Stamen-derived bioactive gibberellin is essential for male flower development of Cucurbita maxima L

Inhibition of flowering by gibberellins in the woody plant Jatropha curcas is restored by overexpression of JcFT

Jatropha curcas (J. curcas) is a perennial oil-seed plant with vigorous vegetative growth but relatively poor reproductive growth and low seed yield. Gibberellins (GAs) promotes flowering in most annual plants but inhibits flowering in many woody plants, including J. curcas. However, the underlying mechanisms of GA inhibits flowering in perennial woody plants remain unclear. Here, we found that overexpression of the GA biosynthesis gene JcGA20ox1 inhibits flowering in J. curcas and in J. curcas × J. integerrima hybrids. Consistent with this finding, overexpression of the GA catabolic gene JcGA2ox6 promotes flowering in J. curcas. qRTPCR revealed that inhibits floral transition by overexpressing JcGA20ox1 resulted from a decrease in the expression of JcFT and other flowering-related genes, which was restored by overexpressing JcFT in J. curcas. Overexpression of JcGA20ox1 or JcGA2ox6 reduced seed yield, but overexpression of JcFT significantly increased seed yield. Furthermore, hybridization experiments showed that the reduction in seed yield caused by overexpression of JcGA20ox1 or JcGA2ox6 was partially restored by the overexpression of JcFT. In addition, JcGA20ox1, JcGA2ox6 and JcFT were also found to be involved in the regulation of seed oil content and endosperm development. In conclusion, our study revealed that the inhibitory effect of GA on flowering is mediated through JcFT and demonstrated the effects of JcGA20ox1, JcGA2ox6 and JcFT on agronomic traits in J. curcas. This study also indicates the potential value of GA metabolism genes and JcFT in the breeding of new varieties of woody oil-seed plants.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals the molecular basis of photoperiod-regulated sex differentiation in tropical pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch.)

BACKGROUND

Photoperiod, or the length of the day, has a significant impact on the flowering and sex differentiation of photoperiod-sensitive crops. The "miben" pumpkin (the main type of Cucurbita moschata Duch.) is well-known for its high yield and strong disease resistance. However, its cultivation has been limited due to its sensitivity to photoperiod. This sensitivity imposes challenges on its widespread cultivation and may result in suboptimal yields in regions with specific daylength conditions. As a consequence, efforts are being made to explore potential strategies or breeding techniques to enhance its adaptability to a broader range of photoperiods, thus unlocking its full cultivation potential and further promoting its valuable traits in agriculture.

RESULTS

This study aimed to identify photoperiod-insensitive germplasm exhibiting no difference in sex differentiation under different day-length conditions. The investigation involved a phenotypic analysis of photoperiod-sensitive (PPS) and photoperiod-insensitive (PPIS) pumpkin materials exposed to different day lengths, including long days (LDs) and short days (SDs). The results revealed that female flower differentiation was significantly inhibited in PPS_LD, while no differences were observed in the other three groups (PPS_SD, PPIS_LD, and PPIS_SD). Transcriptome analysis was carried out for these four groups to explore the main-effect genes of sex differentiation responsive to photoperiod. The main-effect gene subclusters were identified based on the principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses. Further, functional annotations and enrichment analysis revealed significant upregulation of photoreceptors (CmCRY1, F-box/kelch-repeat protein), circadian rhythm-related genes (CmGI, CmPRR9, etc.), and CONSTANS (CO) in PPS_LD. Conversely, a significant downregulation was observed in most Nuclear Factor Y (NF-Y) transcription factors. Regarding the gibberellic acid (GA) signal transduction pathway, positive regulators of GA signaling (CmSCL3, CmSCL13, and so forth) displayed higher expression levels, while the negative regulators of GA signaling, CmGAI, exhibited lower expression levels in PPS_LD. Notably, this effect was not observed in the synthetic pathway genes. Furthermore, genes associated with ethylene synthesis and signal transduction (CmACO3, CmACO1, CmERF118, CmERF118-like1,2, CmWIN1-like, and CmRAP2-7-like) showed significant downregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study offered a crucial theoretical and genetic basis for understanding how photoperiod influences the mechanism of female flower differentiation in pumpkins.

