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Smith AA, Harrison JS. Jumping Performance and Behavior of the Globular Springtail Dicyrtomina minuta. Integr Org Biol 2024; 6:obae029. [PMID: 39211894 PMCID: PMC11360184 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obae029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Springtails are among the most abundant arthropods on earth and they exhibit unique latch-mediated spring-actuated jumping behaviors and anatomical systems. Despite this, springtail jumps have not been well described, especially for those with a globular body plan. Here, we provide a complete description and visualization of jumping in the globular springtail Dicyrtomina minuta. A furca-powered jump results in an average take-off velocity of 1 ms-1 in 1.7 ms, with a fastest acceleration to liftoff of 1938 ms-2. All jumps involve rapid backwards body rotation throughout, rotating on average at 282.2 Hz with a peak rate of 368.7 Hz. Despite body lengths of 1-2 mm, jumping resulted in a backwards trajectory traveling up to 102 mm in horizontal distance and 62 mm in vertical. Escape jumps in response to posterior stimulation did not elicit forward-facing jumps, suggesting that D. minuta is incapable of directing a jump off a flat surface within the 90° heading directly in front of them. Finally, two landing strategies were observed: collophore-anchoring, which allows for an immediate arrest and recovery, and uncontrolled landings where the springtail chaotically tumbles. In comparison to other fast jumping arthropods, linear performance measures globular springtail jumps place them between other systems like fleas and froghoppers. However, in angular body rotation, globular springtails like D. minuta surpass all other animal systems. Given the extraordinary performance measures, unique behavioral responses, and understudied nature of these species, globular springtails present promising opportunities for further description and comparison.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Smith
- Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
- Research and Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
| | - J S Harrison
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
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2
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Leavey A, Richards CT, Porro LB. Comparative muscle anatomy of the anuran pelvis and hindlimb in relation to locomotor mode. J Anat 2024. [PMID: 39119773 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 07/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Frogs have a highly conserved body plan, yet they employ a diverse array of locomotor modes, making them ideal organisms for investigating the relationships between morphology and locomotor function, in particular whether anatomical complexity is a prerequisite for functional complexity. We use diffusible iodine contrast-enhanced microCT (diceCT) imaging to digitally dissect the gross muscle anatomy of the pelvis and hindlimbs for 30 species of frogs representing five primary locomotor modes, including the first known detailed dissection for some of the world's smallest frogs, forming the largest digital comparative analysis of musculoskeletal structure in any vertebrate clade to date. By linking musculoskeletal dissections and phylogenetic comparative methods, we then quantify and compare relationships between anatomy and function across over 160 million years of anuran evolution. In summary, we have found that bone lengths and pelvic crest sizes are generally not reliable predictors of muscle sizes, which highlights important implications for future palaeontological studies. Our investigation also presents previously unreported differences in muscle anatomy between frogs specialising in different locomotor modes, including several of the smallest frog hindlimb muscles, which are extremely difficult to extract and measure using traditional approaches. Furthermore, we find evidence of many-to-one and one-to-many mapping of form to function across the phylogeny. Additionally, we perform the first quantitative analysis of how the degree of muscle separation can differ between frogs. We find evidence that phylogenetic history is the key contributing factor to muscle separation in the pelvis and thigh, while the separation of shank muscles is influenced more strongly by locomotor mode. Finally, our anatomical 3D reconstructions are published alongside this manuscript to contribute towards future research and serve as educational materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Leavey
- Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College-Camden Campus, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, London, UK
| | - Christopher T Richards
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College-Camden Campus, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, London, UK
| | - Laura B Porro
- Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK
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3
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Koh JS, Baek SM, Kim B, Cho KJ, Kim HY. Comparison of water and terrestrial jumping in natural and robotic insects. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1537:13-31. [PMID: 38896114 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Jumping requires high actuation power for achieving high speed in a short time. Especially, organisms and robots at the insect scale jump in order to overcome size limits on the speed of locomotion. As small jumpers suffer from intrinsically small power output, efficient jumpers have devised various ingenuous schemes to amplify their power release. Furthermore, semi-aquatic jumpers have adopted specialized techniques to fully exploit the reaction from water. We review jumping mechanisms of natural and robotic insects that jump on the ground and the surface of water, and compare the performance depending on their scale. We find a general trend that jumping creatures maximize jumping speed by unique mechanisms that manage acceleration, force, and takeoff duration under the constraints mainly associated with their size, shape, and substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Je-Sung Koh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Min Baek
- Soft Robotics Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Baekgyeom Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu-Jin Cho
- Soft Robotics Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Young Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Advanced Machines and Design, Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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4
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Dhawale N, Labonte D, Holt NC. The effect of muscle ultrastructure on the force, displacement and work capacity of skeletal muscle. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20230658. [PMID: 38774960 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle powers animal movement through interactions between the contractile proteins, actin and myosin. Structural variation contributes greatly to the variation in mechanical performance observed across muscles. In vertebrates, gross structural variation occurs in the form of changes in the muscle cross-sectional area : fibre length ratio. This results in a trade-off between force and displacement capacity, leaving work capacity unaltered. Consequently, the maximum work per unit volume-the work density-is considered constant. Invertebrate muscle also varies in muscle ultrastructure, i.e. actin and myosin filament lengths. Increasing actin and myosin filament lengths increases force capacity, but the effect on muscle fibre displacement, and thus work, capacity is unclear. We use a sliding-filament muscle model to predict the effect of actin and myosin filament lengths on these mechanical parameters for both idealized sarcomeres with fixed actin : myosin length ratios, and for real sarcomeres with known filament lengths. Increasing actin and myosin filament lengths increases stress without reducing strain capacity. A muscle with longer actin and myosin filaments can generate larger force over the same displacement and has a higher work density, so seemingly bypassing an established trade-off. However, real sarcomeres deviate from the idealized length ratio suggesting unidentified constraints or selective pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nihav Dhawale
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, UC Riverside , Riverside, CA, USA
| | - David Labonte
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London , London, UK
| | - Natalie C Holt
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, UC Riverside , Riverside, CA, USA
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5
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Labonte D, Bishop PJ, Dick TJM, Clemente CJ. Dynamic similarity and the peculiar allometry of maximum running speed. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2181. [PMID: 38467620 PMCID: PMC10928110 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46269-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Animal performance fundamentally influences behaviour, ecology, and evolution. It typically varies monotonously with size. A notable exception is maximum running speed; the fastest animals are of intermediate size. Here we show that this peculiar allometry results from the competition between two musculoskeletal constraints: the kinetic energy capacity, which dominates in small animals, and the work capacity, which reigns supreme in large animals. The ratio of both capacities defines the physiological similarity index Γ, a dimensionless number akin to the Reynolds number in fluid mechanics. The scaling of Γ indicates a transition from a dominance of muscle forces to a dominance of inertial forces as animals grow in size; its magnitude defines conditions of "dynamic similarity" that enable comparison and estimates of locomotor performance across extant and extinct animals; and the physical parameters that define it highlight opportunities for adaptations in musculoskeletal "design" that depart from the eternal null hypothesis of geometric similarity. The physiological similarity index challenges the Froude number as prevailing dynamic similarity condition, reveals that the differential growth of muscle and weight forces central to classic scaling theory is of secondary importance for the majority of terrestrial animals, and suggests avenues for comparative analyses of locomotor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Labonte
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK.
