Prescription and comorbidity screening following consultation for acute gout in primary care

What Gets Measured Gets Managed: A Scoping Review of Musculoskeletal Research Conducted Within Practice-Based Research Networks

ABSTRACT

Musculoskeletal conditions are often managed in primary care settings. To facilitate research and healthcare quality, practice-based research networks offer sustained collaborations between clinicians and researchers. A scoping review was conducted to describe characteristics of practice-based research networks used for musculoskeletal research and musculoskeletal research conducted through practice-based research networks. Practice-based research networks were identified from 1) musculoskeletal-studies identified in OVID Medline, CINAHL, and Embase databases from inception to 5 February 2023 and in ClinicalTrials.gov and 2) from practice-based research network registries and websites. Among active musculoskeletal-focused practice-based research networks (i.e., currently recruiting and conducting research), an assessment of practice-based research network research good practices was performed. After screening 3025 records, 85 studies from 46 unique practice-based research networks met our eligibility criteria. Common conditions studied were low back pain (28%), musculoskeletal conditions not otherwise specified (25%), and osteoarthritis (19%). Thirty-two practice-based research networks (70%) were deemed to be active. Among active musculoskeletal-focused practice-based research networks, best practice data management information was retrievable for most (53%). Because of the scarcity of publicly available information, a large proportion of practice-based research network research good practice items was not assessable. Practice-based research networks have provided an avenue to assess clinical practice and patient outcomes related to musculoskeletal conditions. Further work to increase the transparency of musculoskeletal practice-based research network research practices is warranted.

Detection of monosodium urate depositions and atherosclerotic plaques in the cardiovascular system by dual-energy computed tomography

Aim

The study aimed to explore the relationship between urate deposition and surrounding atherosclerotic plaques, and to confirm the contribution of urate deposition to the development of coronary atherosclerosis.

Methods and results

The present study employed Dual-energy CT (DECT) material separation technology through calcium score scan to access the presence of MSU crystal deposition in coronary atherosclerotic plaques in patients with clinically suspected coronary heart diseases undergoing DECT. DECT showed that among 872 patients, 441 had plaques in coronary arteries; the incidence of plaque was 50.6 %. The patients were divided in the atherosclerotic plaque vs. non-plaque groups. There were significant differences in age, sex, blood pressure, blood glucose, serum creatinine, and history of gout and hyperuricemia between the plaque and non-plaque groups (all P < 0.05). Among the patients with coronary plaques, there were 348 patients (78.9 %) with simple atherosclerotic plaque (AP), 8 (1.8 %) with simple urate depositions (UD), and 85 (19.3 %) with urate depositions and atherosclerotic plaques (UDAP). The multivariable analysis showed that urate deposition was independently associated with plaques after adjustment for age, sex, blood pressure, blood glucose, serum creatinine, history of gout, and history of hyperuricemia (OR = 13.69, 95%CI: 7.53-22.95, P = 0.035). UPAP patients had significantly higher coronary calcium scores than AP patients [210.1 (625.2) AU vs 58.2 (182.5) AU, P < 0.001] Urate deposition (16.7 mm3) positively correlated with plaque calcification (73.8 mm³) in UPAP patients (r = 0.325, P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Patients with gout or a history of hyperuricemia were more likely to exhibit UDAP. Urate deposition was independently associated with plaques.

Cohort study investigating gout flares and management in UK general practice

BACKGROUND

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis and is almost exclusively managed in primary care, however the course and severity of the condition is variable and poorly characterised. This research aims improve understanding about the frequency of, and factors associated with, gout flares in the UK and characterise the factors associated with the initiation of ULT.

METHODS

Using the Clinical Practice Research Database, patients with a coded incident gout diagnosis without a prior prescription for urate-lowering therapy (ULT) were identified. Gout flares post diagnosis and ULT initiation were identified through prescribing and coded data. Patient characteristics, co-morbidities and co-prescribing were co-variants. Factors associated with gout flares and ULT initiation were analysed using cox-proportional hazard model and logistic regression.

RESULTS

Fifty-one thousand seven hundred eighty-four patients were identified: 18,605 (35.9%, 95%CI 35.5-36.3%) had experienced ≥ 1 recurrent flare, 17.4% (95%CI 17.1-17.8%) within 12 months of diagnosis. Male sex, black ethnicity, higher BMI, heart failure, CKD, CVD and diuretic use were associated with flares, with the highest HR seen with high serum urate levels (≥ 540 µmol/L HR 4.63, 95%CI 4.03-5.31). ULT initiation was associated with similar variables, although higher alcohol intake and older age were associated with lower odds of ULT initiation but were not associated with flares. ULT was initiated in 27.7% (95%CI 27.3-28.0%): 5.7% (95%CI 5.5-5.9%) within 12 months of diagnosis. ULT initiation rates were higher in patients with recurrent flares.

CONCLUSION

Approximately one in six people with incident gout had a second flare within 12 months. Factors associated with flare recurrence and ULT initiation were similar, but ULT initiation occurred later after diagnosis than previously thought.

Sex and country differences in gout: cross-country comparison between Sweden and the UK

OBJECTIVE

Compare characteristics, sex differences, and management of gout in Sweden and the UK.