An integrated transcriptome and metabolome analysis reveals the gene network regulating flower development in Pogostemon cablin

Pogostemon cablin is a well-known protected species widely used in medicine and spices, however the underlying molecular mechanisms and metabolite dynamics of P. cablin flower development remain unclear due to the difficulty in achieving flowering in this species. A comparison of the transcriptome and widely targeted metabolome during P. cablin flower development was first performed in this study. Results showed that a total of 13,469 differentially expressed unigenes (DEGs) and 371 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were identified. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the DEGs were associated with starch and sucrose metabolism, terpenoid biosynthesis and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Among these DEGs, 75 MIKC-MADS unigenes were associated with the development of floral organs. Gibberellins (GAs), auxin, and aging signaling might form a cross-regulatory network to regulate flower development in P. cablin. According to the metabolic profile, the predominant DAMs were amino acids, flavonoids, terpenes, phenols, and their derivatives. The accumulation patterns of these predominant DAMs were closely associated with the flower developmental stage. The integration analysis of DEGs and DAMs indicated that phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and amino acids might be accumulated due to the activation of starch and sucrose metabolism. Our results provide some important insights for elucidating the reproductive process, floral organ, and color formation of P. cablin flowers at the molecular level. These results will improve our understanding of the molecular and genetic mechanisms involved in the floral development of P. cablin.

Gibberellins are required for dimorphic flower development in Viola philippica

Photoperiod is a major determinant of chasmogamous (CH)-cleistogamous (CL) dimorphic flower development in Viola philippica, and only long-day (LD) conditions induce CL flowers. In this study, it was found that the active gibberellin (GA) content in CL floral buds was higher than in CH floral buds formed under short-day (SD) conditions, suggesting that the biosynthesis of active GAs is enhanced by a longer photoperiod and may be associated with dimorphic flower development. Thus, the next step was to molecularly characterize the key V. philippica GA synthesis genes GA 20-oxidase (VpGA20ox) and GA 3-oxidase (VpGA3ox). In terms of the expression of VpGA20ox and VpGA3ox, it was found that the active GAs could be upregulated in developing pistils under both LD and SD conditions to develop functional pistils, and GAs could also accumulate in the stamens under SD conditions. The anthers and the adjacent petals were well developed under SD conditions. In contrast, the above-mentioned floral organs displayed low GA contents under LD conditions and were poorly developed. Although the application of paclobutrazol, an inhibitor of GA synthesis, did not reverse CL development under LD conditions, exogenous GAs could partially trigger the transition from CH to CL flowers under relative SD conditions (≤12 h daylight). This was coupled with the downregulation of B-class MADS-box genes, thereby restraining stamen and petal development. Both VpGA20ox and VpGA3ox exhibited similar expression profiles with B-class MADS-box genes in the development of the stamens and petals. Therefore, in response to photoperiod, GA signaling could affect the expression of B-class homeotic genes and regulate dimorphic flower development in Viola. As a compensation for poorly-developed nectaries, anthers, and petals, filament elongation, style shortness, and inward bending could ensure self-pollination in CL flowers. This work provides new insights into the regulation of CH-CL floral development and the evolutionary significance of the formation of dimorphic flowers.

The Class III Gibberellin 2-Oxidases AtGA2ox9 and AtGA2ox10 Contribute to Cold Stress Tolerance and Fertility

Many developmental processes in plants are regulated by GA hormones. GA homeostasis is achieved via complex biosynthetic and catabolic pathways. GA catabolic enzymes include GA 2-oxidases that are classified into three classes. Members of class III GA 2-oxidases typically act on GA precursors containing a C20-skeleton. Here, we identified two further members of this class of GA 2-oxidases, namely AtGA2ox9 and AtGA2ox10, in the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) genome. Both genes encode enzymes that have functional similarities to AtGA2ox7 and AtGA2ox8, which are class III GA 2-oxidases that 2β-hydroxylate C20-GAs. Previously unknown for GA 2-oxidases, AtGA2ox9 performs 2α-hydroxylation of C19-GAs and harbors putative desaturating activity of C20-GAs. Additionally, AtGA2ox9 and AtGA2ox10 exhibit GA 20-oxidase activity. AtGA2ox9 oxidizes carbon-20 to form tricarboxylic acid C20-GAs, whereas AtGA2ox10 produces C19-GA9 AtGA2ox9 transcript levels increase after cold treatment and AtGA2ox10 is expressed mainly in the siliques of Arabidopsis plants. Atga2ox9 loss-of-function mutants are more sensitive to freezing temperatures, whereas Atga2ox10 loss-of-function mutants produce considerably more seeds per silique than wild-type plants. We conclude that in Arabidopsis, AtGA2ox9 contributes to freezing tolerance and AtGA2ox10 regulates seed production.

