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Elsayed NS, Aston P, Bayanagari VR, Shukla SK. The gut microbiome molecular mimicry piece in the multiple sclerosis puzzle. Front Immunol 2022; 13:972160. [PMID: 36045671 PMCID: PMC9420973 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.972160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The etiological complexity of multiple sclerosis, an immune-mediated, neurodegenerative disease with multifactorial etiology is still elusive because of an incomplete understanding of the complex synergy between contributing factors such as genetic susceptibility and aberrant immune response. Recently, the disease phenotypes have also been shown to be associated with dysbiosis of the gut microbiome, a dynamic reservoir of billions of microbes, their proteins and metabolites capable of mimicring the autoantigens. Microbial factors could potentially trigger the neuroinflammation and symptoms of MS. In this perspective article, we discussed how microbial molecules resulting from a leaky gut might mimic a host’s autoantigen, potentially contributing to the disease disequilibrium. It further highlights the importance of targeting the gut microbiome for alternate therapeutic options for the treatment of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noha S. Elsayed
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - Paula Aston
- Department of Neurology, Marshfield Clinic Health System, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - Vishnu R. Bayanagari
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, United States
| | - Sanjay K. Shukla
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI, United States
- *Correspondence: Sanjay K. Shukla,
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Abstract
The maintenance of organismal homeostasis requires partitioning and transport of biochemical molecules between organ systems, their composite cells, and subcellular organelles. Although transcriptional programming undeniably defines the functional state of cells and tissues, underlying biochemical networks are intricately intertwined with transcriptional, translational, and post-translational regulation. Studies of the metabolic regulation of immunity have elegantly illustrated this phenomenon. The cells of the immune system interface with a diverse set of environmental conditions. Circulating immune cells perfuse peripheral organs in the blood and lymph, patrolling for pathogen invasion. Resident immune cells remain in tissues and play more newly appreciated roles in tissue homeostasis and immunity. Each of these cell populations interacts with unique and dynamic tissue environments, which vary greatly in biochemical composition. Furthermore, the effector response of immune cells to a diverse set of activating cues requires unique cellular adaptations to supply the requisite biochemical landscape. In this review, we examine the role of spatial partitioning of metabolic processes in immune function. We focus on studies of lymphocyte metabolism, with reference to the greater immunometabolism literature when appropriate to illustrate this concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin A Shyer
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Richard A Flavell
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
| | - Will Bailis
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Haase S, Haghikia A, Wilck N, Müller DN, Linker RA. Impacts of microbiome metabolites on immune regulation and autoimmunity. Immunology 2018; 154:230-238. [PMID: 29637999 PMCID: PMC5980218 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A vast number of studies have demonstrated a remarkable role for the gut microbiota and their metabolites in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent studies in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of MS, have revealed that modifying certain intestinal bacterial populations may influence immune cell priming in the periphery, resulting in dysregulation of immune responses and neuroinflammatory processes in the central nervous system (CNS). Conversely, some commensal bacteria and their antigenic products can protect against inflammation within the CNS. Specific components of the gut microbiome have been implicated in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and subsequent generation of Th17 cells. Similarly, commensal bacteria and their metabolites can also promote the generation of regulatory T-cells (Treg), contributing to immune suppression. Short-chain fatty acids may induce Treg either by G-protein-coupled receptors or inhibition of histone deacetylases. Tryptophan metabolites may suppress inflammatory responses by acting on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in T-cells or astrocytes. Interestingly, secretion of these metabolites can be impaired by excess consumption of dietary components, such as long-chain fatty acids or salt, indicating that the diet represents an environmental factor affecting the complex crosstalk between the gut microbiota and the immune system. This review discusses new aspects of host-microbiota interaction and the immune system with a special focus on MS as a prototype T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Haase
- Department of NeurologyFriedrich‐Alexander UniversityErlangenGermany
| | - Aiden Haghikia
- Department of NeurologyRuhr‐University BochumBochumGermany
| | - Nicola Wilck
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a Joint Cooperation of Max‐Delbrück Center for Molecular MedicineCharité‐Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Dominik N. Müller
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a Joint Cooperation of Max‐Delbrück Center for Molecular MedicineCharité‐Universitätsmedizin BerlinBerlinGermany
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research) partner siteBerlinGermany
- Berlin Institute of Health (BIH)BerlinGermany
| | - Ralf A. Linker
- Department of NeurologyFriedrich‐Alexander UniversityErlangenGermany