| | - Peter J Bishop
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Taylor J M Dick
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Christofer J Clemente
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
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6
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Horner AM, Azizi E, Roberts TJ. The interaction of in vivo muscle operating lengths and passive stiffness in rat hindlimbs. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246280. [PMID: 38353270 PMCID: PMC10984277 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
The operating length of a muscle is a key determinant of its ability to produce force in vivo. Muscles that operate near the peak of their force-length relationship will generate higher forces whereas muscle operating at relatively short length may be safe from sudden lengthening perturbations and subsequent damage. At longer lengths, passive mechanical properties have the potential to contribute to force or constrain operating length with stiffer muscle-tendon units theoretically being restricted to shorter lengths. Connective tissues typically increase in density during aging, thus increasing passive muscle stiffness and potentially limiting the operating lengths of muscle during locomotion. Here, we compare in vivo and in situ muscle strain from the medial gastrocnemius in young (7 months old) and aged (30-32 months old) rats presumed to have varying passive tissue stiffness to test the hypothesis that stiffer muscles operate at shorter lengths relative to their force-length relationship. We measured in vivo muscle operating length during voluntary locomotion on inclines and flat trackways and characterized the muscle force-length relationship of the medial gastrocnemius using fluoromicrometry. Although no age-related results were evident, rats of both age groups demonstrated a clear relationship between passive stiffness and in vivo operating length, such that shorter operating lengths were significantly correlated with greater passive stiffness. Our results suggest that increased passive stiffness may restrict muscles to operating lengths shorter than optimal lengths, potentially limiting force capacity during locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M. Horner
- Department of Biology, California State University, San Bernardino, CA 92407, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- School of Biological Sciences, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Thomas J. Roberts
- Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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7
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Goode CK, Woodrow C, Harrison SL, Deeming DC, Sutton GP. Control of high-speed jumps in muscle and spring actuated systems: a comparative study of take-off energetics in bush-crickets (Mecopoda elongata) and locusts (Schistocerca gregaria). J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:597-605. [PMID: 37857900 PMCID: PMC10613148 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-023-01524-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The Orthoptera are a diverse insect order well known for their locomotive capabilities. To jump, the bush-cricket uses a muscle actuated (MA) system in which leg extension is actuated by contraction of the femoral muscles of the hind legs. In comparison, the locust uses a latch mediated spring actuated (LaMSA) system, in which leg extension is actuated by the recoil of spring-like structure in the femur. The aim of this study was to describe the jumping kinematics of Mecopoda elongata (Tettigoniidae) and compare this to existing data in Schistocerca gregaria (Acrididae), to determine differences in control of rotation during take-off between similarly sized MA and LaMSA jumpers. 269 jumps from 67 individuals of M. elongata with masses from 0.014 g to 3.01 g were recorded with a high-speed camera setup. In M. elongata, linear velocity increased with mass0.18 and the angular velocity (pitch) decreased with mass-0.13. In S. gregaria, linear velocity is constant and angular velocity decreases with mass-0.24. Despite these differences in velocity scaling, the ratio of translational kinetic energy to rotational kinetic energy was similar for both species. On average, the energy distribution of M. elongata was distributed 98.8% to translational kinetic energy and 1.2% to rotational kinetic energy, whilst in S. gregaria it is 98.7% and 1.3%, respectively. This energy distribution was independent of size for both species. Despite having two different jump actuation mechanisms, the ratio of translational and rotational kinetic energy formed during take-off is fixed across these distantly related orthopterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe K Goode
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Charlie Woodrow
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18 D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Shannon L Harrison
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - D Charles Deeming
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, UK.
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8
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Mendoza E, Martinez M, Olberding JP, Azizi E. The effects of temperature on elastic energy storage and release in a system with a dynamic mechanical advantage latch. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb245805. [PMID: 37727106 PMCID: PMC10617612 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Changes in temperature alter muscle kinetics and in turn affect whole-organism performance. Some organisms use the elastic recoil of biological springs, structures which are far less temperature sensitive, to power thermally robust movements. For jumping frogs, the use of elastic energy in tendons is facilitated through a geometric latching mechanism that operates through dynamic changes in the mechanical advantage (MA) of the hindlimb. Despite the well-documented use of elastic energy storage, frog jumping is a locomotor behavior that is significantly affected by changes in temperature. Here, we used an in vitro muscle preparation interacting in real time with an in silico model of a legged jumper to understand how changes in temperature affect the flow of energy in a system using a MA latch. We used the plantaris longus muscle-tendon unit (MTU) to power a virtual limb with changing MA and a mass being accelerated through a real-time feedback controller. We quantified the amount of energy stored in and recovered from elastic structures and the additional contribution of direct muscle work after unlatching. We found that temperature altered the duration of the energy loading and recovery phase of the in vitro/in silico experiments. We found that the early phase of loading was insensitive to changes in temperature. However, an increase in temperature did increase the rate of force development, which in turn allowed for increased energy storage in the second phase of loading. We also found that the contribution of direct muscle work after unlatching was substantial and increased significantly with temperature. Our results show that the thermal robustness achieved by an elastic mechanism depends strongly on the nature of the latch that mediates energy flow, and that the relative contribution of elastic and direct muscle energy likely shapes the thermal sensitivity of locomotor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Maya Martinez
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Department, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
| | - Jeffrey P. Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Biological Science, California State University, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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9
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Aibekova L, Keller RA, Katzke J, Allman DM, Hita-Garcia F, Labonte D, Narendra A, Economo EP. Parallel And Divergent Morphological Adaptations Underlying The Evolution of Jumping Ability in Ants. Integr Org Biol 2023; 5:obad026. [PMID: 37545740 PMCID: PMC10401624 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obad026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Jumping is a rapid locomotory mode widespread in terrestrial organisms. However, it is a rare specialization in ants. Forward jumping has been reported within four distantly related ant genera: Gigantiops, Harpegnathos, Myrmecia, and Odontomachus. The temporal engagement of legs/body parts during jump, however, varies across these genera. It is unknown what morphological adaptations underlie such behaviors and whether jumping in ants is solely driven directly by muscle contraction or additionally relies on elastic recoil mechanism. We investigated the morphological adaptations for jumping behavior by comparing differences in the locomotory musculature between jumping and non-jumping relatives using X-ray micro-CT and 3D morphometrics. We found that the size-specific volumes of the trochanter depressor muscle (scm6) of the middle and hind legs are 3-5 times larger in jumping ants, and that one coxal remotor muscle (scm2) is reduced in volume in the middle and/or hind legs. Notably, the enlargement in the volume of other muscle groups is directly linked to the legs or body parts engaged during the jump. Furthermore, a direct comparison of the muscle architecture revealed two significant differences between jumping vs. non-jumping ants: First, the relative Physiological Cross-Sectional Area (PCSA) of the trochanter depressor muscles of all three legs were larger in jumping ants, except in the front legs of Odontomachus rixosus and Myrmecia nigrocincta; second, the relative muscle fiber length was shorter in jumping ants compared to non-jumping counterparts, except in the front legs of O. rixosus and M. nigrocincta. These results suggest that the difference in relative muscle volume in jumping ants is largely invested in the area (PCSA), and not in fiber length. There was no clear difference in the pennation angle between jumping and non-jumping ants. Additionally, we report that the hind leg length relative to body length was longer in jumping ants. Based on direct comparison of the observed vs. possible work and power output during jumps, we surmise that direct muscle contractions suffice to explain jumping performance in three species, except for O. rixosus, where the lack of data on jumping performance prevents us from drawing definitive conclusions for this particular species. We suggest that increased investment in jumping-relevant musculature is a primary morphological adaptation that separates jumping from non-jumping ants. These results elucidate the common and idiosyncratic morphological changes underlying this rare adaptation in ants. まとぅみ (Okinawan language-Uchinaaguchi) (Japanese) РЕЗЮМЕ (Kazakh) ZUSAMMENFASSUNG (German).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - R A Keller
