ANG, ANGPT1, and ESR1). Our findings indicate that exposure to POPs may increase the risk of endometriosis and might have a role in the endometriosis-related EMT development, contributing to the disease onset and progression. Further studies are warranted to corroborate these findings.

Association between Uterine Adenomyosis and Infertility: Role of Axonemal Alteration in Apical Endometria

ABSTRACT

Uterine adenomyosis is an estrogen-dependent chronic inflammatory condition and may cause painful symptoms, abnormal uterine bleeding, and/or subfertility/infertility. It is characterized by the presence of endometrial glands and stroma within the myometrium causing enlargement of the uterus as a result of reactive hyperplastic and/or hypertrophic change of the surrounding myometrium. Similar to endometriosis, adenomyosis has a negative impact on female fertility. Abnormal uterotubal sperm transport, tissue inflammation, and the toxic effect of chemical mediators have been proposed as contributing factors. Inflammation-induced damage of the mucosal cilia in the fallopian tube has been reported. Besides other proposed mechanisms, our most recent study with transmission electron microscopy analysis indicated that microvilli damage and an axonemal alteration in the apical endometria occur in response to endometrial inflammation. This may be involved in the negative fertility outcome in women with adenomyosis. We present a critical analysis of the literature data concerning the mechanistic basis of infertility in women with adenomyosis and its impact on fertility outcome.

Adenomyotic Lesions Are Induced in the Mouse Uterus after Exposure to NSAID and EE2 Mixtures at Environmental Doses

The aim of this study was to assess the long-term effect of exposure to environmentally relevant doses of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs; ibuprofen, and diclofenac) and 17β-ethinylestradiol (EE2) on the mouse uterus. NSAID-EE2 mixtures were administered in the drinking water from gestational day 8 until 8 weeks post-birth (i.e., during embryo development, lactation, puberty, and sexual maturity). The incidence of adenomyosis lesions (presence of endometrial glands in the inner myometrium) increased up to 60% in the uterus of 8-week-old exposed females (F1) and to 85% in F2 females (exposed father). Histological analysis revealed aberrant proliferation and apoptosis, vacuolization of epithelial cells, and increased incidence of abnormal glands in the luminal and glandular epithelium in F1 and F2 uteri. Moreover, myofibroblast proportion (alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression analysis) and collagen expression (Picrosirius red stain; a fibrosis hallmark) were increased in F1 and F2 endometrium. Connexin-43 was aberrantly distributed in the endometrial stroma and glands of F1 and F2 uteri. Conversely, uterine 17β-estradiol and progesterone levels were not affected in F1 and F2 females. These findings demonstrated that in mice, chronic exposure to NSAID and EE2 mixtures at environmental doses intergenerationally affects uterine physiology, particularly the endometrium. It may serve as a model to study the pathophysiology of human adenomyosis.

Adenomyosis and endometriosis in adolescents and young women with pelvic pain: prevalence and risk factors

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of ultrasound diagnosis of adenomyosis and endometriosis in young women complaining of pelvic pain and to find the symptoms and clinical characteristics associated with these diseases in young women.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study, including 100 young women (14-24 years) with a history of chronic pelvic pain. Women were asked detailed medical hystory and pain symptoms scores (Visual Analogue Scale) and underwent gynecological examination and ultrasound evaluation.

RESULTS

The prevalence of endometriosis and adenomyosis in young women amounted to 25.0% and 46.0%, respectively. A significant correlation was found between ovarian endometriosis and adenomyosis. Dysmenorrhea and dyspareunia were risk factors for adenomyosis. Dyschezia, dyspareunia, chronic pelvic pain, presence of sonographic soft markers suggestive of pelvic adhesions, being a worker and having a previous surgery were risk factors for endometriosis. Young women (20-24 years) had a higher incidence of both adenomyosis and endometriosis than adolescents (14-19 years).

CONCLUSIONS

Our outcomes strengthen the hypothesis of a progressive and common course of the natural history of endometriosis, which initially may manifest with symptoms, then with signs of pelvic adhesions and finally as adenomyosis, ovarian endometriomas or deep infiltrating endometriosis.

Adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with endometriosis in Ukraine: results a multicenter study

OBJECTIVE

Aim: To estimate pregnancy outcomes associated with endometriosis in Ukraine.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and Methods: We performed the multicentre prospective cohort study during the period from January 1st, 2019 to December 31st, 2021. The study included pregnant women aged ≥18 years hospitalized in 17 hospitals from 15 regions of Ukraine. Logistic regression analysis provided odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Results: Of the 27,558 women, 990 (3,6%) reported a diagnosis of endometriosis before pregnancy. In 990 deliveries, women with endometriosis had a higher risk of hypertension in pregnancy (OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.0-1.3), preeclampsia (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.3-1.5), severe preeclampsia (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.5-2.3), hemorrhage in pregnancy (OR 2.3, 95% CI 2.0-2.5), placental abruption (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.7-2.3), placenta previa (OR 3.9, 95% CI 3.5-4.3), premature rupture of membranes (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.5-1.8), and retained placenta (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.4-6.6). The neonates had increased risks of preterm birth before 28 weeks (OR 3.1, 95% CI 2.7-3.6), birth before 34 weeks (OR 3.2, 95% CI 2.8-3.6), being small for gestational age (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.4-1.6), being diagnosed with congenital malformations (OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.3-1.4), and neonatal death (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.4-2.1).

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: Pregnant women with endometriosis are at elevated risk for serious and important adverse maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes. The magnitude of these complications calls for more intensive antenatal care of pregnant women with endometriosis.

Are Adenomyosis and Endometriosis Phenotypes of the Same Disease Process?

In recent literature reviews, we concluded that the possibility that endometrial molecular aberrations are the sole or a necessary determinant of endometriosis and the Tissue Injury and Repair (TIAR) theory are yet to be convincingly proven. Here, we critically examine the theory that adenomyosis and endometriosis represent different phenotypes of a single disease. A common etiopathology for adenomyosis and endometriosis has been suggested because both conditions entail the presence of endometrial tissue at locations other than the lining of the uterus. There are wide differences in reported disease incidence and prevalence and, consequently, in estimates of the coexistence of both conditions. There are some similarities but also differences in their clinical features and predisposing factors. Each condition has a range of subtypes. These differences alone pose the question of whether subtypes of endometriosis and adenomyosis have different etiopathologies, and, in turn, this raises the question of whether they all share a common etiology. It is debatable whether the recognized differences between the eutopic endometrium in adenomyosis and endometriosis compared to those in unaffected women are the cause or the effect of the disease. The finding of common mutations, particularly of KRAS, lend support to the notion of shared predisposing factors, but this alone is insufficient evidence of causation.

Determinants and Assessment of Menstrual Blood Flow

Purpose of review

a)The modifiable and non-modifiable determinants and the currently available methods of assessment of menstrual blood flow will be discussed, with the goal of helping healthcare providers, researchers, and those interested in public health.

Recent findings

b)Several factors can impact menstruation. The determinants include modifiable factors such as smoking, nutrition, exercise, stress, weight fluctuation, and benign gynecologic diseases, and non-modifiable factors such as age, race, and the individual's genes. The intertwined dynamic among these determinants needs more critical attention. Currently, the methods for the assessment of menstruation all have advantages and disadvantages, often with a tradeoff between practicality and accuracy.

Summary

c)Considered by many as the fifth vital, menstruation provides a window to an individual's general health. The discussion of its determinants and assessment can be more appropriate for individual contexts, especially from a public health perspective as it can improve the reproductive health of the population.

Abnormal activation of the Wnt3a/β-catenin signaling pathway promotes the expression of T-box transcription factor 3(TBX3) and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition pathway to mediate the occurrence of adenomyosis

BACKGROUND

T-box transcription factor 3(TBX3) is a transcription factor that can regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, and migration in different tumor cells; however, its role in adenomyosis (ADM) has not been previously studied. Some of ADM's pathophysiological characteristics are similar to those of malignant tumors (e.g., abnormal proliferation, migration, and invasion).

