Maternal dietary N-3 fatty acids alter the spleen fatty acid composition and bovine serum albumin-induced wing web swelling in broilers

The impacts of dietary inclusion of soybean oil and linseed oil on growth performance, carcass yield, and health status of growing Japanese quail

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, are essential for enhancing the performance and health of poultry. Avian species lack desaturase enzymes for endogenous synthesis of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. This work aimed to determine the impacts of including soybean oil (SO) and linseed oil (LO) in quail diets on growth, lipid profile, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status. A total of 350 Japanese quail chicks (1-wk-old) were randomly arranged into 7 dietary treatment groups. Seven isocaloric and isonitrogenous experimental basal diets were formed based on the nutritional requirements of growing Japanese quail. Group 1, the control, received a basal with no oils, while groups 2 to 7 received a basal diet containing either 1% SO, 1.5% SO, 2% SO, 1% LO, 1.5% LO, or 2% LO, respectively. Quail groups that consumed diets containing LO at all levels showed significantly greater live body weight (LBW) at 5th wk of age than other experimental groups. The dietary incorporation of 1.5 or 2% SO or LO at all levels yielded significant improvements in body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) through 3 to 5 and 1 to 5 wk of age. Different dietary oil sources and levels have no significant impacts on feed intake (FI) and carcass yield parameters. Lipid profile parameters were improved by adding SO and LO in quail diets, with LO having a higher effect than SO. The hepatic and renal functionality were improved by adding SO and LO in quail diets. The lowest uric acid (UA) bloodstream concentrations were recorded in the quail group fed a diet with 2% LO. Values of Gamma globulins (G-GLO) and immunoglobulins (G, M, and A) were increased by adding SO or LO to quail diets. Blood levels of MDA and TAC were improved significantly by including LO in quail diets. The activity of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme was significantly increased by adding SO or LO to quail diets. Generally, adding SO or LO to growing quail diets up to 2% could yield favorable effects on growth performance, blood lipids, hepatic and renal functions, immunity, and antioxidant status; however, LO seems to have better effects than SO.

Significance of successive feeding of sources of n-3 fatty acids to broiler breeders and their progeny on growth performance, intestinal lesion scores, lymphoid organs weight and plasma immunoglobulin A in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria

The study examined the effects of successive feeding of sources of n-3 PUFA to broiler breeders (BB) and their progeny in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria. The BB were fed: 1) control (CON), corn-soybean meal diet, 2) CON + 1 % microalgae (DMA), as a source of DHA and 3) CON + 2.50% co-extruded full fat flaxseed (FFF), as a source of ALA. Eggs were hatched at 34, 44, and 54 wk of age. Posthatch treatments (BB-progeny) were: CON-CON, DMA-CON, FFF-CON, DMA-DMA and FFF-FFF with diets formulated for starter (d 1-10) and grower/finisher (d 11-42) phases. All chicks were orally challenged with Eimeria (E. acervulina and E. maxima) on d 10. Relative to CON, DMA and FFF increased concentration of n-3 PUFA by ≥ 2-fold in hatching eggs and progeny diets. There were no (P > 0.05) interactions between treatment and BB age on d 0 to 10 growth. In general, BB age affected (P < 0.05) growth performance throughout the study. In the starter phase, successive exposure to DHA and ALA improved FCR over CON-CON (P < 0.01). The interaction between treatment and BB age in grower/finisher was such that DHA exposure to younger BB resulted in poor growth performance (P < 0.05) relative to exposure to older BB. In contrast, exposure to ALA had similar (P > 0.05) growth performance irrespective of BB age. Moreover, successive exposure to ALA resulted in higher BWG, breast weight and lower FCR compared to successive exposure to DHA (P < 0.05). There were no (P > 0.05) interactions between treatment and BB age on the intestinal lesion scores, lymphoid organ weights and concentration of plasma immunoglobulin A (IgA). Successive exposure to DHA resulted in higher (P = 0.006) jejunal lesion scores than CON-CON birds. The results showed that successive exposure of DHA and ALA improved FCR relative to non-exposed birds in the starter phase. However, responses in the grower/finisher phase depended on n-3 PUFA type, with birds on successive ALA exposure supporting better growth and breast yield than birds on successive DHA exposure.