- Museu Nacional de Historia Natural e da Ciência & Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J Katzke
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - D M Allman
- Ecological Neuroscience Group, School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - F Hita-Garcia
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
| | - D Labonte
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - A Narendra
- Ecological Neuroscience Group, School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - E P Economo
- Biodiversity and Biocomplexity Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan
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10
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Labonte D. A theory of physiological similarity in muscle-driven motion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2221217120. [PMID: 37285395 PMCID: PMC10268211 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2221217120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle contraction is the primary source of all animal movement. I show that the maximum mechanical output of such contractions is determined by a characteristic dimensionless number, the "effective inertia," Γ, defined by a small set of mechanical, physiological, and anatomical properties of the interrogated musculoskeletal complex. Different musculoskeletal systems with equal Γ may be considered physiologically similar, in the sense that maximum performance involves equal fractions of the muscle's maximum strain rate, strain capacity, work, and power density. It can be demonstrated that there exists a unique, "optimal" musculoskeletal anatomy which enables a unit volume of muscle to deliver maximum work and power simultaneously, corresponding to Γ close to unity. External forces truncate the mechanical performance space accessible to muscle by introducing parasitic losses, and subtly alter how musculoskeletal anatomy modulates muscle performance, challenging canonical notions of skeletal force-velocity trade-offs. Γ varies systematically under isogeometric transformations of musculoskeletal systems, a result which provides fundamental insights into the key determinants of animal locomotor performance across scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Labonte
- Evolutionary Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2BX, United Kingdom
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11
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Holt NC, Mayfield DL. Muscle-tendon unit design and tuning for power enhancement, power attenuation, and reduction of metabolic cost. J Biomech 2023; 153:111585. [PMID: 37126884 PMCID: PMC10949972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The contractile elements in skeletal muscle fibers operate in series with elastic elements, tendons and potentially aponeuroses, in muscle-tendon units (MTUs). Elastic strain energy (ESE), arising from either work done by muscle fibers or the energy of the body, can be stored in these series elastic elements (SEEs). MTUs vary considerably in their design in terms of the relative lengths and stiffnesses of the muscle fibers and SEEs, and the force and work generating capacities of the muscle fibers. However, within an MTU it is thought that contractile and series elastic elements can be matched or tuned to maximize ESE storage. The use of ESE is thought to improve locomotor performance by enhancing contractile element power during activities such as jumping, attenuating contractile element power during activities such as landing, and reducing the metabolic cost of movement during steady-state activities such as walking and running. The effectiveness of MTUs in these potential roles is contingent on factors such as the source of mechanical energy, the control of the flow of energy, and characteristics of SEE recoil. Hence, we suggest that MTUs specialized for ESE storage may vary considerably in the structural, mechanical, and physiological properties of their components depending on their functional role and required versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Holt
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - D L Mayfield
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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12
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Wold ES, Lynch J, Gravish N, Sponberg S. Structural damping renders the hawkmoth exoskeleton mechanically insensitive to non-sinusoidal deformations. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20230141. [PMID: 37194272 PMCID: PMC10189308 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscles act through elastic and dissipative elements to mediate movement, which can introduce dissipation and filtering which are important for energetics and control. The high power requirements of flapping flight can be reduced by an insect's exoskeleton, which acts as a spring with frequency-independent material properties under purely sinusoidal deformation. However, this purely sinusoidal dynamic regime does not encompass the asymmetric wing strokes of many insects or non-periodic deformations induced by external perturbations. As such, it remains unknown whether a frequency-independent model applies broadly and what implications it has for control. We used a vibration testing system to measure the mechanical properties of isolated Manduca sexta thoraces under symmetric, asymmetric and band-limited white noise deformations. The asymmetric and white noise conditions represent two types of generalized, multi-frequency deformations that may be encountered during steady-state and perturbed flight. Power savings and dissipation were indistinguishable between symmetric and asymmetric conditions, demonstrating that no additional energy is required to deform the thorax non-sinusoidally. Under white noise conditions, stiffness and damping were invariant with frequency, suggesting that the thorax has no frequency-dependent filtering properties. A simple flat frequency response function fits our measured frequency response. This work demonstrates the potential of materials with frequency-independent damping to simplify motor control by eliminating any velocity-dependent filtering that viscoelastic elements usually impose between muscle and wing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan S. Wold
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - James Lynch
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92161, USA
| | - Nick Gravish
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92161, USA
| | - Simon Sponberg
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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13
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Goode CK, Sutton GP. Control of high-speed jumps: the rotation and energetics of the locust (Schistocerca gregaria). J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:145-153. [PMID: 36715704 PMCID: PMC9992258 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-022-01471-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) jump using a latch mediated spring actuated system in the femur-tibia joint of their metathoracic legs. These jumps are exceptionally fast and display angular rotation immediately after take-off. In this study, we focus on the angular velocity, at take-off, of locusts ranging between 0.049 and 1.50 g to determine if and how rotation-rate scales with size. From 263 jumps recorded from 44 individuals, we found that angular velocity scales with mass-0.33, consistent with a hypothesis of locusts having a constant rotational kinetic energy density. Within the data from each locust, angular velocity increased proportionally with linear velocity, suggesting the two cannot be independently controlled and thus a fixed energy budget is formed at take-off. On average, the energy budget of a jump is distributed 98.7% to translational kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, and 1.3% to rotational kinetic energy. The percentage of energy devoted to rotation was constant across all sizes of locusts and represents a very small proportion of the energy budget. This analysis suggests that smaller locusts find it harder to jump without body rotation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Goode
- School of Life Sciences, Joseph Banks Laboratories, University of Lincoln, Beevor Street, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, England, UK.