METHODS AND RESULTS

We hypothesized that TBX3 might have a role in ADM. We used tamoxifen-induced Institute of Cancer research (ICR) mice to establish ADM disease model. The study procedure included western blotting and immunohistochemistry to analyze protein levels; additionally, we used intraperitoneal injection of Wnt/β-catenin pathway inhibitor XAV-939 to study the relationship between TBX3 and Wnt/β-catenin pathway as well as Anti-proliferation cell nuclear antigen( PCNA) and TUNEL to detect cell proliferation and apoptosis, respectively. TBX3 overexpression and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in ADM mice was found to be associated with activation of the Wnt3a/β-catenin pathway. Treatment with XAV-939 in ADM mice led to the inhibition of both TBX3 and EMT; moreover, abnormal cell proliferation was suppressed, the depth of invasion of endometrium cells was limited. Thus, the use of XAV-939 effectively inhibited further invasion of endometrial cells.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that TBX3 may play an important role in the development of ADM. The expression of TBX3 in ADM was regulated by the Wnt3a/β-catenin pathway. The activation of the Wnt3a/β-catenin pathway in ADM promoted TBX3 expression and induced the occurrence of EMT, thus promoting cell proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis, ultimately accelerating the development of ADM. The study provides a reference for the diagnosis of ADM.

Current perspectives on endometrial receptivity: A comprehensive overview of etiology and treatment

Recurrent implantation failure (RIF) remains a challenging problem in assisted reproductive technology (ART). Further insights into uterine abnormalities that can disturb embryo implantation should be obtained. This review provides an overview of the effects of organic and non-organic uterine disorders on endometrial receptivity. The results suggest that various uterine pathologies can lead to defective embryo implantation via multiple mechanisms. In particular, uterine adenomyosis dysregulates molecular and cellular interactions that are vital for successful embryo implantation with a background of chronic inflammation, which may be alleviated by pretreatment with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. Uterine myomas can cause endometrial deformation and adverse alterations in uterine contractility. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of myomectomy remains debated, and endometrial polyp removal may be considered, particularly in patients with RIF. Chronic endometritis abrogates the appropriate uterine immunological environment critical for embryo implantation. Abnormal endometrial microbiota have been suggested to influence endometrial receptivity; however, supporting evidence is currently scarce. Platelet-rich plasma therapy may be a potential treatment for thin endometria; nevertheless, further validation is required. Endometrial receptivity analysis can detect dysregulation of the window of implantation, and new non-invasive methods for predicting endometrial receptivity have recently been proposed. However, numerous issues still need to be fully clarified. Further clinical and basic studies are necessary to investigate the pathophysiology of defective endometrial receptivity and identify optimal treatments for patients undergoing ART, especially those with RIF.

The Inactivation of Hippo Signaling Pathway Promotes the Development of Adenomyosis by Regulating EMT, Proliferation, and Apoptosis of Cells

Adenomyosis is a benign gynecological disease. The pathogenesis of adenomyosis is still unclear. The Hippo signaling pathway is highly conserved in vivo and associated with endometriosis and various cancers. Our objective was to study the expression of Hippo signaling pathway-related proteins in the uterus of mice with and without adenomyosis. We also sought to determine the relationship between the Hippo signaling pathway and cell migration, invasion, proliferation, and apoptosis in adenomyosis. The inactivation of Hippo signaling pathway and abnormal expression of EMT-related proteins were observed in mice with adenomyosis. In vitro, the YAP inhibitor verteporfin can inhibit the proliferation and migration of Ishikawa cells and promote apoptosis, while inhibiting the EMT process. In addition, intraperitoneal injection of verteporfin inhibits EMT process and proliferation and promotes apoptosis of cells in the uterus of adenomyosis mice. It suggests that the Hippo signaling pathway participates in the EMT, proliferation, and apoptosis of cells in adenomyosis. In conclusion, these results suggest that Hippo signaling pathway may be involved in the development of adenomyosis by regulating EMT, proliferation, and apoptosis of cells, which provide a potential target for the treatment of adenomyosis.

An Appraisal of the Tissue Injury and Repair (TIAR) Theory on the Pathogenesis of Endometriosis and Adenomyosis

As understanding their pathogenesis remains elusive, both endometriosis and adenomyosis are often referred to as "enigmatic diseases". The uncertainty and heightened interest are reflected in the range of expressed views and opinions. There is a sense of urgency because of the entailed patient suffering. The plethora of opinions calls for a critical analysis of proposed theories, both old and new. A series of papers published since 2009 proposed that both endometriosis and adenomyosis originate from the same aberrations occurring within the uterus. This came to be recognized as the tissue injury and repair theory, and the newly coined term "archimetrosis" posits that the two diseases share the same origin. While the theory opens an interesting channel for exploration, its claim as a unifying theory necessitates a critical appraisal. We, thus, undertook this review of the theory and analyzed its underpinnings based on a comprehensive review of the literature. Our appraisal indicates that the theory is open to a range of criticisms. Chief among these is the need for confirmatory evidence of features of abnormal uterine contractility and the lack of data addressing the question of causality. In addition, the theory has, as yet, no supporting epidemiological evidence, which is a major weakness. The theory suffers as it is not open to the test of falsifiability, and it lacks the ability to make useful predictions. It has not addressed the questions, such as why only a small percentage of women develop adenomyosis or endometriosis, given the ubiquity of uterine peristalsis. On the other hand, the triggers and prevention of hyper- or dys-peristalsis become critical to a theory of causation. We conclude that additional supportive evidence is required for the theory to be accepted.

Single-Cell Profiling Uncovers the Roles of Endometrial Fibrosis and Microenvironmental Changes in Adenomyosis

Purpose

Adenomyosis (AM) is a common benign uterine disorder that has deleterious effects on women's health. However, the pathogenesis of AM is not clearly understood. We aimed to investigate the pathophysiological changes and molecular mechanism in AM.

Methods

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) was employed to construct a transcriptomic atlas of various cell subsets from the ectopic endometrium (EC) and eutopic endometrium (EM) of one AM patient and evaluate differential expression. The Cell Ranger software pipeline (version 4.0.0) was applied to conduct sample demultiplexing, barcode processing and mapping reads to the reference genome (human GRCh38). Different cell types were classified with markers with the "FindAllMarkers" function, and differential gene expression analysis was performed with Seurat software in R. The findings were confirmed by Reverse Transcription Real-Time PCR using samples from three AM patients.

Results

We identified nine cell types: endothelial cells, epithelial cells, myoepithelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, lymphocytes, mast cells, macrophages and unknown cells. A number of differentially expressed genes, including CLO4A1, MMP1, TPM2 and CXCL8, were identified from all cell types. Functional enrichment showed that aberrant gene expression in fibroblasts and immune cells was related to fibrosis-associated terms, such as extracellular matrix dysregulation, focal adhesion and the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. We also identified fibroblast subtypes and determined a potential developmental trajectory related to AM. In addition, we identified increased cell-cell communication patterns in EC, highlighting the imbalanced microenvironment in AM progression.

Conclusion

Our results support the theory of endometrial-myometrial interface disruption for AM, and repeated tissue injury and repair could lead to increased fibrosis in the endometrium. Therefore, the present study reveals the association between fibrosis, the microenvironment, and AM pathogenesis. This study provides insight into the molecular mechanisms regulating AM progression.