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Pathinayake PS, Gayan Chathuranga WA, Lee HC, Chowdhury MYE, Sung MH, Lee JS, Kim CJ. Inactivated enterovirus 71 with poly-γ-glutamic acid/Chitosan nano particles (PC NPs) induces high cellular and humoral immune responses in BALB/c mice. Arch Virol 2018; 163:2073-2083. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3837-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Park HJ, Lee SW, Hong S. Regulation of Allergic Immune Responses by Microbial Metabolites. Immune Netw 2018; 18:e15. [PMID: 29503745 PMCID: PMC5833122 DOI: 10.4110/in.2018.18.e15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 02/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence demonstrates that the microbiota plays an essential role in shaping the development and function of host immune responses. A variety of environmental stimuli, including foods and commensals, are recognized by the host through the epithelium, acting as a physical barrier. Two allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and food allergy, are closely linked to the microbiota, because inflammatory responses occur on the epidermal border. The microbiota generates metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids and poly-γ-glutamic acid (γPGA), which can modulate host immune responses. Here, we review how microbial metabolites can regulate allergic immune responses. Furthermore, we focus on the effect of γPGA on allergic T helper (Th) 2 responses and its therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jung Park
- Department of Integrative Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea
| | - Sung Won Lee
- Department of Integrative Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea
| | - Seokmann Hong
- Department of Integrative Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea
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6
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Ahn H, Kang SG, Yoon SI, Kim PH, Kim D, Lee GS. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid from Bacillus subtilis upregulates pro-inflammatory cytokines while inhibiting NLRP3, NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasome activation. Cell Mol Immunol 2018; 15:111-119. [PMID: 27133472 PMCID: PMC5811673 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2016.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is a natural, edible and non-toxic polymer synthesized by Bacillus subtilis and is suggested as a safe biomaterial for the use in hydrogels and vaccine adjuvants. However, the effect of γ-PGA on inflammasome activation has not yet been studied in macrophages. Inflammasomes, which are intracellular multi-protein complexes, promote acute and chronic inflammation via interleukin-1β or interleukin-18 maturation, and they are known targets for metabolic syndromes and cancer. In this study, we observed that γ-PGA attenuated NLRP3, NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasome activation, whereas it upregulated pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in human and murine macrophages. Although γ-PGA had conflicting effects on cytokine production and maturation, it clearly alleviated the severity of lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxin shock in an animal model. Thus, we suggest γ-PGA as a candidate to control inflammasome-mediated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijeong Ahn
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Institute of Veterinary Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Goo Kang
- Department of Systems Immunology, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-il Yoon
- Department of Systems Immunology, College of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Pyeung-Hyeun Kim
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Biomedical Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Doo Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Institute of Veterinary Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Geun-Shik Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Institute of Veterinary Science, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Gangwon, Republic of Korea
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Lin L, Zhang J. Role of intestinal microbiota and metabolites on gut homeostasis and human diseases. BMC Immunol 2017; 18:2. [PMID: 28061847 PMCID: PMC5219689 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-016-0187-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A vast diversity of microbes colonizes in the human gastrointestinal tract, referred to intestinal microbiota. Microbiota and products thereof are indispensable for shaping the development and function of host innate immune system, thereby exerting multifaceted impacts in gut health. Methods This paper reviews the effects on immunity of gut microbe-derived nucleic acids, and gut microbial metabolites, as well as the involvement of commensals in the gut homeostasis. We focus on the recent findings with an intention to illuminate the mechanisms by which the microbiota and products thereof are interacting with host immunity, as well as to scrutinize imbalanced gut microbiota (dysbiosis) which lead to autoimmune disorders including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Type 1 diabetes (T1D) and systemic immune syndromes such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Results In addition to their well-recognized benefits in the gut such as occupation of ecological niches and competition with pathogens, commensal bacteria have been shown to strengthen the gut barrier and to exert immunomodulatory actions within the gut and beyond. It has been realized that impaired intestinal microbiota not only contribute to gut diseases but also are inextricably linked to metabolic disorders and even brain dysfunction. Conclusions A better understanding of the mutual interactions of the microbiota and host immune system, would shed light on our endeavors of disease prevention and broaden the path to our discovery of immune intervention targets for disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Lin
- Department of Bioengineering, Medical School, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jianqiong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Ministry of Education, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, People's Republic of China.