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences, Joseph Banks Laboratories, University of Lincoln, Beevor Street, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, England, UK
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14
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Divi S, Reynaga C, Azizi E, Bergbreiter S. Adapting small jumping robots to compliant environments. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220778. [PMID: 36854379 PMCID: PMC9974292 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Jumping animals launch themselves from surfaces that vary widely in compliance from grasses and shrubs to tree branches. However, studies of robotic jumpers have been largely limited to those jumping from rigid substrates. In this paper, we leverage recent work describing how latches in jumping systems can mediate the transition from stored potential energy to kinetic energy. By including a description of the latch in our system model of both the jumper and compliant substrate, we can describe conditions in which a jumper can either lose energy to the substrate or recover energy from the substrate resulting in an improved jump performance. Using our mathematical model, we illustrate how the latch plays a role in the ability of a system to adapt its jump performance to a wide range of substrates that vary in their compliance. Our modelling results are validated using a 4 g jumper with a range of latch designs jumping from substrates with varying mass and compliance. Finally, we demonstrate the jumper recovering energy from a tree branch during take-off, extending these mechanistic findings to robots interacting with a more natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Crystal Reynaga
- Department of Biology, Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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15
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Harrison JS, Patek SN. Developing elastic mechanisms: ultrafast motion and cavitation emerge at the millimeter scale in juvenile snapping shrimp. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:287686. [PMID: 36854255 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Organisms such as jumping froghopper insects and punching mantis shrimp use spring-based propulsion to achieve fast motion. Studies of elastic mechanisms have primarily focused on fully developed and functional mechanisms in adult organisms. However, the ontogeny and development of these mechanisms can provide important insights into the lower size limits of spring-based propulsion, the ecological or behavioral relevance of ultrafast movement, and the scaling of ultrafast movement. Here, we examined the development of the spring-latch mechanism in the bigclaw snapping shrimp, Alpheus heterochaelis (Alpheidae). Adult snapping shrimp use an enlarged claw to produce high-speed strikes that generate cavitation bubbles. However, until now, it was unclear when the elastic mechanism emerges during development and whether juvenile snapping shrimp can generate cavitation at this size. We reared A. heterochaelis from eggs, through their larval and postlarval stages. Starting 1 month after hatching, the snapping shrimp snapping claw gradually developed a spring-actuated mechanism and began snapping. We used high-speed videography (300,000 frames s-1) to measure juvenile snaps. We discovered that juvenile snapping shrimp generate the highest recorded accelerations (5.8×105±3.3×105 m s-2) for repeated-use, underwater motion and are capable of producing cavitation at the millimeter scale. The angular velocity of snaps did not change as juveniles grew; however, juvenile snapping shrimp with larger claws produced faster linear speeds and generated larger, longer-lasting cavitation bubbles. These findings establish the development of the elastic mechanism and cavitation in snapping shrimp and provide insights into early life-history transitions in spring-actuated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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16
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Hyun NP, Olberding JP, De A, Divi S, Liang X, Thomas E, St Pierre R, Steinhardt E, Jorge J, Longo SJ, Cox S, Mendoza E, Sutton GP, Azizi E, Crosby AJ, Bergbreiter S, Wood RJ, Patek SN. Spring and latch dynamics can act as control pathways in ultrafast systems. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:026002. [PMID: 36595244 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acaa7c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafast movements propelled by springs and released by latches are thought limited to energetic adjustments prior to movement, and seemingly cannot adjust once movement begins. Even so, across the tree of life, ultrafast organisms navigate dynamic environments and generate a range of movements, suggesting unrecognized capabilities for control. We develop a framework of control pathways leveraging the non-linear dynamics of spring-propelled, latch-released systems. We analytically model spring dynamics and develop reduced-parameter models of latch dynamics to quantify how they can be tuned internally or through changing external environments. Using Lagrangian mechanics, we test feedforward and feedback control implementation via spring and latch dynamics. We establish through empirically-informed modeling that ultrafast movement can be controllably varied during latch release and spring propulsion. A deeper understanding of the interconnection between multiple control pathways, and the tunability of each control pathway, in ultrafast biomechanical systems presented here has the potential to expand the capabilities of synthetic ultra-fast systems and provides a new framework to understand the behaviors of fast organisms subject to perturbations and environmental non-idealities.
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Hyun
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - J P Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - A De
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - S Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - X Liang
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - E Thomas
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - R St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - E Steinhardt
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - J Jorge
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - S J Longo
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - S Cox
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - E Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - G P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - E Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - A J Crosby
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - S Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - R J Wood
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - S N Patek
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
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17
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KUZNETSOV AN. How big can a walking fish be? A theoretical inference based on observations on four land-dwelling fish genera of South Vietnam. Integr Zool 2022; 17:849-878. [PMID: 34599557 PMCID: PMC9786276 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Comparative study of terrestrial locomotion of 4 fish genera including Anabas, Channa, Clarias, and Monopterus, was performed in experimental setting with the substrate surface of wet clay. No special adaptations for terrestrial locomotion were found. Every fish uses for propulsion on land what it already has. Eel-shaped Monopterus crawls by body undulations in a serpentine or sidewinding technique, the latter of which was not previously observed beyond snakes. The other 3 fish genera walk by body oscillations using stiff appendages as propulsors. When they are located anteriorly, as the serrate operculum in Anabas and the preaxial spine of the pectoral fin in Clarias, the propulsion is termed prolocomotor, when posteriorly, as the spiny anal fin in Channa-metalocomotor. Channa is the heaviest fish walking out of water in our days, quite comparable in size with first Devonian tetrapods Acanthostega and Tulerpeton. A theoretical calculation is suggested for the upper size limit of a fish capable of terrestrial walking without special locomotor adaptations. It should be roughly 20 cm in the vertical dimension of the trunk, which is just a little above the known size of Devonian tetrapodomorph fishes Panderichthys and Elpistostege. The metalocomotor walking technique of Channa is suggested as the closest extant model for terrestrial locomotion at the fish-tetrapod transition. The major difference is that the metalocomotor propulsor in Channa is represented by the anal fin, while in tetrapodomorphs by the pelvic fins. The sprawled pelvic fins were advantageous in respect of reduced requirement for side-to-side tail swinging.