Impact of adenomyosis and endometriosis on IVF/ICSI pregnancy outcome in patients undergoing gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist treatment and frozen embryo transfer

Although numerous studies have attempted to establish the relationship between adenomyosis and infertility, no consensus has emerged. Our aim was to investigate whether adenomyosis and endometriosis affected IVF outcomes in our patients. This was a retrospective study of 1720 patients from January 2016 to December 2019. In total, 1389 cycles were included: 229 cycles in the endometriosis group (group E), 89 cycles in the adenomyosis group (group A), 69 cycles in the endometriosis and adenomyosis group (group EA), and 1002 cycles in the control group (group C). Most patients in groups A and EA received GnRH agonist treatment before FET. The 1st FET live birth rates (LBR) were 39.3%, 32.1%, 25% and 48.1% in groups E, A, EA, and C. The miscarriage rates were 19.9%, 34.7%, 39%, and 17.6%. The per retrieval cycle cumulative live birth rates (cLBRs) in patients < 38 y/o were 56.4%, 58.1%, 44.8%, and 63%. The per retrieval cycle cLBRs in patients ≥ 38 y/o were 25%, 9.8%, 17.2%, and 29.5%. Among groups A and EA, LBRs were 25.58% and 18.89% in patients with a ≥ sevenfold decrease and a < sevenfold decrease in CA-125 level, respectively, after GnRH agonist treatment. Endometriosis was not associated with a poorer pregnancy outcome. Patients with adenomyosis with/without endometriosis had higher miscarriage rates, lower LBRs, and lower cLBRs, especially in patients aged ≥ 38 years, even after GnRH agonist treatment before FET cycles. Patients who have a greater than sevenfold decrease in CA-125 level after GnRH agonist treatment might have better clinical pregnancy outcomes.

Macrophages and small extracellular vesicle mediated-intracellular communication in the peritoneal microenvironment: Impact on endometriosis development

Endometriosis is an inflammatory disease that is defined as the growth of endometrium-like tissue outside the uterus, commonly on the lining of the pelvic cavity, visceral organs and in the ovaries. It affects around 190 million women of reproductive age worldwide and is associated with chronic pelvic pain and infertility, which greatly impairs health-related life quality. The symptoms of the disease are variable, this combined with a lack of diagnostic biomarkers and necessity of surgical visualisation to confirm disease, the prognosis can take an average timespan of 6–8 years. Accurate non-invasive diagnostic tests and the identification of effective therapeutic targets are essential for disease management. To achieve this, one of the priorities is to define the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms that contribute to endometriosis. Recently, immune dysregulation in the peritoneal cavity has been linked to endometriosis progression. Macrophages account for over 50% of immune cells in the peritoneal fluid and are critical for lesion growth, angiogenesis, innervation and immune regulation. Apart from the secretion of soluble factors like cytokines and chemokines, macrophages can communicate with other cells and prime disease microenvironments, such as the tumour microenvironment, via the secretion of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs). The sEV-mediated intracellular communication pathways between macrophages and other cells within the peritoneal microenvironment in endometriosis remain unclear. Here, we give an overview of peritoneal macrophage (pMΦ) phenotypes in endometriosis and discuss the role of sEVs in the intracellular communication within disease microenvironments and the impact they may have on endometriosis progression.

Assessment of BMP7, SMAD4, and CDH1 Expression Profile and Regulatory miRNA-542-3p in Eutopic and Ectopic Endometrium of Women with Endometriosis

Alterations in the expression of numerous genes and the miRNAs that are recognized as their regulators in the endometrial cells of women with endometriosis may disrupt the intracellular signaling pathways associated with epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). So far, the functional role of BMP7 in endometrial physiology has been confirmed, especially in the context of fertility, but the role of the activation of a specific mechanism operating through the BMP–SMAD–CDH1 axis in the formation of endometrial lesions remains unexplored. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression profile of miR-542-3p and the EMT markers (BMP7, SMAD4, CDH1) in matched eutopic endometrium (EUE) and ectopic endometrium (ECE) samples from women with endometriosis in relation to healthy women. The levels of expression of the studied genes and miRNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) obtained from women diagnosed with endometriosis and those without the disease were also evaluated. Fifty-four patients (n = 54: with endometriosis—n = 29 and without endometriosis—n = 25) were included in the study. A comparative analysis of the relative mean expression values (RQ) of the studied mRNA and miRNA assessed by RT-qPCR demonstrated downregulation of BMP7, SMAD4, and CDH1 expression in ectopic lesions and upregulation in the eutopic endometrium compared with the control group. In the eutopic tissue of women with endometriosis, miR-542-3p expression was similar to that of the control but significantly lower than in endometrial lesions. We also confirmed a trend towards a negative correlation between miR-542-3p and BMP7 in ectopic tissue, and in PBMC, a significant negative correlation of miR-542-3p with further BMP signaling genes, i.e., SMAD4 and CDH1, was observed. These results indicate that the miRNA selected by us may be a potential negative regulator of BMP7-SMAD4-CDH1 signaling associated with EMT. The different patterns of BMP7, SMAD4, and CDH1 gene expression in ECE, EUE, and the control endometrium observed by us suggests the loss of the endometrial epithelium phenotype in women with endometriosis and demonstrates their involvement in the pathogenesis and pathomechanism of this disease.

How adenomyosis changes throughout pregnancy: A retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To study how adenomyosis changes during pregnancy and to possibly correlate these changes to maternal and fetal outcomes.

METHODS

Retrospective exploratory cohort study including 254 women with a pre-conceptional/first-trimester scan to document adenomyosis and known obstetric outcome. If visible, adenomyosis signs were documented in each trimester and postpartum. Mann-Whitney U tests or χ² tests were used for continuous and categorical variables, respectively.

RESULTS

A globular uterus was reported in 79% (n = 52) of women with adenomyosis in the first trimester, in 38% (n = 20) and 2% (n = 1) of women in the second and third trimesters, respectively, and postpartum in 77% (n = 34) of women. Asymmetrical thickening (n = 20, 30%) and cysts (n = 15, 23%) were only visible in 1st trimester. Adenomyosis was associated with miscarriage (odds ratio [OR] 5.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.4-14.9, P < 0.001) also in normal conception only (OR 5.1, 95% CI 1.8-14.2, P = 0.002) or adjusting for maternal age (adjusted OR 5.9, 95% CI 2.3-15.2, P < 0.001). Gestational age at delivery was lower in adenomyosis (P = 0.004); the cesarean section rate was higher than in controls (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.3-4.8, P = 0.007) also adjusting for age (adjusted OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.06-4.08, P = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

Signs of adenomyosis were visible but progressively disappeared in pregnancy; adenomyosis was associated with an increased risk of early miscarriage. Prospective studies are needed to confirm our results.

Molecular Targets for Nonhormonal Treatment Based on a Multistep Process of Adenomyosis Development

Adenomyosis is an estrogen-dependent gynecologic disease characterized by the presence of endometrial tissue within the myometrium. Adenomyosis presents with abnormal uterine bleeding, pelvic pains, and infertility. This review aimed to investigate the major estrogen downstream effectors involved in the process of adenomyosis development and their potential use for nonhormonal treatment. A literature search was performed for preclinical and clinical studies published between January 2010 and November 2021 in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases using a combination of specific terms. Adenomyosis presents with a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations from asymptomatic to severe through a complex process involving a series of molecular changes associated with inflammation, invasion, angiogenesis, and fibrosis. Adenomyosis may develop through a multistep process, including the acquisition of (epi)genetic mutations, tissue injury caused at the endometrial-myometrial interface, inside-to-outside invasion (from the endometrial side into the uterine wall), or outside-to-inside invasion (from the serosal side into the uterine wall), and epithelial-mesenchymal transition, tissue repair or remodeling in the myometrium. These processes can be regulated by increased estrogen biosynthesis and progesterone resistance. The expression of estrogen downstream effectors associated with persistent inflammation, fragile and more permeable vessel formation, and tissue injury and remodeling may be correlated with dysmenorrhea, heavy menstrual bleeding, and infertility, respectively. Key estrogen downstream targets (e.g., WNT/β-catenin, transforming growth factor-β, and nuclear factor-κB) may serve as hub genes. We reviewed the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of adenomyosis and summarized potential nonhormonal therapies.