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Adachi T, Kakuta S, Aihara Y, Kamiya T, Watanabe Y, Osakabe N, Hazato N, Miyawaki A, Yoshikawa S, Usami T, Karasuyama H, Kimoto-Nira H, Hirayama K, Tsuji NM. Visualization of Probiotic-Mediated Ca 2+ Signaling in Intestinal Epithelial Cells In Vivo. Front Immunol 2016; 7:601. [PMID: 28018362 PMCID: PMC5159486 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Probiotics, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and Bacillus subtilis var. natto, have been shown to modulate immune responses. It is important to understand how probiotic bacteria impact intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), because IECs are the first line of defense at the mucosal surface barrier and their activities substantially affect the gut microenvironment and immunity. However, to date, their precise mechanism remains unknown due to a lack of analytical systems available for live animal models. Recently, we generated a conditional Ca2+ biosensor Yellow Cameleon (YC3.60) transgenic mouse line and established 5D (x, y, z, time, and Ca2+) intravital imaging systems of lymphoid tissues including those in Peyer’s patches and bone marrow. In the present study, we further advance our intravital imaging system for intestinal tracts to visualize IEC responses against orally administrated food compounds in real time. Using this system, heat-killed B. subtilis natto, a probiotic TTCC012 strain, is shown to directly induce Ca2+ signaling in IECs in mice housed under specific pathogen-free conditions. In contrast, this activation is not observed in the Lactococcus lactis strain C60; however, when we generate germ-free YC3.60 mice and observe the LAB stimulation of IECs in the absence of gut microbiota, C60 is capable of inducing Ca2+ signaling. This is the first study to successfully visualize the direct effect of probiotics on IECs in live animals. These data strongly suggest that probiotic strains stimulate IECs under physiological conditions and that their activity is affected by the microenvironment of the small intestine, such as commensal bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Adachi
- Department of Immunology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Shigeru Kakuta
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Yoshiko Aihara
- Department of Agrobioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University , Kobe , Japan
| | - Tomonori Kamiya
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute for Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yohei Watanabe
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute for Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Naomi Osakabe
- Department of Bio-science and Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology , Saitama , Japan
| | - Naoki Hazato
- Department of Bio-science and Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology , Saitama , Japan
| | - Atsushi Miyawaki
- Laboratory for Cell Function and Dynamics, Advanced Technology Development Group, Brain Science Institute, RIKEN , Saitama , Japan
| | - Soichiro Yoshikawa
- Department of Immune Regulation, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Takako Usami
- Laboratory of Recombinant Animals, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Hajime Karasuyama
- Department of Immune Regulation, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Hiromi Kimoto-Nira
- NARO Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba , Ibaraki , Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Hirayama
- Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Noriko M Tsuji
- Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute for Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba , Japan
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Park HJ, Lee SW, Park SH, Hong S. iNKT Cells Are Responsible for the Apoptotic Reduction of Basophils That Mediate Th2 Immune Responses Elicited by Papain in Mice Following γPGA Stimulation. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152189. [PMID: 27049954 PMCID: PMC4822947 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that Bacillus subtilis-derived poly-gamma glutamic acid (γPGA) treatment suppresses the development of allergic diseases such as atopic dermatitis (AD). Although basophils, an innate immune cell, are known to play critical roles in allergic immune responses and repeated long-term administration of γPGA results in decreased splenic basophils in an AD murine model, the underlying mechanisms by which γPGA regulates basophil frequency remain unclear. To investigate how γPGA modulates basophils, we employed basophil-mediated Th2 induction in vivo model elicited by the allergen papain protease. Repeated injection of γPGA reduced the abundance of basophils and their production of IL4 in mice, consistent with our previous study using NC/Nga AD model mice. The depletion of basophils by a single injection of γPGA was dependent on the TLR4/DC/IL12 axis. CD1d-dependent Vα14 TCR invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are known to regulate a variety of immune responses, such as allergy. Because iNKT cell activation is highly sensitive to IL12 produced by DCs, we evaluated whether the effect of γPGA on basophils is mediated by iNKT cell activation. We found that in vivo γPGA treatment did not induce the reduction of basophils in iNKT cell-deficient CD1d KO mice, suggesting the critical role of iNKT cells in γPGA-mediated basophil depletion at the early time points. Furthermore, increased apoptotic basophil reduction triggered by iNKT cells upon γPGA stimulation was mainly attributed to Th1 cytokines such as IFNγ and TNFα, consequently resulting in inhibition of papain-induced Th2 differentiation via diminishing basophil-derived IL4. Taken together, our results clearly demonstrate that γPGA-induced iNKT cell polarization toward the Th1 phenotype induces apoptotic basophil depletion, leading to the suppression of Th2 immune responses. Thus, elucidation of the crosstalk between innate immune cells will contribute to the design and development of new therapeutics for Th2-mediated immune diseases such as AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jung Park
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul, 143–747, Korea
| | - Sung Won Lee
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul, 143–747, Korea
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 136–701, Korea
| | - Se-Ho Park
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 136–701, Korea
| | - Seokmann Hong
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Anticancer Medicine Development, Sejong University, Seoul, 143–747, Korea
- * E-mail:
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Kim EH, Choi YK, Kim CJ, Sung MH, Poo H. Intranasal administration of poly-gamma glutamate induced antiviral activity and protective immune responses against H1N1 influenza A virus infection. Virol J 2015; 12:160. [PMID: 26437715 PMCID: PMC4595321 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-015-0387-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global outbreak of a novel swine-origin strain of the 2009 H1N1 influenza A virus and the sudden, worldwide increase in oseltamivir-resistant H1N1 influenza A viruses highlight the urgent need for novel antiviral therapy. METHODS Here, we investigated the antiviral efficacy of poly-gamma glutamate (γ-PGA), a safe and edible biomaterial that is naturally synthesized by Bacillus subtilis, against A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (PR8) and A/California/04/2009 (CA04) H1N1 influenza A virus infections in C57BL/6 mice. RESULTS Intranasal administration of γ-PGA for 5 days post-infection improved survival, increased production of antiviral cytokines including interferon-beta (IFN-β) and interleukin-12 (IL-12), and enhanced activation of natural killer (NK) cells and influenza antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) activity. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that γ-PGA protects mice against H1N1 influenza A virus by enhancing antiviral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Ha Kim
- Viral Disease Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejon, Republic of Korea. .,College of Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chengju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Young-Ki Choi
- College of Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chengju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Chul-Joong Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Moon-Hee Sung
- Department of Bio & Fermentation Convergence Technology, Kookmin University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Haryoung Poo
- Viral Disease Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejon, Republic of Korea. .,Infection and Immunity Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejon, Republic of Korea.