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18
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Cook A, Pandhigunta K, Acevedo MA, Walker A, Didcock RL, Castro JT, O’Neill D, Acharya R, Bhamla MS, Anderson PSL, Ilton M. A Tunable, Simplified Model for Biological Latch Mediated Spring Actuated Systems. Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac032. [PMID: 36060863 PMCID: PMC9434652 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We develop a model of latch-mediated spring actuated (LaMSA) systems relevant to comparative biomechanics and bioinspired design. The model contains five components: two motors (muscles), a spring, a latch, and a load mass. One motor loads the spring to store elastic energy and the second motor subsequently removes the latch, which releases the spring and causes movement of the load mass. We develop freely available software to accompany the model, which provides an extensible framework for simulating LaMSA systems. Output from the simulation includes information from the loading and release phases of motion, which can be used to calculate kinematic performance metrics that are important for biomechanical function. In parallel, we simulate a comparable, directly actuated system that uses the same motor and mass combinations as the LaMSA simulations. By rapidly iterating through biologically relevant input parameters to the model, simulated kinematic performance differences between LaMSA and directly actuated systems can be used to explore the evolutionary dynamics of biological LaMSA systems and uncover design principles for bioinspired LaMSA systems. As proof of principle of this concept, we compare a LaMSA simulation to a directly actuated simulation that includes either a Hill-type force-velocity trade-off or muscle activation dynamics, or both. For the biologically-relevant range of parameters explored, we find that the muscle force-velocity trade-off and muscle activation have similar effects on directly actuated performance. Including both of these dynamic muscle properties increases the accelerated mass range where a LaMSA system outperforms a directly actuated one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Cook
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | | | - Mason A Acevedo
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | - Adam Walker
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | | | | | - Declan O’Neill
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | - Raghav Acharya
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30318
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30318
| | - Philip S L Anderson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
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19
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Sutton GP, St Pierre R, Kuo CY, Summers AP, Bergbreiter S, Cox S, Patek SN. Dual spring force couples yield multifunctionality and ultrafast, precision rotation in tiny biomechanical systems. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275995. [PMID: 35863219 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Small organisms use propulsive springs rather than muscles to repeatedly actuate high acceleration movements, even when constrained to tiny displacements and limited by inertial forces. Through integration of a large kinematic dataset, measurements of elastic recoil, energetic math modeling and dynamic math modeling, we tested how trap-jaw ants (Odontomachus brunneus) utilize multiple elastic structures to develop ultrafast and precise mandible rotations at small scales. We found that O. brunneus develops torque on each mandible using an intriguing configuration of two springs: their elastic head capsule recoils to push and the recoiling muscle-apodeme unit tugs on each mandible. Mandibles achieved precise, planar, circular trajectories up to 49,100 rad s-1 (470,000 rpm) when powered by spring propulsion. Once spring propulsion ended, the mandibles moved with unconstrained and oscillatory rotation. We term this mechanism a 'dual spring force couple', meaning that two springs deliver energy at two locations to develop torque. Dynamic modeling revealed that dual spring force couples reduce the need for joint constraints and thereby reduce dissipative joint losses, which is essential to the repeated use of ultrafast, small systems. Dual spring force couples enable multifunctionality: trap-jaw ants use the same mechanical system to produce ultrafast, planar strikes driven by propulsive springs and for generating slow, multi-degrees of freedom mandible manipulations using muscles, rather than springs, to directly actuate the movement. Dual spring force couples are found in other systems and are likely widespread in biology. These principles can be incorporated into microrobotics to improve multifunctionality, precision and longevity of ultrafast systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences , University of Lincoln, Lincoln LN6 7TS, UK
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Chi-Yun Kuo
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Adam P Summers
- Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Suzanne Cox
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
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20
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Larabee FJ, Gibson JC, Rivera MD, Anderson PSL, Suarez AV. Muscle fatigue in the latch-mediated spring actuated mandibles of trap-jaw ants. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac091. [PMID: 35689666 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle fatigue can reduce performance potentially affecting an organism's fitness. However, some aspects of fatigue could be overcome by employing a latch-mediated spring actuated system (LaMSA) where muscle activity is decoupled from movement. We estimated the effects of muscle fatigue on different aspects of mandible performance in six species of ants, two whose mandibles are directly actuated by muscles and four that have LaMSA "trap-jaw" mandibles. We found evidence that the LaMSA system of trap-jaw ants may prevent some aspects of performance from declining with repeated use, including duration, acceleration and peak velocity. However, inter-strike interval increased with repeated strikes suggesting that muscle fatigue still comes into play during the spring loading phase. In contrast, one species with directly actuated mandibles showed a decline in bite force over time. These results have implications for design principles aimed at minimizing the effects of fatigue on performance in spring and motor actuated systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick J Larabee
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1000 Constitution Ave., Washington DC
| | - Josh C Gibson
- Department of Entomology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | | | - Philip S L Anderson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | - Andrew V Suarez
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
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21
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Hawkes EW, Xiao C, Peloquin RA, Keeley C, Begley MR, Pope MT, Niemeyer G. Engineered jumpers overcome biological limits via work multiplication. Nature 2022; 604:657-661. [PMID: 35478234 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04606-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, scientists have explored the limits of biological jump height1,2, and for decades, engineers have designed jumping machines3-18 that often mimicked or took inspiration from biological jumpers. Despite these efforts, general analyses are missing that compare the energetics of biological and engineered jumpers across scale. Here we show how biological and engineered jumpers have key differences in their jump energetics. The jump height of a biological jumper is limited by the work its linear motor (muscle) can produce in a single stroke. By contrast, the jump height of an engineered device can be far greater because its ratcheted or rotary motor can 'multiply work' during repeated strokes or rotations. As a consequence of these differences in energy production, biological and engineered jumpers should have divergent designs for maximizing jump height. Following these insights, we created a device that can jump over 30 metres high, to our knowledge far higher than previous engineered jumpers and over an order of magnitude higher than the best biological jumpers. Our work advances the understanding of jumping, shows a new level of performance, and underscores the importance of considering the differences between engineered and biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot W Hawkes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Charles Xiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Christopher Keeley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Matthew R Begley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Günter Niemeyer
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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22
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Bergbreiter S. Jumping robot bests biology by enhancing stored energy. Nature 2022; 604:627-628. [PMID: 35478230 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-01077-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Characterizing the performance of human leg external force control. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4935. [PMID: 35322065 PMCID: PMC8943015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08755-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Our legs act as our primary contact with the surrounding environment, generating external forces that enable agile motion. To be agile, the nervous system has to control both the magnitude of the force that the feet apply to the ground and the point of application of this force. The purpose of this study was to characterize the performance of the healthy human neuromechanical system in controlling the force-magnitude and position of an externally applied force. To accomplish this, we built an apparatus that immobilized participants but allowed them to exert variable but controlled external forces with a single leg onto a ground embedded force plate. We provided real-time visual feedback of either the leg force-magnitude or force-position that participants were exerting against the force platform and instructed participants to best match their real-time signal to prescribed target step functions. We tested target step functions of a range of sizes and quantified the responsiveness and accuracy of the control. For the control of force-magnitude and for intermediate step sizes of 0.45 bodyweights, we found a bandwidth of 1.8 ± 0.5 Hz, a steady-state error of 2.6 ± 0.9%, and a steady-state variability of 2.7 ± 0.9%. We found similar control performance in terms of responsiveness and accuracy across step sizes and between force-magnitude and position control. Increases in responsiveness correlated with reductions in other measures of control performance, such as a greater magnitude of overshooting. We modelled the observed control performance and found that a second-order model was a good predictor of external leg force control. We discuss how benchmarking force control performance in young healthy humans aids in understanding differences in agility between humans, between humans and other animals, and between humans and engineered systems.
