Antibodies for Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Cure Strategies

Phenotypic Characterization of Subtype A and Recombinant AC Transmitted/Founder Viruses from a Rwandan HIV-1 Heterosexual Transmission Cohort

HIV-1 subtypes have distinct geographical distributions, with subtypes A, C, and D and inter-subtype recombinants circulating in sub-Saharan Africa. Historically, individuals living with subtype A viruses exhibit slower CD4 decline and progression to AIDS diagnosis. Despite this, there are few authentic infectious molecular clones (IMCs) of subtype A or AC recombinant transmitted founder (TF) viruses with which to investigate viral impacts on pathogenesis. In this study, we constructed 16 authentic subtype A1 and 4 A1C recombinant IMCs from the IAVI Rwandan Protocol C acute infection cohort and characterized these viruses phenotypically. The virus replicative capacity (RC) scores varied over 50-fold, but the natural substitution of non-consensus amino acids in the p17(MA) domain of Gag was generally linked to higher RC levels. Sensitivity to a panel of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) showed that all but one TF was sensitive to N6, which targets the CD4 binding site, while bNAbs PG16 and PGT 128 had a similar level of potency but reduced breadth against our panel of viruses. In contrast, bNAb 10E8V4 revealed high breadth but much lower potency. This panel of well-characterized, authentic subtype A and AC recombinant IMCs provides a resource for studies on the role of the virus subtype in HIV-1 transmission, pathogenesis, and vaccine design.

Making a Monkey out of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Pathogenesis: Immune Cell Depletion Experiments as a Tool to Understand the Immune Correlates of Protection and Pathogenicity in HIV Infection

Understanding the underlying mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis is critical for designing successful HIV vaccines and cure strategies. However, achieving this goal is complicated by the virus's direct interactions with immune cells, the induction of persistent reservoirs in the immune system cells, and multiple strategies developed by the virus for immune evasion. Meanwhile, HIV and SIV infections induce a pandysfunction of the immune cell populations, making it difficult to untangle the various concurrent mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis. Over the years, one of the most successful approaches for dissecting the immune correlates of protection in HIV/SIV infection has been the in vivo depletion of various immune cell populations and assessment of the impact of these depletions on the outcome of infection in non-human primate models. Here, we present a detailed analysis of the strategies and results of manipulating SIV pathogenesis through in vivo depletions of key immune cells populations. Although each of these methods has its limitations, they have all contributed to our understanding of key pathogenic pathways in HIV/SIV infection.

Potent targeted activator of cell kill molecules eliminate cells expressing HIV-1

Antiretroviral therapy inhibits HIV-1 replication but is not curative due to establishment of a persistent reservoir after virus integration into the host genome. Reservoir reduction is therefore an important HIV-1 cure strategy. Some HIV-1 nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors induce HIV-1 selective cytotoxicity in vitro but require concentrations far exceeding approved dosages. Focusing on this secondary activity, we found bifunctional compounds with HIV-1-infected cell kill potency at clinically achievable concentrations. These targeted activator of cell kill (TACK) molecules bind the reverse transcriptase-p66 domain of monomeric Gag-Pol and act as allosteric modulators to accelerate dimerization, resulting in HIV-1⁺ cell death through premature intracellular viral protease activation. TACK molecules retain potent antiviral activity and selectively eliminate infected CD4⁺ T cells isolated from people living with HIV-1, supporting an immune-independent clearance strategy.

Monoclonal Antibodies as Long-Acting Products: What Are We Learning From Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)?

Broadly neutralizing antibodies directed against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) offer promise as long-acting agents for prevention and treatment of HIV. Progress and challenges are discussed. Lessons may be learned from the development of monoclonal antibodies to treat and prevent COVID-19.

Contribution of T- and B-cell intrinsic toll-like receptors to the adaptive immune response in viral infectious diseases

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) comprise a class of highly conserved molecules that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and play a vital role in host defense against multiple viral infectious diseases. Although TLRs are highly expressed on innate immune cells and play indirect roles in regulating antiviral adaptive immune responses, intrinsic expression of TLRs in adaptive immune cells, including T cells and B cells, cannot be ignored. TLRs expressed in CD4 + and CD8 + T cells play roles in enhancing TCR signal-induced T-cell activation, proliferation, function, and survival, serving as costimulatory molecules. Gene knockout of TLR signaling molecules has been shown to diminish antiviral adaptive immune responses and affect viral clearance in multiple viral infectious animal models. These results have highlighted the critical role of TLRs in the long-term immunological control of viral infection. This review summarizes the expression and function of TLR signaling pathways in T and B cells, focusing on the in vitro and vivo mechanisms and effects of intrinsic TLR signaling in regulating T- and B-cell responses during viral infection. The potential clinical use of TLR-based immune regulatory drugs for viral infectious diseases is also explored.