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Lee SW, Park HJ, Park SH, Hong S. Oral administration of poly-γ-glutamic acid prevents the development of atopic dermatitis in NC/Nga mice. Exp Dermatol 2014; 22:561-3. [PMID: 23879818 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis-derived poly-γ-glutamic acid (γPGA) has demonstrated adjuvant activity in promoting Th1/Th17 cell differentiation. Here, the NC/Nga (NC) mouse model was used to determine whether γPGA modulates the outcome of atopic dermatitis (AD), which is known to be a Th2-biased immune disease. We found that oral administration of γPGA dramatically reduced the development of AD in NC mice. Antigen-presenting cells activated with γPGA produced pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL12/23 and IFNγ, which, in turn, induced the differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells. Concomitantly, Th2 responses, such as high levels of serum IgE, were dramatically decreased. Furthermore, in vivo γPGA treatment altered several cellular components of allergic reactions, such as mast cells and eosinophils. Taken together, our results strongly demonstrate that in vivo treatment with γPGA at early time points can prevent the development of AD in NC mice and suggest that γPGA may have therapeutic applications for human AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Won Lee
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Sejong University, Seoul, Korea
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Hwang I, Choi D, See H, Lim SI, Kim W, Chung IS, Shon DH. Development of an oral immunoadjuvant from cheonggukjang that is efficacious for both mucosal and systemic immunity. Food Sci Biotechnol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10068-014-0033-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Lee SW, Park HJ, Park SH, Kim N, Hong S. Immunomodulatory effect of poly-γ-glutamic acid derived from Bacillus subtilis on natural killer dendritic cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 443:413-21. [PMID: 24309101 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.11.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus subtilis-derived poly-γ-glutamic acid (γPGA) stimulates dendritic cells (DCs) to produce IL12, leading to CD4(+) T cell differentiation toward the Th1 phenotype, but DCs consist of heterogeneous subpopulations with a variety of immune functions. Among these, natural killer dendritic cells (NKDCs) play an important role in anti-tumor immune responses. Herein, we demonstrate the role of NKDCs in γPGA-meditated anti-tumor immune responses. NK1.1(+) CD11c(+) NKDCs were stimulated upon γPGA stimulation in vitro and in vivo to up-regulate lymphocyte activation markers, MHC class I and II, and co-stimulatory molecules. In particular, NKDCs were activated by γPGA to produce IFNγ and TNFα, like NK cells, as well as IL12, like DCs, implying that NKDCs have unique and multifunctional roles. Importantly, NKDCs stimulated by γPGA conferred stronger anti-tumor effects in mice and showed increased cytotoxicity against various tumor cell lines in vitro. In conclusion, NKDCs are one of the key players in anti-tumor immunity induced by γPGA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Won Lee
- Dept. of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Sejong University, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea; School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Park
- Dept. of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Sejong University, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea
| | - Se-Ho Park
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Nayoung Kim
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 138-736, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seokmann Hong
- Dept. of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Sejong University, Seoul 143-747, Republic of Korea.
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Poly-γ-glutamic acid attenuates angiogenesis and inflammation in experimental colitis. Mediators Inflamm 2013; 2013:982383. [PMID: 23766568 PMCID: PMC3671540 DOI: 10.1155/2013/982383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), naturally secreted from various strains of Bacillus, has anti-inflammatory activity. In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), inflammation is promoted and sustained by angiogenesis; however, the role played by γ-PGA in this condition is unclear. Therefore, we evaluated γ-PGA effects on angiogenesis and inflammation in a dextran sulfate sodium- (DSS-) induced mouse colitis model. Experimental colitis was induced in male C57BL/6 mice by administering 3% DSS. Disease activity index (DAI), histopathological scores, microvascular density, myeloperoxidase activity, and VEGF-A and VEGFR2 expression were compared among control mice, DSS-treated mice, and mice receiving 3% DSS along with γ-PGA at 50 mg/kg body weight per day or 3% DSS with γ-PGA at 200 mg/kg body weight per day. We found that γ-PGA significantly attenuated weight loss, DAI, and colon shortening. γ-PGA also significantly reduced histopathological evidence of injury. Moreover, γ-PGA significantly attenuated DSS-induced blood vessel densities. Furthermore, γ-PGA attenuated DSS-induced expression of VEGF-A and its receptor, VEGFR2. In addition, γ-PGA treatment led to reduced recruitment of leukocytes to the inflamed colon. Therefore, our results indicate that γ-PGA has potential application in conditions marked by inflammatory-driven angiogenesis and mucosal inflammation.