Hatching egg polyunsaturated fatty acids and the broiler chick

Transgenerational effects of certain nutrients such as essential fatty acids are gaining increased attention in the field of human medicine and animal sciences as a new tool to improve health and animal performance during perinatal life. Omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids are denoted by the position of the first double bond from methyl end of the hydrocarbon chain. Alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3) and linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) are essential n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and cannot be synthesized by the vertebrates including chickens. Alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid are the parent fatty acids of long chain (> 20–22C) n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) such as eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 n-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (22:5 n-3/or 22:5 n-6, DPA), docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3, DHA) and arachidonic acid (20:4 n-6). As components of cell membrane phospholipids, PUFA serves as precursors of eicosanoids, act as ligands for membrane receptors and transcription factors that regulate gene expression and are pivotal for normal chick growth and development. Considering the role of egg lipids as the sole source of essential fatty acids to the hatchling, dietary deficiencies or inadequate in ovo supply may have repercussions in tissue PUFA incorporation, lipid metabolism, chick growth and development during pre and early post-hatch period. This review focus on studies showing how maternal dietary n-3 or n-6 fatty acids can lead to remodeling of long chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA in the hatching egg and progeny chick tissue phospholipid molecular species and its impact on chick growth and PUFA metabolism during early life.

H-FABP gene expression and genetic association with meat quality traits in domestic pigeons (Columba livia)

1. H-FABP (heart-type fatty acid-binding protein) is an important fatty acid-binding protein that participates in the metabolism and intracellular transportation of lipids. This study was designed to study the H-FABP gene expression and genetic association with meat quality traits in domestic pigeons.2. The spatio-temporal expression patterns showed that H-FABP was widely expressed in all eleven tissues in birds from hatching to 4 weeks of age, and the expression level in the liver was the highest, and spleen and subcutaneous fat showed relatively high levels at all time points, and increased markedly as squabs became older.3. Nine novel SNPs were found; three of them (g.42 C > T and g.123 C > T in exon 1 and g.3128 C > T in exon 2) were synonymous mutations, and six of them (g.3304 T > C, g.3305 G > A, g.3313A>G, g.3343 C > T, g.3372A>C, g.3410 T > C in exon 3) were located in the 3' untranslated region (UTR). In addition, four haplotypes and six diplotypes were formed and showed weak linkage disequilibrium. Association analysis showed that in the SNP of g.3305 G > A, the AB genotype showed higher (P < 0.05) inosinic acid concentrations in breast muscle than the BB genotype. In the SNP of g.3313A>G, the AA and AB genotypes showed significantly higher (P < 0.01) inosinic acid concentrations than the BB genotype, AA showed the highest intramuscular fat content, and the relative mRNA expression level of the AA genotype was the highest (P < 0.05).4. Association analysis of diplotypes showed no correlation with meat quality traits. Moreover, correlation analysis indicated that the H-FABP mRNA expression level was tightly related to intramuscular fat content (P < 0.01).5. This study suggested that the H-FABP gene may be a candidate gene in marker-assisted selection of pigeons for high-quality meat.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Poultry Nutrition: Effect on Production Performance and Health

Omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids are important components of cell membranes. They are essential for health and normal physiological functioning of humans. Not all fatty acids can be produced endogenously owing to the absence of certain desaturases; however, they are required in a ratio that is not naturally achieved by the standard diet of industrialized nations. Poultry products have become the primary source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), with one of the most effective solutions being to increase the accretion of PUFAs in chicken products via the adjustment of fatty acids in poultry diets. Several studies have reported the favorable effects of ω-3 PUFA on bone strength, bone mineral content and density, and semen quality. However, other studies concluded negative effects of LC-PUFA on meat quality and palatability, and acceptability by consumers. The present review discussed the practical application of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids in poultry diets, and studied the critical effects of these fatty acids on productive performance, blood biochemistry, immunity, carcass traits, bone traits, egg and meat quality, and semen quality in poultry. Future studies are required to determine how poultry products can be produced with higher contents of PUFAs and favorable fatty acid composition, at low cost and without negative effects on palatability and quality.

Effect of nutritional interventions with quercetin, oat hulls, β-glucans, lysozyme and fish oil on performance and health status related parameters of broilers chickens

1. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of technical feed ingredients between 14 and 28 d of age on performance and health status of broilers (d 14-35) fed diets with a high inclusion rate of rapeseed meal as a nutritional challenge. It was hypothesized that the feed ingredients would improve health status related parameters. 2. A total of 1008 one-day-old male Ross 308 chicks were distributed over 36 floor pens and allocated to one of six iso-caloric (AME_N 13 MJ/kg) growing diets (d 15-28): a control and five test diets supplemented with quercetin (400 mg/kg), oat hulls (50 g/kg), β-glucan (100 mg/kg), lysozyme (40 mg/kg) or fish oil ω-3 fatty acids (40 g/kg), with six replicate pens per treatment. 3. Dietary inclusion of oat hulls and lysozyme resulted in a reduction in broiler performance during the first week after providing the experimental diets. 4. No effect of interventions on the microbiota diversity in the jejunum and ileum was observed. Ileal microbiota composition of birds fed oat hulls differed from the other groups, as shown by a higher abundance of the genus Enterococcus, mainly at the expense of the genus Lactobacillus. 5. In the jejunum, villus height and crypt depth of lysozyme-fed birds at d 28 were decreased compared to the control group. Higher total surface area of villi occupied by goblet cells and total villi surface area in jejunum (d 21 and 28) were observed in chickens fed oat hulls compared to other groups. 6. Genes related to the growth-factor-activity pathway were more highly expressed in birds fed β-glucan compared to the control group, while the genes related to anion-transmembrane-transporter-activity pathway in the quercetin- and oat hull-fed birds were less expressed. The genes differently expressed between dietary interventions did not seem to be directly involved in immune related processes. 7. It was concluded that the tested nutritional interventions in the current experiment only marginally effected health status related parameters.

Nutrition and metabolism in poultry: role of lipids in early diet

Modern strains of broiler chickens are selected for fast growth and are marketed anywhere from 36 to 49 days after a 21-day incubational period. For a viable healthy chick, all the necessary nutrients required for growth and development must be provided by the hen through the fertilized egg. The current feeding strategies for improved growth, health and productivity are targeted towards chicks after hatching. Considering the fact that developing chick embryo spends over 30 % of its total life span inside the hatching egg relying on nutrients deposited by the breeder hen, investigations on nutritional needs during pre-hatch period will improve embryonic health, hatchability and chick viability. In this context, investigations on hatching egg lipid quality is of utmost importance because, during incubation, egg fat is the major source of energy and sole source of essential omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids to the chick embryo. Due to the unique roles of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in growth, immune health, and development of central nervous system, this review will focus on the role of early exposure to essential fatty acids through maternal diet and hatching egg and its impact on progeny in meat-type broiler chickens.

Effect of n-3 fatty acids on immune function in broiler chickens

There is interest in the enrichment of poultry meat with long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in order to increase the consumption of these fatty acids by humans. However, there is concern that high levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may have detrimental effects on immune function in chickens. The effect of feeding increasing levels of fish oil (FO) on immune function was investigated in broiler chickens. Three-week-old broilers were fed 1 of 4 wheat-soybean basal diets that contained 0, 30, 50, or 60 g/kg of FO until slaughter. At slaughter, samples of blood, bursa of Fabricius, spleen, and thymus were collected from each bird. A range of immune parameters, including immune tissue weight, immuno-phenotyping, phagocytosis, and cell proliferation, were assessed. The pattern of fatty acid incorporation reflected the fatty acid composition of the diet. The FO did not affect the weight of the spleen, but it did increase thymus weight when fed at 50 g/kg (P < 0.001). Fish oil also lowered bursal weights when fed at 50 or 60 g/kg (P < 0.001). There was no significant effect of FO on immune cell phenotypes in the spleen, thymus, bursa, or blood. Feeding 60 g/kg of FO significantly decreased the percentage of monocytes engaged in phagocytosis, but it increased their mean fluorescence intensity relative to that of broilers fed 50 g/kg of FO. Lymphocyte proliferation was significantly decreased after feeding broiler chickens diets rich in FO when expressed as division index or proliferation index, although there was no significant effect of FO on the percentage of divided cells. In conclusion, dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease phagocytosis and lymphocyte proliferation in broiler chickens, highlighting the need for the poultry industry to consider the health status of poultry when poultry meat is being enriched with FO.

Maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids alter cardiac ventricle fatty acid composition, prostaglandin and thromboxane production in growing chicks

The effects of feeding n-6 and n-3 fatty acids to broiler hens on cardiac ventricle fatty acid composition, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) production of hatched chicks were investigated. Fertile eggs obtained from hens fed diets supplemented with 3.5% sunflower oil (Low n-3), 1.75% sunflower+1.75% fish oil (Medium n-3), or 3.5% fish oil (High n-3) were incubated. The hatched chicks were fed a diet containing 18:3 n-3, but devoid of longer chain n-6 and n-3 fatty acids for 42 days. Arachidonic acid content was lower in the cardiac ventricle of High n-3 and Medium n-3 compared to Low n-3 birds for up to 2 weeks (P<0.002). Long chain n-3 fatty acids were higher in the cardiac ventricle of chicks from hens fed High and Medium n-3 diets when compared to chicks from hens fed the Low n-3 diet. Differences in long chain n-3 fatty acids persisted up to four weeks of age (P<0.001). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNC) of 7-day-old High n-3 broilers produced significantly lower PGE2 and TXA2 than PBMNC from Low n-3 and Medium n-3 birds. These results indicate that maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids increases cardiac ventricle n-3 fatty acids while reducing arachidonic acid and ex vivo PGE2 and TXA2 production during growth in broiler chickens.