Challenges and Opportunities of Therapies Targeting Early Life Immunity for Pediatric HIV Cure

Early initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) significantly improves clinical outcomes and reduces mortality of infants/children living with HIV. However, the ability of infected cells to establish latent viral reservoirs shortly after infection and to persist during long-term ART remains a major barrier to cure. In addition, while early ART treatment of infants living with HIV can limit the size of the virus reservoir, it can also blunt HIV-specific immune responses and does not mediate clearance of latently infected viral reservoirs. Thus, adjunctive immune-based therapies that are geared towards limiting the establishment of the virus reservoir and/or mediating the clearance of persistent reservoirs are of interest for their potential to achieve viral remission in the setting of pediatric HIV. Because of the differences between the early life and adult immune systems, these interventions may need to be tailored to the pediatric settings. Understanding the attributes and specificities of the early life immune milieu that are likely to impact the virus reservoir is important to guide the development of pediatric-specific immune-based interventions towards viral remission and cure. In this review, we compare the immune profiles of pediatric and adult HIV elite controllers, discuss the characteristics of cellular and anatomic HIV reservoirs in pediatric populations, and highlight the potential values of current cure strategies using immune-based therapies for long-term viral remission in the absence of ART in children living with HIV.

Design of a Bispecific HIV Entry Inhibitor Targeting the Cell Receptor CD4 and Viral Fusion Protein Gp41

Given the high variability and drug-resistance problem by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), the development of bispecific or multi-specific inhibitors targeting different steps of HIV entry is highly appreciated. We previously generated a very potent short-peptide-based HIV fusion inhibitor 2P23. In this study, we designed and characterized a bifunctional inhibitor termed 2P23-iMab by genetically conjugating 2P23 to the single-chain variable fragment (scFv) of ibalizumab (iMab), a newly approved antibody drug targeting the cell receptor CD4. As anticipated, 2P23-iMab could bind to the cell membrane through CD4 anchoring and inhibit HIV-1 infection as well as viral Env-mediated cell-cell fusion efficiently. When tested against a large panel of HIV-1 pseudoviruses with different subtypes and phenotypes, 2P23-iMab exhibited dramatically improved inhibitory activity than the parental inhibitors; especially, it potently inhibited the viruses not being susceptible to iMab. Moreover, 2P23-iMab had a dramatically increased potency in inhibiting two panels of HIV-1 mutants that are resistant to T-20 or 2P23 and the infections of HIV-2 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). In conclusion, our studies have provided new insights into the design of novel bispecific HIV entry inhibitors with highly potent and broad-spectrum antiviral activity.

Advancing HIV Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies: From Discovery to the Clinic

Despite substantial progress in confronting the global HIV-1 epidemic since its inception in the 1980s, better approaches for both treatment and prevention will be necessary to end the epidemic and remain a top public health priority. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been effective in extending lives, but at a cost of lifelong adherence to treatment. Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) are directed to conserved regions of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein trimer (Env) and can block infection if present at the time of viral exposure. The therapeutic application of bNAbs holds great promise, and progress is being made toward their development for widespread clinical use. Compared to the current standard of care of small molecule-based ART, bNAbs offer: (1) reduced toxicity; (2) the advantages of extended half-lives that would bypass daily dosing requirements; and (3) the potential to incorporate a wider immune response through Fc signaling. Recent advances in discovery technology can enable system-wide mining of the immunoglobulin repertoire and will continue to accelerate isolation of next generation potent bNAbs. Passive transfer studies in pre-clinical models and clinical trials have demonstrated the utility of bNAbs in blocking or limiting transmission and achieving viral suppression. These studies have helped to define the window of opportunity for optimal intervention to achieve viral clearance, either using bNAbs alone or in combination with ART. None of these advances with bNAbs would be possible without technological advancements and expanding the cohorts of donor participation. Together these elements fueled the remarkable growth in bNAb development. Here, we review the development of bNAbs as therapies for HIV-1, exploring advances in discovery, insights from animal models and early clinical trials, and innovations to optimize their clinical potential through efforts to extend half-life, maximize the contribution of Fc effector functions, preclude escape through multiepitope targeting, and the potential for sustained delivery.

The Search for an HIV Cure: Where Do We Go From Here?

Since the first case of an HIV sterilizing cure was published, remarkable progress has been made in our understanding of the mechanisms behind HIV persistence. However, our goal of achieving a safe and broadly-available treatment for sustained HIV remission has proven elusive. In this supplement, we provide a series of articles reviewing the technical hurdles facing the field, key assays to measure HIV persistence and the next-generation of therapeutics for HIV remission.