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Lee K, Hwang S, Paik DJ, Kim WK, Kim JM, Youn J. Bacillus-derived poly-γ-glutamic acid reciprocally regulates the differentiation of T helper 17 and regulatory T cells and attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2012; 170:66-76. [PMID: 22943202 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2012.04637.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Forkhead box protein 3 (FoxP3(+)) regulatory T (T(reg)) cells and interleukin (IL)-17-producing T helper 17 (Th17) cells have opposing effects on autoimmunity, as the former are crucial for maintaining self-tolerance while the latter play a key role in precipitating inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Here we report that Bacillus-derived poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) signals naive CD4(+) T cells to promote the selective differentiation of T(reg) cells and to suppress the differentiation of Th17 cells. The γ-PGA inducibility of FoxP3 expression was due partially to transforming growth factor (TGF)-β induction through a Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4/myeloid differentiating factor 88 (MyD88)-dependent pathway. However, this pathway was dispensable for γ-PGA suppression of Th17 differentiation. γ-PGA inhibited IL-6-driven induction of Th17-specific factors including signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) and retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γt (RORγt) while up-regulating the STAT-3 inhibitor suppressor of cytokine signalling 3 (SOCS3). Importantly, in vivo administration of γ-PGA attenuated the symptoms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and at the same time reduced Th17 cell infiltrates in the central nervous system. Thus, we have identified the microbe-associated molecular pattern, γ-PGA, as a novel regulator of autoimmune responses, capable of promoting the differentiation of anti-inflammatory T(reg) cells and suppressing the differentiation of proinflammatory Th17 cells. These findings draw attention to the potential of γ-PGA for treating Th17 cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lee
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
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Heydenreich B, Bellinghausen I, König B, Becker WM, Grabbe S, Petersen A, Saloga J. Gram-positive bacteria on grass pollen exhibit adjuvant activity inducing inflammatory T cell responses. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 42:76-84. [PMID: 22092824 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03888.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, it has been established that pollen grains contain Th2-enhancing activities besides allergens. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to analyse whether pollen carry additional adjuvant factors like microbes and what immunological effects they may exert. METHODS Timothy pollen grains were collected and disseminated on agar plates, and the growing microorganisms were cultivated and defined. Furthermore, the immunologic effects of microbial products on DC and T cell responses were analysed. RESULTS A complex mixture of bacteria and moulds was detected on grass pollen. Besides Gram-negative bacteria that are known to favour Th1-directed immune responses, moulds were identified as being sources of allergens themselves. Herein, we focused on Gram-positive bacteria that were found in high numbers, e.g. Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis. Contact of immature dendritic cells (DC) from grass pollen allergic donors with supernatants of homogenized Gram-positive bacteria induced maturation of DC as measured by up-regulation of CD80, CD83 and CD86 and by enhanced production of IL-6, IL-12p40 and TNF-α, which was less pronounced compared with effects induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Consequently, stimulation of autologous CD4(+) T cells with supernatants of homogenized Gram-positive bacteria plus grass pollen allergen-pulsed DC led to an enhanced proliferation and production of IL-4, IL-13, IL-10, IL-17, IL-22 and IFN-γ production compared with T cells that were stimulated with allergen-pulsed immature DC alone, whereas production of the transcription factor for regulatory T cells FoxP3 was not significantly affected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE These data indicate that grass pollen is colonized by several microorganisms that influence the immune response differently. Similar to LPS, supernatants of homogenized Gram-positive bacteria may serve as adjuvants by augmenting DC maturation and inflammatory Th1, Th2 and Th17 responses helping to initiate allergic immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Heydenreich
- Clinical and Molecular Allergology, Research Center Borstel, Borstel, Germany