A point mutation resulting in a 13 bp deletion in the coding sequence of Cldf leads to a GA-deficient dwarf phenotype in watermelon

The dwarf architecture is an important and valuable agronomic trait in watermelon breeding and has the potential to increase fruit yield and reduce labor cost in crop cultivation. However, the molecular basis for dwarfism in watermelon remains largely unknown. In this study, a recessive dwarf allele (designated as Cldf (Citrullus lanatus dwarfism)) was fine mapped in a 32.88 kb region on chromosome 09 using F₂ segregation populations derived from reciprocal crossing of a normal line M08 and a dwarf line N21. Gene annotation of the corresponding region revealed that the Cla015407 gene encoding a gibberellin 3β-hydroxylase functions as the best possible candidate gene for Cldf. Sequence analysis showed that the fourth polymorphism site (a G to A point mutation) at the 3' AG splice receptor site of the intron leads to a 13 bp deletion in the coding sequence of Cldf in dwarf line N21 and thus results in a truncated protein lacking the conserved domain for binding 2-oxoglutarate. In addition, the dwarf phenotype of Cldf could be rescued by exogenous GA₃ application. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the small multigene family GA3ox (GA3 oxidase) in cucurbit species may originate from three ancient lineages in Cucurbitaceae. All these data support the conclusion that Cldf is a GA-deficient mutant, which together with the cosegregated marker can be used for breeding new dwarf cultivars.

Comprehensive Analysis of Cucumber Gibberellin Oxidase Family Genes and Functional Characterization of CsGA20ox1 in Root Development in Arabidopsis

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is an important vegetable crop worldwide and gibberellins (GAs) play important roles in the regulation of cucumber developmental and growth processes. GA oxidases (GAoxs), which are encoded by different gene subfamilies, are particularly important in regulating bioactive GA levels by catalyzing the later steps in the biosynthetic pathway. Although GAoxs are critical enzymes in GA synthesis pathway, little is known about GAox genes in cucumber, in particular about their evolutionary relationships, expression profiles and biological function. In this study, we identified 17 GAox genes in cucumber genome and classified them into five subfamilies based on a phylogenetic tree, gene structures, and conserved motifs. Synteny analysis indicated that the tandem duplication or segmental duplication events played a minor role in the expansion of cucumber GA2ox, GA3ox and GA7ox gene families. Comparative syntenic analysis combined with phylogenetic analysis provided deep insight into the phylogenetic relationships of CsGAox genes and suggested that protein homology CsGAox are closer to AtGAox than OsGAox. In addition, candidate transcription factors BBR/BPC (BARLEY B RECOMBINANT/BASIC PENTACYSTEINE) and GRAS (GIBBERELLIC ACID-INSENSITIVE, REPRESSOR of GAI, and SCARECROW) which may directly bind promoters of CsGAox genes were predicted. Expression profiles derived from transcriptome data indicated that some CsGAox genes, especially CsGA20ox1, are highly expressed in seedling roots and were down-regulated under GA₃ treatment. Ectopic over-expression of CsGA20ox1 in Arabidopsis significantly increased primary root length and lateral root number. Taken together, comprehensive analysis of CsGAoxs would provide a basis for understanding the evolution and function of the CsGAox family.

Quantification of near-attomole gibberellins in floral organs dissected from a single Arabidopsis thaliana flower

There remains a methodological bottleneck in the quantification of ultra-trace plant hormones in very tiny plant organs at fresh weights below a milligram. The challenge becomes even more serious in the determination of endogenous gibberellins (GAs), which are a class of compounds that are difficult to separate and detect. Herein, a quantification method using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed, combined with a derivatization technique in which GAs react with N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide in ethanol. The method was validated as capable of determining GAs in floral organs (about 80-250 μg) - pistil, stamens, petals, sepals and receptacle - which were dissected from only one flower of Arabidopsis thaliana. Substantially different abundance patterns of GAs were measured from the floral organs at floral stages 13, 14 and 15 along the non-13-hydroxylation pathway and the early 13-hydroxylation pathway in plants. This allows sub-flower-level insights into how GAs affect floral development. The method exhibited excellent limit of detection and limit of quantification down to 5.41 and 18.0 attomole, respectively, and offered a fairly wide linear range from 0.01 to 25 femtomole with linear coefficients above 0.9961. The precision of the method was evaluated with relative standard deviations below 10.6% for intra-day and 11.4% for inter-day assays, and recoveries ranged from 64.0% to 107%.