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24
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Mendoza E, Azizi E. Tuned muscle and spring properties increase elastic energy storage. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb243180. [PMID: 34821932 PMCID: PMC10658917 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Elastic recoil drives some of the fastest and most powerful biological movements. For effective use of elastic recoil, the tuning of muscle and spring force capacity is essential. Although studies of invertebrate organisms that use elastic recoil show evidence of increased force capacity in their energy loading muscle, changes in the fundamental properties of such muscles have yet to be documented in vertebrates. Here, we used three species of frogs (Cuban tree frogs, bullfrogs and cane toads) that differ in jumping power to investigate functional shifts in muscle-spring tuning in systems using latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA). We hypothesized that variation in jumping performance would result from increased force capacity in muscles and relatively stiffer elastic structures, resulting in greater energy storage. To test this, we characterized the force-length property of the plantaris longus muscle-tendon unit (MTU), and quantified the maximal amount of energy stored in elastic structures for each species. We found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs produced higher mass-specific energy and mass-specific forces than the other two species. Moreover, we found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs had higher pennation angles than the other species, suggesting that muscle architecture was modified to increase force capacity through packing of more muscle fibers. Finally, we found that the elastic structures were relatively stiffer in Cuban tree frogs. These results provide a mechanistic link between the tuned properties of LaMSA components, energy storage capacity and whole-system performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
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25
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McBride JM. Muscle Actuators, Not Springs, Drive Maximal Effort Human Locomotor Performance. J Sports Sci Med 2021; 20:766-777. [PMID: 35321123 PMCID: PMC8488820 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2021.766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The current investigation examined muscle-tendon unit kinematics and kinetics in human participants asked to perform a hopping task for maximal performance with variational preceding milieu. Twenty-four participants were allocated post-data collection into those participants with an average hop height of higher (HH) or lower (LH) than 0.1 m. Participants were placed on a customized sled at a 20º angle while standing on a force plate. Participants used their dominant ankle for all testing and their knee was immobilized and thus all movement involved only the ankle joint and corresponding propulsive unit (triceps surae muscle complex). Participants were asked to perform a maximal effort during a single dynamic countermovement hop (CMH) and drop hops from 10 cm (DH10) and 50 cm (DH50). Three-dimensional motion analysis was performed by utilizing an infrared camera VICON motion analysis system and a corresponding force plate. An ultrasound probe was placed on the triceps surae muscle complex for muscle fascicle imaging. HH hopped significantly higher in all hopping tasks in comparison to LH. In addition, the HH group concentric ankle work was significantly higher in comparison to LH during all of the hopping tasks. Active muscle work was significantly higher in HH in comparison to LH as well. Tendon work was not significantly different between HH and LH. Active muscle work was significantly correlated with hopping height (r = 0.97) across both groups and hopping tasks and contributed more than 50% of the total work. The data indicates that humans primarily use a motor-driven system and thus it is concluded that muscle actuators and not springs maximize performance in hopping locomotor tasks in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M McBride
- Neuromuscular & Biomechanics Laboratory, Beaver College of Health Sciences, Department of Health & Exercise Science, Appalachian State University, North Carolina, USA
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26
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Burrows M, Ghosh A, Sutton GP, Yeshwanth HM, Rogers SM, Sane SP. Jumping in lantern bugs (Hemiptera, Fulgoridae). J Exp Biol 2021; 224:273404. [PMID: 34755862 PMCID: PMC8714067 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Lantern bugs are amongst the largest of the jumping hemipteran bugs, with body lengths reaching 44 mm and masses reaching 0.7 g. They are up to 600 times heavier than smaller hemipterans that jump powerfully using catapult mechanisms to store energy. Does a similar mechanism also propel jumping in these much larger insects? The jumping performance of two species of lantern bugs (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, family Fulgoridae) from India and Malaysia was therefore analysed from high-speed videos. The kinematics showed that jumps were propelled by rapid and synchronous movements of both hind legs, with their trochantera moving first. The hind legs were 20–40% longer than the front legs, which was attributable to longer tibiae. It took 5–6 ms to accelerate to take-off velocities reaching 4.65 m s−1 in the best jumps by female Kalidasa lanata. During these jumps, adults experienced an acceleration of 77 g, required an energy expenditure of 4800 μJ and a power output of 900 mW, and exerted a force of 400 mN. The required power output of the thoracic jumping muscles was 21,000 W kg−1, 40 times greater than the maximum active contractile limit of muscle. Such a jumping performance therefore required a power amplification mechanism with energy storage in advance of the movement, as in their smaller relatives. These large lantern bugs are near isometrically scaled-up versions of their smaller relatives, still achieve comparable, if not higher, take-off velocities, and outperform other large jumping insects such as grasshoppers. Summary: Lantern bugs are large insects that jump at high-take-off velocities using a catapult mechanism that matches the performance of their much smaller planthopper relatives
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Affiliation(s)
- M Burrows
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru 560 065, India.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - A Ghosh
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru 560 065, India
| | - G P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UK
| | - H M Yeshwanth
- Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK (Gandhi Krishi Vigyan Kendra), Bengaluru, 560 065, India
| | - S M Rogers
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UK
| | - S P Sane
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru 560 065, India
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Cox SM, DeBoef A, Salzano MQ, Katugam K, Piazza SJ, Rubenson J. Plasticity of the gastrocnemius elastic system in response to decreased work and power demand during growth. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb242694. [PMID: 34522962 PMCID: PMC10659036 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Elastic energy storage and release can enhance performance that would otherwise be limited by the force-velocity constraints of muscle. Although functional influence of a biological spring depends on tuning between components of an elastic system (the muscle, spring-driven mass and lever system), we do not know whether elastic systems systematically adapt to functional demand. To test whether altering work and power generation during maturation alters the morphology of an elastic system, we prevented growing guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) from jumping. We compared the jump performance of our treatment group at maturity with that of controls and measured the morphology of the gastrocnemius elastic system. We found that restricted birds jumped with lower jump power and work, yet there were no significant between-group differences in the components of the elastic system. Further, subject-specific models revealed no difference in energy storage capacity between groups, though energy storage was most sensitive to variations in muscle properties (most significantly operating length and least dependent on tendon stiffness). We conclude that the gastrocnemius elastic system in the guinea fowl displays little to no plastic response to decreased demand during growth and hypothesize that neural plasticity may explain performance variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M. Cox
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Adam DeBoef
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- The Department of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Matthew Q. Salzano
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Integrative and Biomedical Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Kavya Katugam
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Stephen J. Piazza
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jonas Rubenson
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
- Integrative and Biomedical Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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28
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A physical model of mantis shrimp for exploring the dynamics of ultrafast systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2026833118. [PMID: 34389671 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2026833118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient and effective generation of high-acceleration movement in biology requires a process to control energy flow and amplify mechanical power from power density-limited muscle. Until recently, this ability was exclusive to ultrafast, small organisms, and this process was largely ascribed to the high mechanical power density of small elastic recoil mechanisms. In several ultrafast organisms, linkages suddenly initiate rotation when they overcenter and reverse torque; this process mediates the release of stored elastic energy and enhances the mechanical power output of extremely fast, spring-actuated systems. Here we report the discovery of linkage dynamics and geometric latching that reveals how organisms and synthetic systems generate extremely high-acceleration, short-duration movements. Through synergistic analyses of mantis shrimp strikes, a synthetic mantis shrimp robot, and a dynamic mathematical model, we discover that linkages can exhibit distinct dynamic phases that control energy transfer from stored elastic energy to ultrafast movement. These design principles are embodied in a 1.5-g mantis shrimp scale mechanism capable of striking velocities over 26 m [Formula: see text] in air and 5 m [Formula: see text] in water. The physical, mathematical, and biological datasets establish latching mechanics with four temporal phases and identify a nondimensional performance metric to analyze potential energy transfer. These temporal phases enable control of an extreme cascade of mechanical power amplification. Linkage dynamics and temporal phase characteristics are easily adjusted through linkage design in robotic and mathematical systems and provide a framework to understand the function of linkages and latches in biological systems.