Metabolic and cardiovascular diseases in poultry: role of dietary lipids

In the United States, supplemental dietary lipid is typically provided as an animal-vegetable blend using animal tallow or hydrogenated oils from the food industry. Lipids from these sources are rich in saturated, trans, n-6 fatty acids and poor in n-3 fatty acids. Linoleic (18:2 n-6) and alpha-linolenic (18:3 n-3) acids are essential fatty acids and are the precursors of long-chain n-6 and n-3 fatty acids such as arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids (EPA). Ester-linked arachidonic acid and EPA can be mobilized by phospholipase A(2) to generate free arachidonic acid and EPA, which can act as substrates for cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase to produce eicosanoids. Eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid, prostaglandin E2, thromboxane B2, and leukotriene B4 are proinflammatory and more potent than eicosanoids derived from EPA such as prostaglandin E3, thromboxane B3, and leukotriene B5. Developing dietary strategies in broiler chickens that enhance the n-3 fatty acid content of tissues is also associated with lipid oxidation and muscle product quality. Therefore, alternative strategies for enhancing tissue n-3 fatty acid content without affecting growth and product quality must be devised. The role of maternal (yolk) fatty acids in modulating the long-chain n-3 fatty acid content of tissues and eicosanoid production in chickens fed a diet lacking in long-chain n-3 fatty acids is investigated. Up to d 42 of growth, the cardiac tissues of chicks hatched from hens fed a high n-3 diet retained higher levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids than those of chicks hatched from hens fed a low n-3 diet. Chicks hatched from hens fed a high n-3 diet produced less proinflammatory eicosanoids than chicks hatched from hens fed a low n-3 diet. Modulating maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids enhances tissue retention of n-3 fatty acids during growth and reduces proinflammatory eicosanoid production in chicks, which could lead to fewer metabolic and inflammatory-related disorders in poultry.

Maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids alter immune cell fatty acid composition and leukotriene production in growing chicks

The effect of feeding different amounts of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids (FA) to hens on immune tissue FA composition and leukotriene production of hatched chicks was investigated. Hens were fed diets supplemented with either 3.0% sunflower oil (Diet I), 1.5% sunflower+1.5% fish oil (Diet II), or 3.0% fish oil (Diet III) for 46 days. The hatched chicks were fed a diet containing C18:3n-3, but devoid of longer chain n-6 and n-3 FA, for 21 days. Spleen docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content was higher in chicks from hens fed Diet III (P<0.05). The bursa content of arachidonic acid was lower in chicks hatched from hens fed Diet III (P<0.05), and the ratio of n-6 to n-3 FA was significantly higher in bursa of chicks hatched to hens fed Diet I (P<0.05). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA contents were higher in bursa of chicks hatched from hens fed Diet III (P<0.05). Thrombocytes from chicks hatched to hens fed Diet III produced the most leukotriene B(5) (LTB(5)). The ratio of LTB(5) to LTB(4) concentrations was also highest (P<0.05) in chicks hatched to hens fed Diet III. These results indicate that modulating maternal dietary n-6 and n-3 FA may alter leukotriene production in chicks, which could lead to less inflammatory-related disorders in poultry.

Diet preferences for specific fatty acids and their effect on composition of fat reserves in migratory Red-eyed Vireos (Vireo olivaceous)

Fatty acid composition of body fat in birds often differs between bird species and between seasons, and changes in diet may be responsible for this variation. We tested two related hypotheses using Red-eyed Vireos, a long-distance migratory songbird: (1) birds prefer diets with certain fatty acids, and (2) fatty acid composition of the diet primarily determines the composition of lipid reserves. During paired-choice experiments, vireos preferred semi-synthetic diets with triolein (81% digestive extraction efficiency) over diets with tristearin (54% digestive extraction efficiency) and, in general, ate more when offered diets with unsaturated fats compared to saturated fats. These results demonstrate that vireos can discriminate between diets differing only in fatty acid composition and prefer diets with long-chain unsaturated fatty acids. When vireos were fed one of two diets for 1 month, the primary fatty acids in each diet also predominated in the tissues of birds fed each diet. However, some fatty acids that were absent in the diet occurred in bird tissues (e.g., 22:4, 22:5) suggesting that selective metabolism of fatty acids along with diet composition determine the fatty acid composition of lipid reserves in migratory birds.