Endometrial Inflammation and Impaired Spontaneous Decidualization: Insights into the Pathogenesis of Adenomyosis

Adenomyosis is an estrogen-dependent gynecologic disease characterized by the myometrial invasion of the endometrial tissue. This review summarized the current understanding and recent findings on the pathophysiology of adenomyosis, focusing on repeated menstruation, persistent inflammation, and impaired spontaneous decidualization. A literature search was performed in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases from inception to 30 April 2022. Thirty-one full-text articles met the eligibility criteria. Repeated episodes of physiological events (i.e., endometrial shedding, damage, proliferation, differentiation, repair, and regeneration) during the menstrual cycle are associated with inflammation, angiogenesis, and immune processes. The decidualization process in humans is driven by the rise in progesterone levels, independently of pregnancy (i.e., spontaneous decidualization). Adenomyotic cells produce angiogenic and fibrogenic factors with the downregulation of decidualization-associated molecules. This decidualization dysfunction and persistent inflammation are closely related to the pathogenesis of adenomyosis. Recently, it has been found that the reproductive tract microbiota composition and function in women with adenomyosis differ from those without. An increase in opportunistic pathogens and a decrease in beneficial commensals may promote impaired defense mechanisms against inflammation and predispose women to uncontrolled endometrial inflammation. However, currently, there is no direct evidence that adenomyosis is linked to pre-existing inflammation and impaired spontaneous decidualization. Overall, persistent inflammation, impaired spontaneous decidualization, and microbiota dysbiosis (i.e., an imbalance in the composition and function of endometrial microbiota) may be involved in the pathophysiology of adenomyosis.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Antagonists-A New Hope in Endometriosis Treatment?

Endometriosis is a chronic disease, in which endometrial-like tissue is found outside the uterine cavity. Lesions are typically located in the true pelvis but can be found, in addition to extragenital endometriosis, in the respiratory system, the diaphragm, the pleura or the pericardium. As the extrauterine endometrial lesions undergo the menstrual cycle, they cause many symptoms, including pain, and besides infertility, they all mostly affect the quality of the patient's life. Pharmacological management of endometriosis significantly increases in importance either as a first-line treatment or as a complementary therapy after surgery. Yet, current research on antagonists of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) has revealed their potential benefits in endometriosis treatment. Their mechanism of action is to down-regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and therefore induce a hypoestrogenic state. The resulting reduction of estrogen levels prevents disease progression and diminishes the recurrence rate after surgical removal of endometriosis. The present review summarizes recent reports of the role oral GnRH antagonists have as a significant treatment option for pain reduction in endometriosis patients.

The Expression of TGF-β1, SMAD3, ILK and miRNA-21 in the Ectopic and Eutopic Endometrium of Women with Endometriosis

The molecular pathogenesis of endometriosis has been associated with pathological alterations of protein expression via disturbances in homeostatic genes, miRNA expression profiles, and signaling pathways that play an essential role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. TGF-β1 has been hypothesized to play a key role in the development and progression of endometriosis, but the activation of a specific mechanism via the TGF-β-SMAD-ILK axis in the formation of endometriotic lesions is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to assess the expression of EMT markers (TGF-β1, SMAD3, ILK) and miR-21 in ectopic endometrium (ECE), in its eutopic (EUE) counterpart, and in the endometrium of healthy women. The expression level of the tested genes and miRNA was also evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in women with and without endometriosis. Fifty-four patients (n = 54; with endometriosis, n = 29, and without endometriosis, n = 25) were enrolled in the study. The expression levels (RQ) of the studied genes and miRNA were evaluated using qPCR. Endometriosis patients manifested higher TGF-β1, SMAD3, and ILK expression levels in the eutopic endometrium and a decreased expression level in the ectopic lesions in relation to control tissue. Compared to the endometrium of healthy participants, miR-21 expression levels did not change in the eutopic endometrium of women with endometriosis, but the RQ was higher in their endometrial implants. In PBMC, negative correlations were found between the expression level of miR-21 and the studied genes, with the strongest statistically significant correlation observed between miR-21 and TGF-β1. Our results suggest the loss of the endometrial epithelial phenotype defined by the differential expression of the TGF-β1, SMAD3 and ILK genes in the eutopic and ectopic endometrium. We concluded that the TGF-β1-SMAD3-ILK signaling pathway, probably via a mechanism related to the EMT, may be important in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. We also identified miR-21 as a possible inhibitor of this TGF-β1-SMAD3-ILK axis.

Cytochrome-c-oxidase and ATPsynthase content increases in the endometrium of the patients with adenomyosis

BACKGROUND

Adenomyosis is characterized by overgrowth of endometrial glands and stroma in the myometrium and is associated with reduced apoptosis. One of the key participants in one of the pathways of apoptosis is cytochrome c, whose expression can be regulated by actin-binding proteins involved in the formation of structures that provide cell motility. The aim of the study was to determine the content of actin-binding proteins, cytochrome c, and terminal members of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in endometrial biopsies of patients with adenomyosis and the control group.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The content of all studied proteins was determined by Western blotting, and the mRNA content of the corresponding genes was determined by quantitative RT-PCR. The relative content of alpha-actinin1 and mRNA of the gene encoding it in biopsy specimens from patients with adenomyosis was higher than in controls by 86 and 84% (p < 0.05), respectively. The relative content of alpha-actinin4 did not change, as did cytochrome c. The content of cytochrome-c-oxidase and ATPsynthase in the group with adenomyosis exceeded the control level by 270 and 121% (p < 0.05), respectively, but the relative content of mRNA of these genes did not change, which may indicate a change in regulation at the level of protein synthesis.

CONCLUSION

The results may indicate a local increase in the synthesis of ATP in pathological endometrial cells, which indicates the possible effectiveness of local application of H+-ATP synthase inhibitors (for example, macrolide antibiotic) to reduce the severity of clinical symptoms of adenomyosis.

Pituitary suppression with GnRH agonists before ART may be insufficient to treat women with severe adenomyosis

RESEARCH QUESTION

Does aromatase inhibitor improve IVF outcomes by reducing local oestrogen production in patients with adenomyosis undergoing long-term gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRHa) treatment?

DESIGN

Four patients with severe adenomyosis who failed to improve after long-term treatment (≥3 months) with depot GnRHa received treatment with an aromatase inhibitor for 21 days. Blood oestradiol concentrations were monitored after GnRHa treatment both before and after treatment with an aromatase inhibitor. Women received a transfer of IVF autologous or donor oocytes. Pregnancy and ongoing pregnancy rates were the primary outcomes. Blood oestradiol concentration after treatment with an aromatase inhibitor was a secondary outcome.

RESULTS

Patients with severe adenomyosis presented with hyperestrogenism due to local production from the lesions even after long-term treatment with GnRHa. Treatment with an aromatase inhibitor reduced hyperestrogenism and improved clinical outcomes in adenomyosis patients who have experienced previous embryo transfer failures.

CONCLUSION

Women with severe adenomyosis would benefit from letrozole or a combination of GnRHa plus letrozole before receipt of treatment with assisted reproductive technology. For women with severe adenomyosis, GnRHa treatment alone may be insufficient to suppress oestrogen production by adenomyotic lesions. Thus, it should be mandatory to test for oestradiol concentrations in patients with severe adenomyosis who have received long-term GnRHa treatment. Also, GnRHa may not always be the sole strategy for medical management of adenomyotic lesions. Letrozole is safe and can improve IVF outcomes for patients with adenomyosis.