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29
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Bauer U, Müller UK, Poppinga S. Complexity and diversity of motion amplification and control strategies in motile carnivorous plant traps. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210771. [PMID: 34036802 PMCID: PMC8150269 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Similar to animals, plants have evolved mechanisms for elastic energy storage and release to power and control rapid motion, yet both groups have been largely studied in isolation. This is exacerbated by the lack of consistent terminology and conceptual frameworks describing elastically powered motion in both groups. Iconic examples of fast movements can be found in carnivorous plants, which have become important models to study biomechanics, developmental processes, evolution and ecology. Trapping structures and processes vary considerably between different carnivorous plant groups. Using snap traps, suction traps and springboard-pitfall traps as examples, we illustrate how traps mix and match various mechanisms to power, trigger and actuate motions that contribute to prey capture, retention and digestion. We highlight a fundamental trade-off between energetic investment and movement control and discuss it in a functional-ecological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Bauer
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Ulrike K Müller
- Department of Biology, California State University Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA
| | - Simon Poppinga
- Plant Biomechanics Group, Botanic Garden, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT-Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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30
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Bishop PJ, Falisse A, De Groote F, Hutchinson JR. Predictive Simulations of Musculoskeletal Function and Jumping Performance in a Generalized Bird. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 3:obab006. [PMID: 34377939 PMCID: PMC8341896 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obab006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Jumping is a common, but demanding, behavior that many animals employ during everyday activity. In contrast to jump-specialists such as anurans and some primates, jumping biomechanics and the factors that influence performance remains little studied for generalized species that lack marked adaptations for jumping. Computational biomechanical modeling approaches offer a way of addressing this in a rigorous, mechanistic fashion. Here, optimal control theory and musculoskeletal modeling are integrated to generate predictive simulations of maximal height jumping in a small ground-dwelling bird, a tinamou. A three-dimensional musculoskeletal model with 36 actuators per leg is used, and direct collocation is employed to formulate a rapidly solvable optimal control problem involving both liftoff and landing phases. The resulting simulation raises the whole-body center of mass to over double its standing height, and key aspects of the simulated behavior qualitatively replicate empirical observations for other jumping birds. However, quantitative performance is lower, with reduced ground forces, jump heights, and muscle–tendon power. A pronounced countermovement maneuver is used during launch. The use of a countermovement is demonstrated to be critical to the achievement of greater jump heights, and this phenomenon may only need to exploit physical principles alone to be successful; amplification of muscle performance may not necessarily be a proximate reason for the use of this maneuver. Increasing muscle strength or contractile velocity above nominal values greatly improves jump performance, and interestingly has the greatest effect on more distal limb extensor muscles (i.e., those of the ankle), suggesting that the distal limb may be a critical link for jumping behavior. These results warrant a re-evaluation of previous inferences of jumping ability in some extinct species with foreshortened distal limb segments, such as dromaeosaurid dinosaurs. Simulations prédictives de la fonction musculo-squelettique et des performances de saut chez un oiseau généralisé Sauter est un comportement commun, mais exigeant, que de nombreux animaux utilisent au cours de leurs activités quotidiennes. Contrairement aux spécialistes du saut tels que les anoures et certains primates, la biomécanique du saut et les facteurs qui influencent la performance restent peu étudiés pour les espèces généralisées qui n’ont pas d’adaptations marquées pour le saut. Les approches de modélisation biomécanique computationnelle offrent un moyen d’aborder cette question de manière rigoureuse et mécaniste. Ici, la théorie du contrôle optimal et la modélisation musculo-squelettique sont intégrées pour générer des simulations prédictives du saut en hauteur maximal chez un petit oiseau terrestre, le tinamou. Un modèle musculo-squelettique tridimensionnel avec 36 actionneurs par patte est utilisé, et une méthode numérique nommée “direct collocation” est employée pour formuler un problème de contrôle optimal rapidement résoluble impliquant les phases de décollage et d’atterrissage. La simulation qui en résulte élève le centre de masse du corps entier à plus du double de sa hauteur debout, et les aspects clés du comportement simulé reproduisent qualitativement les observations empiriques d’autres oiseaux sauteurs. Cependant, les performances quantitatives sont moindres, avec une réduction des forces au sol, des hauteurs de saut et de la puissance musculo-tendineuse. Une manœuvre de contre-mouvement prononcée est utilisée pendant le lancement. Il a été démontré que l’utilisation d’un contre-mouvement est essentielle à l’obtention de hauteurs de saut plus importantes, et il se peut que ce phénomène doive exploiter uniquement des principes physiques pour réussir; l’amplification de la performance musculaire n’est pas nécessairement une raison immédiate de l’utilisation de cette manœuvre. L’augmentation de la force musculaire ou de la vitesse de contraction au-dessus des valeurs nominales améliore grandement la performance de saut et, fait intéressant, a le plus grand effet sur les muscles extenseurs des membres plus distaux (c'est-à-dire ceux de la cheville), ce qui suggère que le membre distal peut être un lien critique pour le comportement de saut. Ces résultats justifient une réévaluation des déductions précédentes de la capacité de sauter chez certaines espèces éteintes avec des segments de membres distaux raccourcis, comme les dinosaures droméosauridés. Voorspellende simulaties van musculoskeletale functie en springprestaties bij een gegeneraliseerde vogel Springen is een veel voorkomend, maar veeleisend, gedrag dat veel dieren toepassen tijdens hun dagelijkse bezigheden. In tegenstelling tot de springspecialisten zoals de anura en sommige primaten, is de biomechanica van het springen en de factoren die de prestaties beïnvloeden nog weinig bestudeerd voor algemene soorten die geen uitgesproken adaptaties voor het springen hebben. Computationele biomechanische modelbenaderingen bieden een manier om dit op een rigoureuze, mechanistische manier aan te pakken. Hier worden optimale controle theorie en musculoskeletale modellering geïntegreerd om voorspellende simulaties te genereren van maximale hoogtesprong bij een kleine grondbewonende vogel, een tinamou. Een driedimensionaal musculoskeletaal model met 36 actuatoren per poot wordt gebruikt, en directe collocatie wordt toegepast om een snel oplosbaar optimaal controleprobleem te formuleren dat zowel de opstijg-als de landingsfase omvat. De resulterende simulatie verhoogt het lichaamszwaartepunt tot meer dan het dubbele van de stahoogte, en belangrijke aspecten van het gesimuleerde gedrag komen kwalitatief overeen met empirische waarnemingen voor andere springende vogels. De kwantitatieve prestaties zijn echter minder, met verminderde grondkrachten, spronghoogtes en spierpeeskracht. Tijdens de lancering wordt een uitgesproken tegenbewegingsmanoeuvre gebruikt. Aangetoond is dat het gebruik van een tegenbeweging van cruciaal belang is voor het bereiken van grotere spronghoogten, en dit fenomeen hoeft alleen op fysische principes te