Ovary-derived precursor gibberellin A9 is essential for female flower development in cucumber

Gibberellins (GAs) are hormones that control many aspects of plant development, including flowering. It is well known that stamen is the source of GAs that regulate male and bisexual flower development. However, little is known about the role of GAs in female flower development. In cucumber, high levels of GA precursors are present in ovaries and high levels of bioactive GA₄ are identified in sepals/petals, reflecting the expression of GA 20-oxidase and 3-oxidase in these organs, respectively. Here, we show that the biologically inactive precursor GA₉ moves from ovaries to sepal/petal tissues where it is converted to the bioactive GA₄ necessary for female flower development. Transient expression of a catabolic GA 2-oxidase from pumpkin in cucumber ovaries decreases GA₉ and GA₄ levels and arrests the development of female flowers, and this can be restored by application of GA₉ to petals thus confirming its function. Given that bioactive GAs can promote sex reversion of female flowers, movement of biologically inactive precursors, instead of the hormone itself, might help to maintain floral organ identity, ensuring fruit and seed production.

AtSWEET13 and AtSWEET14 regulate gibberellin-mediated physiological processes

Transmembrane transport of plant hormones is required for plant growth and development. Despite reports of a number of proteins that can transport the plant hormone gibberellin (GA), the mechanistic basis for GA transport and the identities of the transporters involved remain incomplete. Here, we provide evidence that Arabidopsis SWEET proteins, AtSWEET13 and AtSWEET14, which are members of a family that had previously been linked to sugar transport, are able to mediate cellular GA uptake when expressed in yeast and oocytes. A double sweet13 sweet14 mutant has a defect in anther dehiscence and this phenotype can be reversed by exogenous GA treatment. In addition, sweet13 sweet14 exhibits altered long distant transport of exogenously applied GA and altered responses to GA during germination and seedling stages. These results suggest that AtSWEET13 and AtSWEET14 may be involved in modulating GA response in Arabidopsis.

SWEET proteins are known to function as sugar transporters. Here, Kanno et al. show that Arabidopsis SWEET13 and SWEET14 are also able to transport the plant hormone gibberellin (GA) in heterologous systems and that sweet mutants display phenotypes consistent with altered GA response.

Identification of Arabidopsis thaliana NRT1/PTR FAMILY (NPF) proteins capable of transporting plant hormones

NRT1/PTR FAMILY (NPF) proteins were originally identified as nitrate or di/tri-peptide transporters. Recent studies revealed that this transporter family also transports the plant hormones auxin (indole-3-acetic acid), abscisic acid (ABA), and gibberellin (GA), as well as secondary metabolites (glucosinolates). We developed modified yeast two-hybrid systems with receptor complexes for GA and jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile), to detect GA and JA-Ile transport activities of proteins expressed in the yeast cells. Using these GA and JA-Ile systems as well as the ABA system that we had introduced previously, we determined the capacities of Arabidopsis NPFs to transport these hormones. Several NPFs induced the formation of receptor complexes under relatively low hormone concentrations. Hormone transport activities were confirmed for some NPFs by direct analysis of hormone uptake of yeast cells by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Our results suggest that at least some NPFs could function as hormone transporters.

Identification of Arabidopsis thaliana NRT1/PTR FAMILY (NPF) proteins capable of transporting plant hormones

NRT1/PTR FAMILY (NPF) proteins were originally identified as nitrate or di/tri-peptide transporters. Recent studies revealed that this transporter family also transports the plant hormones auxin (indole-3-acetic acid), abscisic acid (ABA), and gibberellin (GA), as well as secondary metabolites (glucosinolates). We developed modified yeast two-hybrid systems with receptor complexes for GA and jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile), to detect GA and JA-Ile transport activities of proteins expressed in the yeast cells. Using these GA and JA-Ile systems as well as the ABA system that we had introduced previously, we determined the capacities of Arabidopsis NPFs to transport these hormones. Several NPFs induced the formation of receptor complexes under relatively low hormone concentrations. Hormone transport activities were confirmed for some NPFs by direct analysis of hormone uptake of yeast cells by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Our results suggest that at least some NPFs could function as hormone transporters.