Bromocriptine inhibits proliferation in the endometrium from women with adenomyosis

OBJECTIVE

Bromocriptine treatment has been shown to reduce menstrual bleeding and pain in women with adenomyosis in a pilot clinical trial. The underlying mechanism contributing to the treatment effect is however unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of bromocriptine on the proliferation and migration properties of the endometrium in women with adenomyosis, by assessing cellular and molecular changes after six months of vaginal bromocriptine treatment.

METHODS

Endometrial specimens were collected during the proliferative phase from women with adenomyosis (n=6) before (baseline) and after six months of treatment with vaginal bromocriptine. Immunohistochemistry was used to determine changes in the protein expression of Ki67 in the endometrium of women with adenomyosis. Primary endometrial stromal cells isolated at baseline were expanded in vitro and exposed to different doses of bromocriptine to determine the optimal half-maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) using CellTiter-Blue^® Cell Viability Assay. Cell proliferation was assessed by bromodeoxyuridine ELISA assay and Ki67 gene expression was checked by real-time PCR. The migratory ability of endometrial stromal cells was determined by wound healing and transwell migration assays. Small RNA sequencing was applied on tissues collected from women with adenomyosis before and after bromocriptine treatment to identify differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) after bromocriptine treatment. Bioinformatic methods were used for target gene prediction and the identification of biological pathways by enrichment procedures.

RESULTS

Vaginal bromocriptine treatment reduced the Ki67 protein expression in the endometrium of women with adenomyosis and did not change the prolactin mRNA expression and protein concentration of prolactin in endometrial tissues. Bromocriptine significantly inhibited the proliferative and migrative abilities of endometrial stromal cells derived from women with adenomyosis in vitro. Moreover, small RNA sequencing revealed 27 differentially expressed miRNAs between the endometrium of women with adenomyosis before and after six months of vaginal bromocriptine treatment. KEGG pathway analysis on targeted genes of 27 miRNAs showed that several signaling pathways associated with cell proliferation and apoptosis were enriched after bromocriptine treatment.

CONCLUSION

Bromocriptine treatment exhibits an anti-proliferative effect in the endometrium of women with adenomyosis in vivo and in vitro. Bromocriptine might inhibit the proliferation of endometrial tissue in adenomyosis in part through the regulation of dysregulated microRNAs and proliferation-associated signaling pathways.

Claudin-10 Expression Is Increased in Endometriosis and Adenomyosis and Mislocalized in Ectopic Endometriosis

Claudins, as the major components of tight junctions, are crucial for epithelial cell-to-cell contacts. Recently, we showed that in endometriosis, the endometrial epithelial phenotype is highly conserved, with only minor alterations. For example, claudin-11 is strongly expressed; however, its localization in the endometriotic epithelial cells was impaired. In order to better understand the role of claudins in endometrial cell-to-cell contacts, we analyzed the tissue expression and localization of claudin-10 by immunohistochemistry analysis and two scoring systems. We used human tissue samples (n = 151) from the endometrium, endometriosis, and adenomyosis. We found a high abundance of claudin-10 in nearly all the endometrial (98%), endometriotic (98−99%), and adenomyotic (90−97%) glands, but no cycle-specific differences and no differences in the claudin-10 positive endometrial glands between cases with and without endometriosis. A significantly higher expression of claudin-10 was evident in the ectopic endometrium of deep-infiltrating (p < 0.01) and ovarian endometriosis (p < 0.001) and in adenomyosis in the cases with endometriosis (p ≤ 0.05). Interestingly, we observed a shift in claudin-10 from a predominant apical localization in the eutopic endometrium to a more pronounced basal/cytoplasmic localization in the ectopic endometria of all three endometriotic entities but not in adenomyosis. Significantly, despite the impaired endometriotic localization of claudin-10, the epithelial phenotype was retained. The significant differences in claudin-10 localization between the three endometriotic entities and adenomyosis, in conjunction with endometriosis, suggest that most of the aberrations occur after implantation and not before. The high similarity between the claudin-10 patterns in the eutopic endometrial and adenomyotic glands supports our recent conclusions that the endometrium is the main source of endometriosis and adenomyosis.

Endometriosis-associated infertility: From pathophysiology to tailored treatment

Despite the clinically recognized association between endometriosis and infertility, the mechanisms implicated in endometriosis-associated infertility are not fully understood. Endometriosis is a multifactorial and systemic disease that has pleiotropic direct and indirect effects on reproduction. A complex interaction between endometriosis subtype, pain, inflammation, altered pelvic anatomy, adhesions, disrupted ovarian reserve/function, and compromised endometrial receptivity as well as systemic effects of the disease define endometriosis-associated infertility. The population of infertile women with endometriosis is heterogeneous, and diverse patients' phenotypes can be observed in the clinical setting, thus making difficult to establish a precise diagnosis and a single mechanism of endometriosis related infertility. Moreover, clinical management of infertility associated with endometriosis can be challenging due to this heterogeneity. Innovative non-invasive diagnostic tools are on the horizon that may allow us to target the specific dysfunctional alteration in the reproduction process. Currently the treatment should be individualized according to the clinical situation and to the suspected level of impairment. Here we review the etiology of endometriosis related infertility as well as current treatment options, including the roles of surgery and assisted reproductive technologies.

Decreased expression of GRIM-19 induces autophagy through the AMPK/ULK1 signaling pathway during adenomyosis

The processes underlying adenomyosis are similar to those of tumor metastasis, and it is defined as progressive invasion by the endometrium and the subsequent creation of ectopic lesions. GRIM-19 regulates cell death via the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Stress following oxygen deprivation can induce tumor cell autophagy, leading to cell invasion and migration. Here, we revealed that GRIM-19 negatively regulates autophagy, and, at least in adenomyosis, decreased expression of GRIM-19 is accompanied by an increased level of autophagy and 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase-Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1 (AMPK-ULK1) activation. Upregulation of GRIM-19 expression in human primary endometrial cells and ISHIKAWA cells inhibits autophagy via the AMPK-ULK1 pathway and helps control cell invasion and migration. In addition, we also identified increased expression of AMPK and ULK1, and higher levels of autophagy in the uterine tissues of GRIM-19+/- mice. Importantly, the function of the GRIM-19-AMPK-ULK1 axis in regulating autophagy in adenomyosis is similar to that of tumor tissues, which may help elucidate the regulation of adenomyosis tumor-like behavior, and is expected to help identify novel targets for the diagnosis and treatment of adenomyosis.

Role of macrophages in the immunopathogenesis of adenomyosis

The aim of the research: to study pathophysiological mechanisms of adenomyosis development by determining the role of macrophages in the uterine microenvironment. Materials and methods: a prospective study has been conducted on 35 women. There were 20 (57.1 %) who had adenomyosis of I degree. The control group consisted of 15 (34.3 %) gynecologically healthy women. The patients underwent general clinical, instrumental (ultrasound, hysteroscopy) examinations. Fragments of the uterine wall obtained by hysterorectoscopy were used for morphological study. The method of immunohistochemical determination of CD68+ and CD163+ macrophages was used to analyze the characteristics of phenotypic equivalents of M1 and M2 macrophages in uterine tissue samples. Results: The increase in the number of macrophages in the myometrium of patients with adenomyosis revealed in this study, which is found in large numbers in the areas of infiltration of the stroma of myometrial cells in close association with the perivascular region, can be regarded as the basis of the mechanism for the formation of endometrioid heterotopia. Furthermore, distortion of the CD68/CD163 ratio of macrophages is characterized by proinflammatory shift. Conclusions: The study's main result is an increase in the quantitative indicators of CD68+ macrophages associated with adenomyosis, which indicates an immunopathological process in adenomyosis.