berusten om succesvol te zijn; versterking van de spierprestaties hoeft niet noodzakelijk een proximate reden te zijn voor het gebruik van deze manoeuvre. Het verhogen van de spierkracht of van de contractiesnelheid boven de nominale waarden verbetert de sprongprestatie aanzienlijk, en heeft interessant genoeg het grootste effect op de meer distale extensoren van de ledematen (d.w.z. die van de enkel), wat suggereert dat de distale ledematen een kritieke schakel kunnen zijn voor het springgedrag. Deze resultaten rechtvaardigen een herevaluatie van eerdere conclusies over springvermogen bij sommige uitgestorven soorten met voorgekorte distale ledematen, zoals dromaeosauride dinosauriërs. Prädiktive Simulationen der muskuloskelettalen Funktion und Sprungleistung bei einem generalisierten Vogel Springen ist ein übliches jedoch anstrengendes Verhalten, das viele Tiere bei ihren täglichen Aktivitäten einsetzen. Im Gegensatz zu Springspezialisten, wie Fröschen und einigen Primaten, sind bei allgemeinen Arten, welche keine ausgeprägten Anpassung für Sprungverhalten aufweisen, die Biomechanik beim Springen und die Faktoren, welche die Leistungsfähigkeit beeinflussen, noch wenig untersucht. Computergestützte biomechanische Modellierungsverfahren bieten hier eine Möglichkeit, dies in einer gründlichen, mechanistischen Weise anzugehen. In dieser Arbeit werden die optimale Steuerungstheorie und Muskel-Skelett-Modellierung zusammen eingesetzt, um die maximale Sprunghöhe eines kleinen bodenlebenden Vogels, eines Perlsteisshuhns, zu simulieren und zu prognostizieren. Es wird ein dreidimensionales Muskel-Skelett-Modell mit 36 Aktuatoren pro Bein verwendet, und durch direkte Kollokation wird ein schnell lösbares optimales Steuerungsproblem formuliert, das sowohl die Abstoss- als auch die Landephase umfasst. Die daraus folgende Simulation bringt den Ganzkörperschwerpunkt auf mehr als das Doppelte seiner Standhöhe und entscheidende Aspekte des simulierten Verhaltens entsprechen qualitativ empirischen Beobachtungen für andere springende Vögel. Allerdings ist die quantitative Leistungsfähigkeit geringer, mit reduzierten Bodenkräften, Sprunghöhen und Muskel-Sehnen-Kräften. Beim Abstossen wird ein ausgeprägtes Gegenbewegungsmanöver durchgeführt. Die Durchführung einer Gegenbewegung ist nachweislich entscheidend für das Erreichen grösserer Sprunghöhen, wobei dieses Phänomen möglicherweise nur physikalische Prinzipien auszuschöpfen braucht, um erfolgreich zu sein. Die Verstärkung der Muskelleistung ist daher möglicherweise nicht zwingend ein unmittelbarer Grund für die Verwendung dieses Manövers. Eine Erhöhung der Muskelkraft oder der Kontraktionsgeschwindigkeit über die Nominalwerte hinaus führt zu einer erheblichen Zunahme der Sprungleistung und hat interessanterweise den grössten Effekt bei den weiter distal gelegenen Streckmuskeln der Beine (d.h. bei denjenigen des Sprunggelenks), was darauf hindeutet, dass die distale Gliedmasse ein entscheidendes Element für das Sprungverhalten sein könnte. Diese Ergebnisse geben Anlass zur Überprüfung früherer Schlussfolgerungen hinsichtlich der Sprungfähigkeit einiger ausgestorbener Arten mit verkürzten distalen Gliedmassen, wie beispielsweise bei dromaeosauriden Dinosauriern.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Bishop
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - A Falisse
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - F De Groote
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - J R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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Harrison JS, Porter ML, McHenry MJ, Robinson HE, Patek SN. Scaling and development of elastic mechanisms: the tiny strikes of larval mantis shrimp. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:258491. [PMID: 33914038 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.235465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA) is used by small organisms to produce high acceleration movements. Mathematical models predict that acceleration increases as LaMSA systems decrease in size. Adult mantis shrimp use a LaMSA mechanism in their raptorial appendages to produce extremely fast strikes. Until now, however, it was unclear whether mantis shrimp at earlier life-history stages also strike using elastic recoil and latch mediation. We tested whether larval mantis shrimp (Gonodactylaceus falcatus) use LaMSA and, because of their smaller size, achieve higher strike accelerations than adults of other mantis shrimp species. Based on microscopy and kinematic analyses, we discovered that larval G. falcatus possess the components of, and actively use, LaMSA during their fourth larval stage, which is the stage of development when larvae begin feeding. Larvae performed strikes at high acceleration and speed (mean: 4.133×105 rad s-2, 292.7 rad s-1; 12 individuals, 25 strikes), which are of the same order of magnitude as for adults - even though adult appendages are up to two orders of magnitude longer. Larval strike speed (mean: 0.385 m s-1) exceeded the maximum swimming speed of similarly sized organisms from other species by several orders of magnitude. These findings establish the developmental timing and scaling of the mantis shrimp LaMSA mechanism and provide insights into the kinematic consequences of scaling limits in tiny elastic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Megan L Porter
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - Matthew J McHenry
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - H Eve Robinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA 95521, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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32
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Wood HM. The strike of the dragonfly larvae. Sci Robot 2021; 6:6/50/eabf4718. [PMID: 34043586 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abf4718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The predatory strike of dragonfly larvae can inspire the design of fast robotic movement with enhanced control and precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Wood
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.
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33
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A Morphological Method to Approximate Jumping Performance in Anurans for Macroevolutionary Studies. Evol Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-020-09509-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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34
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Mendoza E, Azizi E, Moen DS. What explains vast differences in jumping power within a clade? Diversity, ecology and evolution of anuran jumping power. Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Irvine CA USA
- Department of Integrative Biology Oklahoma State University Stillwater OK USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Irvine CA USA
| | - Daniel S. Moen
- Department of Integrative Biology Oklahoma State University Stillwater OK USA
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35
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Ilton M, Cox SM, Egelmeers T, Sutton GP, Patek SN, Crosby AJ. The effect of size-scale on the kinematics of elastic energy release. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:9579-9586. [PMID: 31724691 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm00870e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Elastically-driven motion has been used as a strategy to achieve high speeds in small organisms and engineered micro-robotic devices. We examine the size-scaling relations determining the limit of elastic energy release from elastomer bands that efficiently cycle mechanical energy with minimal loss. The maximum center-of-mass velocity of the elastomer bands was found to be size-scale independent, while smaller bands demonstrated larger accelerations and shorter durations of elastic energy release. Scaling relationships determined from these measurements are consistent with the performance of small organisms and engineered devices which utilize elastic elements to power motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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