S, Roslan HAB, Abdullah MP, Napis SB, Shukor NAA. Overexpression of Arabidopsis thaliana gibberellic acid 20 oxidase (AtGA20ox) gene enhance the vegetative growth and fiber quality in kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) plants

Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.; Family: Malvaceae), is multipurpose crop, one of the potential alternatives of natural fiber for biocomposite materials. Longer fiber and higher cellulose contents are required for good quality biocomposite materials. However, average length of kenaf fiber (2.6 mm in bast and 1.28 mm in whole plant) is below the critical length (4 mm) for biocomposite production. Present study describes whether fiber length and cellulose content of kenaf plants could be enhanced by increasing GA biosynthesis in plants by overexpressing Arabidopsis thaliana Gibberellic Acid 20 oxidase (AtGA20ox) gene. AtGA20ox gene with intron was overexpressed in kenaf plants under the control of double CaMV 35S promoter, followed by in planta transformation into V36 and G4 varieties of kenaf. The lines with higher levels of bioactive GA (0.3-1.52 ng g(-1) fresh weight) were further characterized for their morphological and biochemical traits including vegetative and reproductive growth, fiber dimension and chemical composition. Positive impact of increased gibberellins on biochemical composition, fiber dimension and their derivative values were demonstrated in some lines of transgenic kenaf including increased cellulose content (91%), fiber length and quality but it still requires further study to confirm the critical level of this particular bioactive GA in transgenic plants.

Touch-induced changes in Arabidopsis morphology dependent on gibberellin breakdown

Touch can lead to a reduction in plant growth and a delay in flowering time. Touch-induced changes in plant morphology, termed thigmomorphogenesis, have been shown to depend on the phytohormone jasmonate(1). However, touch-induced phenotypes are also reminiscent of plants deficient in the phytohormone gibberellin(2). Here we assess the effect of touch on wild-type Arabidopsis plants and mutants deficient in gibberellin signalling. We show that touch leads to stunted growth and delayed flowering in wild-type plants, as expected. These touch-induced changes in morphology are accompanied by a reduction in gibberellin levels, and can be reversed through the application of a bioactive form of gibberellin. We further show that touch induces the expression of AtGA2ox7, which encodes an enzyme involved in gibberellin catabolism. Arabidopsis ga2ox7 loss-of-function mutants do not respond to touch, suggesting that this gene is a key regulator of thigmomorphogenesis. We conclude that touch-induced changes in Arabidopsis morphology depend on gibberellin catabolism. Given that AtGA2ox7 helps to confer resistance to salt stress, and that touch can increase plant resistance to pathogens, we suggest that gibberellin catabolism could be targeted to improve plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stress.

The gibberellin biosynthetic genes AtKAO1 and AtKAO2 have overlapping roles throughout Arabidopsis development

Ent-kaurenoic acid oxidase (KAO), a class of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases of the subfamily CYP88A, catalyzes the conversion of ent-kaurenoic acid (KA) to gibberellin (GA) GA12 , the precursor of all GAs, thereby playing an important role in determining GA concentration in plants. Past work has demonstrated the importance of KAO activity for growth in various plant species. In Arabidopsis, this enzyme is encoded by two genes designated KAO1 and KAO2. In this study, we used various approaches to determine the physiological roles of KAO1 and KAO2 throughout plant development. Analysis of gene expression pattern reveals that both genes are mainly expressed in germinating seeds and young developing organs, thus suggesting functional redundancy. Consistent with this, kao1 and kao2 single mutants are indistinguishable from wild-type plants. By contrast, the kao1 kao2 double mutant exhibits typical non-germinating GA-dwarf phenotypes, similar to those observed in the severely GA-deficient ga1-3 mutant. Phenotypic characterization and quantitative analysis of endogenous GA contents of single and double kao mutants further confirm an overlapping role of KAO1 and KAO2 throughout Arabidopsis development.

Gibberellic acid in plant: still a mystery unresolved

Gibberellic acid (GA), a plant hormone stimulating plant growth and development, is a tetracyclic di-terpenoid compound. GAs stimulate seed germination, trigger transitions from meristem to shoot growth, juvenile to adult leaf stage, vegetative to flowering, determines sex expression and grain development along with an interaction of different environmental factors viz., light, temperature and water. The major site of bioactive GA is stamens that influence male flower production and pedicel growth. However, this opens up the question of how female flowers regulate growth and development, since regulatory mechanisms/organs other than those in male flowers are mandatory. Although GAs are thought to act occasionally like paracrine signals do, it is still a mystery to understand the GA biosynthesis and its movement. It has not yet confirmed the appropriate site of bioactive GA in plants or which tissues targeted by bioactive GAs to initiate their action. Presently, it is a great challenge for scientific community to understand the appropriate mechanism of GA movement in plant's growth, floral development, sex expression, grain development and seed germination. The appropriate elucidation of GA transport mechanism is essential for the survival of plant species and successful crop production.