Pathogenesis of Human Adenomyosis: Current Understanding and Its Association with Infertility

The aim of this review article was to summarize our current understanding on the etiologies and pathogenesis of human adenomyosis and to clarify the relative association between adenomyosis and infertility. The exact pathogenesis of adenomyosis is still elusive. Among different reported concepts, direction invagination of gland cells from the basalis endometrium deep into myometrium is the most widely accepted opinion on the development of adenomyosis. According to this concept, endometrial epithelial cells and changed fibroblasts, abnormally found in the myometrium in response to repeated tissue injury and/or disruption at the endometrium-myometrium interface (EMI), elicit hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the surrounding smooth muscle cells. In this review, a comprehensive review was performed with a literature search using PubMed for all publications in English and Japanese (abstract in English), related to adenomyosis and infertility, from inception to April 2021. As an estrogen-regulated factor, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) exhibits multiple functions in endometriosis, a disease commonly believed to arise from the functionalis endometrium. As a mechanistic basis of gland invagination, we investigated the role of HGF, either alone or in combination with estrogen, in the occurrence of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in adenomyosis. Aside from microtrauma at the EMI, metaplasia of displaced Müllerian remnants, differentiation of endometrial stem/progenitor cells within the myometrium and somatic mutation of some target genes have been put forward to explain how adenomyosis develops. In addition, the possible role of microRNAs in adenomyosis is also discussed. Besides our knowledge on the conventional classification (focal and diffuse), two recently proposed classifications (intrinsic and extrinsic) of adenomyosis and the biological differences between them have been described. Although the mechanistic basis is unclear, the influence of adenomyosis on fertility outcome is important, especially considering the recent tendency to delay pregnancy among women. Besides other proposed mechanisms, a recent transmission election microscopic (TEM) study indicated that microvilli damage and an axonemal alteration in the apical endometria of human adenomyosis, in response to endometrial inflammation, may be involved in negative fertility outcomes. We present a critical analysis of the literature data concerning the mechanistic basis of infertility in women with adenomyosis and its impact on fertility outcome.

Hormonal treatments for endometriosis: The endocrine background

Endometriosis is a benign uterine disorder characterized by menstrual pain and infertility, deeply affecting women's health. It is a chronic disease and requires a long term management. Hormonal drugs are currently the most used for the medical treatment and are based on the endocrine pathogenetic aspects. Estrogen-dependency and progesterone-resistance are the key events which cause the ectopic implantation of endometrial cells, decreasing apoptosis and increasing oxidative stress, inflammation and neuroangiogenesis. Endometriotic cells express AMH, TGF-related growth factors (inhibin, activin, follistatin) CRH and stress related peptides. Endocrine and inflammatory changes explain pain and infertility, and the systemic comorbidities described in these patients, such as autoimmune (thyroiditis, arthritis, allergies), inflammatory (gastrointestinal/urinary diseases) and mental health disorders.The hormonal treatment of endometriosis aims to block of menstruation through an inhibition of hypothalamus-pituitary-ovary axis or by causing a pseudodecidualization with consequent amenorrhea, impairing the progression of endometriotic implants. GnRH agonists and antagonists are effective on endometriosis by acting on pituitary-ovarian function. Progestins are mostly used for long term treatments (dienogest, NETA, MPA) and act on multiple sites of action. Combined oral contraceptives are also used for reducing endometriosis symptoms by inhibiting ovarian function. Clinical trials are currently going on selective progesterone receptor modulators, selective estrogen receptor modulators and aromatase inhibitors. Nowadays, all these hormonal drugs are considered the first-line treatment for women with endometriosis to improve their symptoms, to postpone surgery or to prevent post-surgical disease recurrence. This review aims to provide a comprehensive state-of-the-art on the current and future hormonal treatments for endometriosis, exploring the endocrine background of the disease.

Evaluation of the relationship between miR-337-3p and RAP1A gene in endometriosis

Background:

Endometriosis, a prevalent multifactorial condition, has a different effect on mental and physical health in women. MicroRNAs have been reported as a main epigenetic factor in endometriosis pathogenesis. However, the role of miR-337-3p and its direct target gene, RAP1A, in endometriosis tissues have not been investigated.

Objective:

The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression level of miR-337-3p and RAP1A gene in endometriosis tissues and normal endometrium tissues.

Materials and methods:

We measured the expression levels of miR-337-3p and RAP1A gene by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in 15 eutopic and ectopic tissue samples of superficial peritoneal lesions from women with endometriosis and 15 normal endometrial tissue samples from women without any symptom of endometriosis.

Results:

The results showed the expression level of RAP1A gene significantly increased in endometriosis tissue samples (both of ectopic and eutopic tissues), while miR-337-3p expression level decreased significantly in these tissues compared to the normal endometrium.

Conclusion:

In this study, we observed an inverse relationship between miR-337-3p and RAP1A gene expression in endometriosis. Dysregulation of these genes can also be interpreted as their role in the pathogenesis and progression of endometriosis.

Epigenomic Analysis Reveals the KCNK9 Potassium Channel as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Adenomyosis

Adenomyosis is linked to dysmenorrhea and infertility. The pathogenesis of adenomyosis remains unclear, and little is known of the genetic and epigenetic changes in the eutopic endometrium in adenomyosis, which may predispose patients to the invasion and migration of endometrial tissues into the myometrium. Transcriptome studies have identified genes related to various cell behaviors but no targets for therapeutic intervention. The epigenetics of the eutopic endometrium in adenomyosis have rarely been investigated. Endometrial tissue was obtained from premenopausal women with (n = 32) or without adenomyosis (n = 17) who underwent hysterectomy aged 34–57 years at a tertiary hospital. The methylome and transcriptome were assessed by using a Methylation 450 K BeadChip array and Affymetrix expression microarray. Protein expression was examined by immunohistochemistry. Differential methylation analysis revealed 53 lowly methylated genes and 176 highly methylated genes with consistent gene expression in adenomyosis, including three genes encoding potassium ion channels. High expression of KCNK9 in the eutopic and ectopic endometria in patients with adenomyosis but not in normal controls was observed. Hormone-free, antibody-based KCNK9 targeting is a potential therapeutic strategy for adenomyosis-related dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, and infertility.

Role of lncRNA TUG1 in Adenomyosis and its Regulatory Mechanism in Endometrial Epithelial Cell Functions

OBJECTIVE

Adenomyosis (AM) is a common gynecological disorder that can cause pelvic pain. The regulatory role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in AM progression has been widely reported. This study investigated the effect and mechanism of lncRNA taurine-upregulated gene 1 (TUG1) on endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) in AM.

METHODS

Endometrial tissues of AM patients and controls were collected. A murine model of AM was established by tamoxifen induction. TUG1 expression in endometrial tissues of AM patients and mice was determined. In vivo, the effect of TUG1 on AM mice was measured through H&E staining, Masson's staining, uterine weight, and estradiol concentration. EECs isolated from AM patients were transfected with sh-TUG1. In vitro, the effect of TUG1 on the proliferation, migration, invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and angiogenesis of EECs was evaluated by CCK8, colony formation, immunofluorescence, wound healing, and Transwell assays. The binding relationship among TUG1, E2F4, and KLF5 was confirmed using RNA immunoprecipitation and RNA pull-down assays. A function rescue experiment was designed to verify the effect of KLF5 on EECs.

RESULTS

TUG1 expression was elevated in AM mice and patients. Downregulation of TUG1 promoted the recovery of AM mice. Downregulation of TUG1 suppressed proliferation, migration, invasion, EMT, and angiogenesis of EECs. Mechanically, TUG1 suppressed KLF5 transcription by binding to E2F4. Downregulation of KLF5 reversed the inhibitory effect of TUG1 silencing on the functions of EECs.

CONCLUSION

TUG1 expression was elevated in AM, and TUG1 facilitated proliferation, migration, invasion, EMT, and angiogenesis of EECs via E2F4/KLF5, thereby aggravating AM.

Classifications of Adenomyosis and Correlation of Phenotypes in Imaging and Histopathology to Clinical Outcomes: a Review

Purpose of Review

To provide an update on published classification and reporting systems for adenomyosis. There is an urgent need to standardize reporting of various phenotypes of adenomyosis into a validated and globally recognized system. This can be used to examine the nature and severity of adenomyosis symptoms and inform the design, evaluation, and implementation of appropriate treatment options.