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Lee K, Kim SH, Yoon HJ, Paik DJ, Kim JM, Youn J. Bacillus-derived poly-γ-glutamic acid attenuates allergic airway inflammation through a Toll-like receptor-4-dependent pathway in a murine model of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 41:1143-56. [PMID: 21672055 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03792.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airways that is mediated by Th2 responses. Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is an extracellular polymeric compound that is synthesized by Bacillus cells. Previously, we found that γ-PGA promoted Th1 cell development in a manner dependent on antigen-presenting cells, but inhibited Th2 cell development. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of γ-PGA on dendritic cells (DCs), and its potential for treating Th2-mediated allergic asthma. METHODS Wild-type, Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 deficient, and TLR-4-defective mice were used. DCs derived from the bone marrow and extracted from the lung were stimulated with γ-PGA and assayed for the expression of signalling molecules, costimulatory molecules, and cytokines. Mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) to induce asthma. They were repeatedly injected intranasally with γ-PGA before and during the challenge period, and inflammation and structural remodelling of the airways were examined. RESULTS γ-PGA selectively signalled conventional DCs to activate NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase, leading to the up-regulation of CD86, CD40, and IL-12, but not IL-10 and IL-6. These effects of γ-PGA were dependent on TLR-4 and independent of TLR-2. Importantly, the intranasal administration of γ-PGA to OVA-sensitized/challenged mice reduced the airway hyperresponsiveness and allergic inflammation such as leucocyte influx, goblet cell hyperplasia, eosinophilia, and Th2 cytokine production. In addition to lowered IgE titres, the treatment of mice with γ-PGA significantly reduced the multiplication and Th2 polarization of mediastinal lymph node T cells upon allergen-specific restimulation. These anti-asthmatic effects of γ-PGA were also abolished in TLR-4-defective mice. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Our data indicate that γ-PGA activates DCs to favour Th1 cell induction through a TLR-4-dependent pathway and alleviates pathologic symptoms in a Th2-biased asthmatic model. These findings highlight the potential of γ-PGA for the treatment of asthma and other allergic disease in which Th2 polarization plays an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
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Broos S, Lundberg K, Akagi T, Kadowaki K, Akashi M, Greiff L, Borrebaeck CAK, Lindstedt M. Immunomodulatory nanoparticles as adjuvants and allergen-delivery system to human dendritic cells: Implications for specific immunotherapy. Vaccine 2010; 28:5075-85. [PMID: 20478343 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Novel adjuvants and antigen-delivery systems with immunomodulatory properties that shift the allergenic Th2 response towards a Th1 or regulatory T cell response are desired for allergen-specific immunotherapy. This study demonstrates that 200-nm sized biodegradable poly(gamma-glutamic acid) (gamma-PGA) nanoparticles (NPs) are activators of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs). Gamma-PGA NPs are efficiently internalized by immature MoDCs and strongly stimulate production of chemokines and inflammatory cytokines as well as up-regulation of co-stimulatory molecules and immunomodulatory mediators involved in efficient T cell priming. Furthermore, MoDCs from allergic subjects stimulated in vitro with a mixture of gamma-PGA NPs and extract of grass pollen allergen Phleum pratense (Phl p) augment allergen-specific IL-10 production and proliferation of autologous CD4(+) memory T cells. Thus, gamma-PGA NPs are promising as sophisticated adjuvants and allergen-delivery systems in allergen-specific immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sissela Broos
- Department of Immunotechnology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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Gi M, Im W, Hong S. Dendritic cells as danger-recognizing biosensors. SENSORS 2009; 9:6730-51. [PMID: 22399974 PMCID: PMC3290479 DOI: 10.3390/s90906730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2009] [Revised: 08/19/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen presenting cells that are characterized by a potent capacity to initiate immune responses. DCs comprise several subsets with distinct phenotypes. After sensing any danger(s) to the host via their innate immune receptors such as Toll-like receptors, DCs become mature and subsequently present antigens to CD4+ T cells. Since DCs possess the intrinsic capacity to polarize CD4+ helper cells, it is critical to understand the immunological roles of DCs for clinical applications. Here, we review the different DC subsets, their danger-sensing receptors and immunological functions. Furthermore, the cytokine reporter mouse model for studying DC activation is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Gi
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sejong University, Seoul, 143-747, Korea; E-Mails: (M.G.); (W.I.)
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