Assessing gibberellins oxidase activity by anion exchange/hydrophobic polymer monolithic capillary liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Bioactive gibberellins (GAs) play a key regulatory role in plant growth and development. In the biosynthesis of GAs, GA3-oxidase catalyzes the final step to produce bioactive GAs. Thus, the evaluation of GA3-oxidase activity is critical for elucidating the regulation mechanism of plant growth controlled by GAs. However, assessing catalytic activity of endogenous GA3-oxidase remains challenging. In the current study, we developed a capillary liquid chromatography--mass spectrometry (cLC-MS) method for the sensitive assay of in-vitro recombinant or endogenous GA3-oxidase by analyzing the catalytic substrates and products of GA3-oxidase (GA1, GA4, GA9, GA20). An anion exchange/hydrophobic poly([2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium-co-divinylbenzene-co-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate)(META-co-DVB-co-EDMA) monolithic column was successfully prepared for the separation of all target GAs. The limits of detection (LODs, Signal/Noise = 3) of GAs were in the range of 0.62-0.90 fmol. We determined the kinetic parameters (K m) of recombinant GA3-oxidase in Escherichia coli (E. coli) cell lysates, which is consistent with previous reports. Furthermore, by using isotope labeled substrates, we successfully evaluated the activity of endogenous GA3-oxidase that converts GA9 to GA4 in four types of plant samples, which is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report for the quantification of the activity of endogenous GA3-oxidase in plant. Taken together, the method developed here provides a good solution for the evaluation of endogenous GA3-oxidase activity in plant, which may promote the in-depth study of the growth regulation mechanism governed by GAs in plant physiology.

Functional characterization of gibberellin oxidases from cucumber, Cucumis sativus L

Cucurbits have been used widely to elucidate gibberellin (GA) biosynthesis. With the recent availability of the genome sequence for the economically important cucurbit Cucumis sativus, sequence data became available for all genes potentially involved in GA biosynthesis for this species. Sixteen cDNAs were cloned from root and shoot of 3-d to 7-d old seedlings and from mature seeds of C. sativus. Two cDNAs code for GA 7-oxidases (CsGA7ox1, and -2), five for GA 20-oxidases (CsGA20ox1, -2, -3, -4, and -5), four for GA 3-oxidases (CsGA3ox1, -2, -3, and -4), and another five for GA 2-oxidases (CsGA2ox1, -2, -3, -4, and -5). Their enzymatic activities were investigated by heterologous expression of the cDNAs in Escherichia coli and incubation of the cell lysates with (14)C-labelled, D2-labelled, or unlabelled GA-substrates. The two GA 7-oxidases converted GA12-aldehyde to GA12 efficiently. CsGA7ox1 converted GA12 to GA14, to 15α-hydroxyGA12, and further to 15α-hydroxyGA14. CsGA7ox2 converted GA12 to its 12α-hydroxylated analogue GA111. All five GA 20-oxidases converted GA12 to GA9 as a major product, and to GA25 as a minor product. The four GA 3-oxidases oxidized the C19-GA GA9 to GA4 as the only product. In addition, three of them (CsGA3ox2, -3, and -4) converted the C20-GA GA12 to GA14. The GA 2-oxidases CsGA2ox1, -2, -3, and -4 oxidized the C19-GAs GA9 and GA4 to GA34 and GA51, respectively. CsGA2ox2, -3, and -4 converted GA51 and GA34 further to respective GA-catabolites. In addition to C19-GAs, CsGA2ox4 also converted the C20-GA GA12 to GA110. In contrast, CsGA2ox5 oxidized only the C20 GA12 to GA110 as the sole product. As shown for CsGA20ox1 and CsGA3ox1, similar reactions were catalysed with 13-hydroxlyated GAs as substrates. It is likely that these enzymes are also responsible for the biosynthesis of 13-hydroxylated GAs in vivo that occur at low levels in cucumber.