Recent Findings

In recent years, several new proposals for adenomyosis classification have emerged. Most are MRI-based and include features such as uterine size, junctional zone thickness, size and location of the lesions, and distribution patterns. To date, none of those proposals has been validated. Only one recent classification based on transvaginal ultrasound was validated for interobserver congruence and correlated to clinical findings. However, the differentiation of diffuse and focal adenomyosis still lacks consensus. In addition, only a few authors advocated imaging-based definitions.

Summary

There is a need for one or a combination of a classification and reporting system for adenomyosis. To date, there is no widely accepted and validated system.

Establishment of Adenomyosis Organoids as a Preclinical Model to Study Infertility

Adenomyosis is related to infertility and miscarriages, but so far there are no robust in vitro models that reproduce its pathological features to study the molecular mechanisms involved in this disease. Endometrial organoids are in vitro 3D models that recapitulate the native microenvironment and reproduce tissue characteristics that would allow the study of adenomyosis pathogenesis and related infertility disorders. In our study, human endometrial biopsies from adenomyosis (n = 6) and healthy women (n = 6) were recruited. Organoids were established and hormonally differentiated to recapitulate midsecretory and gestational endometrial phases. Physiological and pathological characteristics were evaluated by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, qRT-PCR, and ELISA. Secretory and gestational organoids recapitulated in vivo glandular epithelial phenotype (pan-cytokeratin, Muc-1, PAS, Laminin, and Ki67) and secretory and gestational features (α-tubulin, SOX9, SPP1, PAEP, LIF, and 17βHSD2 expression and SPP1 secretion). Adenomyosis organoids showed higher expression of TGF-β2 and SMAD3 and increased gene expression of SPP1, PAEP, LIF, and 17βHSD2 compared with control organoids. Our results demonstrate that organoids derived from endometria of adenomyosis patients and differentiated to secretory and gestational phases recapitulate native endometrial-tissue-specific features and disease-specific traits. Adenomyosis-derived organoids are a promising in vitro preclinical model to study impaired implantation and pregnancy disorders in adenomyosis and enable personalized drug screening.

Extrinsic Adenomyosis Is Associated With Postoperative Recurrence of Ovarian Endometrioma

Objective: To determine whether endometrioma recurrence is closely related to the presence of extrinsic adenomyosis, which was demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Design: Observational crosssectional study involving patients with the recurrence of ovarian endometrioma (OMA). Correlations of endometrioma recurrence and adenomyosis subtypes shown by MRI were analyzed. Method: Between January 2018 and December 2020, a total of 233 patients with recurrence of OMA after ovarian cystectomy were administered for surgery at our institution. All patients were divided into subtype II (Group A), subtype I+IV (Group B), and nonadenomyosis (Group C) groups at preoperative MRI imaging. The correlations of endometrioma recurrence with clinical features, imaging appearance, and surgical findings were retrospectively analyzed. Results: We found 112 (48.07%) patients of endometrioma recurrence combined with subtype II adenomyosis, 8 (3.43%) subtype I adenomyosis, 47 (20.17%) subtype IV adenomyosis, 66 (28.32%) nonadenomyosis. The mean time of OMA recurrence (44.28 ± 8.37, vs. 63.96 ± 10.28, vs. 69.36 ± 9.34 mon), rate of pain symptoms (85.71, vs. 69.10, vs. 18.18%), and primary infertility (31.25, vs. 14.55, vs. 10.77%) were higher in Group A. Uterine volume (257.37± 42.61, vs. 203.14 ± 33.52, vs. 100.85 ± 26.67 cm³), and mean OMA size (4.97 ± 2.25, vs. 4.36 ± 2.38, vs. 4.46 ± 2.70 cm) were significantly larger in Group A. The rate of DIE (83.93, vs. 45.45, vs. 40.91%), the number of DIE (3.6 ± 1.8 vs. 2.3 ± 1.5 vs. 2.2 ± 1.3), the mean total revised American Society for Reproductive Medicine score (rASRM, 103.14 ± 23.89 vs. 74.23 ± 16.72 vs. 36.51 ± 14.23) were significantly higher in Group A. After a multiple logistic regression analysis, extrinsic adenomyosis (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.2-3.4), DIE lesions (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.4-2.8), and primary infertility (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.3-4.3) were significantly associated with early recurrence (in 3-year) of OMA. Conclusions: Extrinsic adenomyosis was associated with postoperative recurrence of OMA. In addition, a pathogenic link between extrinsic adenomyosis and pelvic endometriosis needs to be clarified.

Endometriosis increases the rate of spontaneous early miscarriage in women who have adenomyosis lesions

RESEARCH QUESTION

In women with radiologically diagnosed adenomyosis, is the presence of endometriosis associated with a higher rate of miscarriage?

DESIGN

An observational cohort study of women who received medical care for benign gynaecological conditions between May 2005 and May 2018. Women who had adenomyosis lesions visualized by uterine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were included. Women who had never been pregnant were excluded. Women with adenomyosis identified by MRI but who did not have endometriosis lesions (control group) were compared with women with adenomyosis and endometriosis lesions (study group). Primary outcome was rate of a previous history of early miscarriage.

RESULTS

A total of 214 pregnancies in the study group and 53 pregnancies in the control group were analysed. The rate of a previous miscarriage was significantly higher among women with adenomyosis and endometriosis lesions compared with women in the control group (61/214 [28.5%] versus 6/53 [11.3%], respectively, P = 0.009). A multivariable generalized estimating equation logistic regression model, adjusted for adenomyosis and endometriosis phenotypes, found that the association between endometriosis and adenomyosis significantly increased the risk of miscarriage (OR 3.2, 95% CI 1.1 to 9.65). The risk was significantly higher with deep infiltrating endometriosis (OR 4.37, 95% CI 1.32 to 14.53).

CONCLUSIONS

Women affected by endometriosis had a significantly higher rate of previous spontaneous miscarriage than women without endometriosis with adenomyosis lesions identified by MRI. Mechanistic studies are needed to establish the complex link between the presence of endometriosis and adenomyosis and the rate of spontaneous miscarriage.

Polygenic Risk Score Prediction for Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a major health care challenge because many young women with endometriosis go undetected for an extended period, which may lead to pain sensitization. Clinical tools to better identify candidates for laparoscopy-guided diagnosis are urgently needed. Since endometriosis has a strong genetic component, there is a growing interest in using genetics as part of the clinical risk assessment. The aim of this work was to investigate the discriminative ability of a polygenic risk score (PRS) for endometriosis using three different cohorts: surgically confirmed cases from the Western Danish endometriosis referral Center (249 cases, 348 controls), cases identified from the Danish Twin Registry (DTR) based on ICD-10 codes from the National Patient Registry (140 cases, 316 controls), and replication analysis in the UK Biobank (2,967 cases, 256,222 controls). Patients with adenomyosis from the DTR (25 cases) and from the UK Biobank (1,883 cases) were included for comparison. The PRS was derived from 14 genetic variants identified in a published genome-wide association study with more than 17,000 cases. The PRS was associated with endometriosis in surgically confirmed cases [odds ratio (OR) = 1.59, p = 2.57× 10⁻⁷] and in cases from the DTR biobank (OR = 1.50, p = 0.0001). Combining the two Danish cohorts, each standard deviation increase in PRS was associated with endometriosis (OR = 1.57, p = 2.5× 10⁻¹¹), as well as the major subtypes of endometriosis; ovarian (OR = 1.72, p = 6.7× 10⁻⁵), infiltrating (OR = 1.66, p = 2.7× 10⁻⁹), and peritoneal (OR = 1.51, p = 2.6 × 10⁻³). These findings were replicated in the UK Biobank with a much larger sample size (OR = 1.28, p < 2.2× 10⁻¹⁶). The PRS was not associated with adenomyosis, suggesting that adenomyosis is not driven by the same genetic risk variants as endometriosis. Our results suggest that a PRS captures an increased risk of all types of endometriosis rather than an increased risk for endometriosis in specific locations. Although the discriminative accuracy is not yet sufficient as a stand-alone clinical utility, our data demonstrate that genetics risk variants in form of a simple PRS may add significant new discriminatory value. We suggest that an endometriosis PRS in combination with classical clinical risk factors and symptoms could be an important step in developing an urgently needed endometriosis risk stratification tool.

Ectopic Endometrium: The Pathologist's Perspective

Endometriosis and adenomyosis are two frequent diseases closely linked, characterized by ectopic endometrium. Despite their benign nature, endometriosis and adenomyosis impair women's quality of life by causing pain and infertility and an increase in the incidence of gynecological malignancies has been reported. Since the first description of ectopic endometrium in 1860, different attempts have been made to describe, classify and understand the origin of these diseases. Several theories have been proposed to describe the pathogenic mechanism leading to the development of adenomyosis or endometriosis. However, all the hypotheses show some limitations in explaining all the different aspects and manifestations of these diseases. Despite the remarkable progress made over recent years, the pathogeneses of endometriosis and adenomyosis remain unclear. Moreover, because of the lack of standardized protocols and diagnostic criteria in pathology practice it is difficult to study and to classify these disorders. The goal of this review is to summarize the pathological aspects of adenomyosis and endometriosis, spanning a historical perspective to newly reported data.

Upregulated Talin1 synergistically boosts β-estradiol-induced proliferation and pro-angiogenesis of eutopic and ectopic endometrial stromal cells in adenomyosis

Adenomyosis (ADS) is an estrogen-dependent gynecological disease with unspecified etiopathogenesis. Local hyperestrogenism may serve a key role in contributing to the origin of ADS. Talin1 is mostly identified to be overexpressed and involved in the progression of numerous human carcinomas through mediating cell proliferation, adhesion and motility. Whether Talin1 exerts an oncogenic role in the pathogenesis of ADS and puts an extra impact on the efficacy of estrogen, no relevant data are available yet. Here we demonstrated that the adenomyotic eutopic and ectopic endometrial stromal cells (ADS_Eu_ESC and ADS_Ec_ESC) treated with β-estradiol (β-E₂) presented stronger proliferative and pro-angiogenetic capacities, accompanied by increased expression of PCNA, Ki67, VEGFB and ANGPTL4 proteins. Meanwhile, these promoting effects were partially abrogated by Fulvestrant (ICI 182780, an estrogen-receptor antagonist). Aberrantly upregulation of Talin1 mRNA and protein level was observed in ADS endometrial specimens and stromal cells. Through performing functional experiments in vitro, we further determined that merely overexpression of Talin1 (OV-Talin1) also enhanced ADS stromal cell proliferation and pro-angiogenesis, while the most pronounced facilitating effects were found in the co-intervention group of OV-Talin1 plus β-E₂ treatment. Results from the xenograft nude mice model showed that the hypodermic endometrial lesions from co-intervention group had the highest mean weight and volume, compared with that of individual OV-Talin1 or β-E₂ treatment. The expression levels of PCNA, Ki67, VEGFB and ANGPTL4 in the lesions were correspondingly elevated the most in the co-intervention group. Our findings unveiled that overexpressed Talin1 might cooperate withβ-E₂ in stimulating ADS endometrial stromal cell proliferation and neovascularization, synergistically promoting the growth and survival of ectopic lesions. These results may be beneficial to provide a new insight for clarifying the pathogenesis of ADS.

Uterine involvement by endometriosis: Sonographic features from elusive findings to apparent adenomyosis

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study is to investigate whether there are any minor sonographic uterine findings, not typical for adenomyosis, in endometriosis patients. The secondary objective is to determine the prevalence of sonographic features of adenomyosis in an infertile population with endometriosis.

STUDY DESIGN

The investigation was of 291 infertile women with endometriosis, either manifesting endometrioma (OMA) or diagnosed through laparoscopy, who were investigated for two-dimensional transvaginal sonographic (2D-TVS) features of adenomyosis. These patients were grouped as either having endometriosis with adenomyosis (EwA,n = 121) or without adenomyosis (EwoA, n = 170). Additionally, patients without both endometriosis and 2D-TVS features of adenomyosis constituted the control group (n = 170).

RESULTS

At least one 2D-TVS feature of adenomyosis was detected in 41.6 % (n = 121) of women with endometriosis. Asymmetrical myometrial thickening of uterine walls (57.9 %), hyperechogenic islands (47.1 %), and fan-shaped shadowing (46.9 %) were relatively more prevalent 2D-TVS findings among EwA patients. Multiple OMA (p = 0.038), OMA ≥ 4 cm (p = 0.034), and total OMA volumes were found to be higher (p = 0.004) in the EwA group. Additionally, uterine volumes were found to be 96.7 cm³, 73.0 cm³, and 64.2 cm³ in the EwA, EwoA, and control groups, respectively (EwA vs EwoA, p < 0.001; EwoA vs control, p <0.001). Multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that the presence of endometriosis was independently associated with an increase in uterine volume (β = 0.243, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

A stepwise and statistically significant volume increase from the control group to the EwoA and then to the EwA group may reflect a spectrum of uterine involvement in endometriosis. This might indicate that many uterine endometriosis cases are still hidden from view, possibly demonstrating an "iceberg phenomenon".

Impaired decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells from women with adenomyosis†

Differentiation of endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) into secretory decidualized cells (dESCs) is essential for embryo implantation. Adenomyosis is a common benign gynecological disease that causes infertility. However, whether adenomyosis affects decidualization of human ESCs is elusive. Primary eutopic ESCs were obtained from patients with adenomyosis (n = 9) and women with nonendometrial diseases (n = 12). We determined the capacity of decidualization of human ESCs by qRT-PCR, Edu proliferation assay, cytokine array, and ELISA assay. We found that the expression of decidualization markers (IGFBP1 and PRL) in ESCs of adenomyosis was reduced, concomitant with increased cell proliferation. Differential secretion of cytokines in dESCs, including CXCL1/2/3, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, VEGF-A, MIP-3α, OPN, SDF-1α, HGF, and MMP-9, was observed between adenomyosis and nonadenomyosis. Moreover, the expression of decidualization regulators (HOXA10 at both mRNA and protein levels, FOXO1, KLF5, CEBPB, and HAND2 at mRNA levels) in the eutopic endometrium of adenomyosis was lower than that of nonadenomyosis. We propose that ESCs from adenomyosis have defected ability to full decidualization, which may lead to a nonreceptive endometrium.

Investigation of infertility using endometrial organoids

Infertility is a common problem in modern societies with significant socio-psychological implications for women. Therapeutic interventions are often needed which, depending on the cause, can either be medical treatment, surgical procedures or assisted reproductive technology (ART). However, the treatment of infertility is not always successful due to our limited understanding of the preparation of the lining of the uterus, the endometrium, for pregnancy. The endometrium is of central importance for successful reproduction as it is the site of placental implantation providing the interface between the mother and her baby. Due to the dynamic, structural and functional changes the endometrium undergoes throughout the menstrual cycle, it is challenging to study. A major advancement is the establishment of 3D organoid models of the human endometrium to study this dynamic tissue in health and disease. In this review, we describe the changes that the human endometrium undergoes through the different phases of the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy. We discuss defects in the processes of endometrial repair, decidualization and acquisition of receptivity that are associated with infertility. Organoids could be utilized to investigate the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms occurring in non-pregnant endometrium and early pregnancy. These studies may lead to therapeutic applications that could transform the treatment of reproductive failure.