METHOD

The results from two separate primary care gout surveys from Sweden and the UK were compared. Participants aged ≥18 years with gout were sent a questionnaire asking about lifestyle, gout characteristics, uratelowering therapy (ULT), comorbidities, disability, and disease impact. For sex comparison, participants were pooled across countries.

RESULTS

In total, 784 (80% male) participants from Sweden and 500 (87% male) from the UK were included. Swedish patients were significantly older at gout onset, mean (SD) age 72 (12) versus 63 (13) years, (p<0.0001), with more comorbidities, and more frequent use of ULT (48% vs 35%, p=0.0005, age-adjusted). Use of alcohol and diuretics was significantly more common among UK patients, who also reported a higher number of gout flares, mean (SD) 2.2 (1.7) versus 1.6 (3.6), (p=0.003) age-adjusted. Females with gout were older at gout onset, mean (SD) age 67 (13) versus 56 (15), (p<0.0001), more often obese, and reported higher use of diuretics. Furthermore, females reported greater impact of gout, more pain and physical limitations, whereas no sex differences were seen in ULT or flares.

CONCLUSIONS

In the UK, gout was more frequently associated with modifiable risk factors. People with gout in Sweden were more commonly taking ULT and had lower frequency of gout flares and impact of gout. Females with gout more commonly took diuretics, had higher body mass index, and reported greater physical disability, which should be considered when managing gout in women.

Research progress of risk factors and early diagnostic biomarkers of gout-induced renal injury

Gout renal injury has an insidious onset, no obvious symptoms, and laboratory abnormalities in the early stages of the disease. The injury is not easily detected, and in many cases, the patients have entered the renal failure stage at the time of diagnosis. Therefore, the detection of gout renal injury–related risk factors and early diagnostic biomarkers of gout renal injury is essential for the prevention and early diagnosis of the disease. This article reviews the research progress in risk factors and early diagnostic biomarkers of gout renal injury.

Cardiovascular risk in inflammatory arthritis: rheumatoid arthritis and gout

The increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in rheumatoid arthritis and gout has been increasingly acknowledged in past decades, with accumulating evidence that gout, just as with rheumatoid arthritis, is an independent cardiovascular risk factor. Although both diseases have a completely different pathogenesis, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms in systemic inflammation overlap to some extent. Following the recognition that systemic inflammation has an important causative role in cardiovascular disease, anti-inflammatory therapy in both conditions and urate-lowering therapies in gout are expected to lower the cardiovascular burden of patients. Unfortunately, much of the existing data showing that urate-lowering therapy has consistent beneficial effects on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with gout are of low quality and contradictory. We will discuss the latest evidence in this respect. Cardiovascular disease risk management for patients with rheumatoid arthritis and gout is essential. Clinical guidelines and implementation of cardiovascular risk management in daily clinical practice, as well as unmet needs and areas for further investigation, will be discussed.

Dual-Energy Computed Tomography Detection of Cardiovascular Monosodium Urate Deposits in Patients With Gout

Importance

The prevalence of gout has increased in recent decades. Several clinical studies have demonstrated an association between gout and coronary heart disease, but direct cardiovascular imaging of monosodium urate (MSU) deposits by using dual-energy computed tomography (DECT) has not been reported to date.

Objective

To compare coronary calcium score and cardiovascular MSU deposits detected by DECT in patients with gout and controls.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This prospective Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act-compliant study included patients with gout and controls who presented to a rheumatologic clinic from January 1, 2017, to November 1, 2018. All consecutive patients underwent DECT to assess coronary calcium score and MSU deposits in aorta and coronary arteries. In addition, cadavers were assessed by DECT for cardiovascular MSU deposits and verified by polarizing microscope. Analysis began in January 2017.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Detection rate of cardiovascular MSU deposits using DECT in patients with gout and control group patients without a previous history of gout or inflammatory rheumatic diseases.

Results

A total of 59 patients with gout (mean [SD] age, 59 [5.7] years; range, 47-89 years), 47 controls (mean [SD] age, 70 [10.4] years; range, 44-86 years), and 6 cadavers (mean [SD] age at death, 76 [17] years; range, 56-95 years) were analyzed. The frequency of cardiovascular MSU deposits was higher among patients with gout (51 [86.4%]) compared with controls (7 [14.9%]) (χ2 = 17.68, P < .001), as well as coronary MSU deposits among patients with gout (19 [32.2%]) vs controls (2 [4.3%]) (χ2 = 8.97, P = .003). Coronary calcium score was significantly higher among patients with gout (900 Agatston units [AU]; 95% CI, 589-1211) compared with controls (263 AU; 95% CI, 76-451; P = .001) and also significantly higher among 58 individuals with cardiovascular MSU deposits (950 AU; 95% CI, 639-1261) compared with 48 individuals without MSU deposits (217 AU; 95% CI, 37-397; P < .001). Among 6 cadavers, 3 showed cardiovascular MSU deposits, which were verified by polarizing light microscope.

Conclusion and Relevance

Dual-energy computed tomography demonstrates cardiovascular MSU deposits, as confirmed by polarized light microscopy. Cardiovascular MSU deposits were detected by DECT significantly more often in patients with gout compared with controls and were associated with higher coronary calcium score. This new modality may be of importance in gout population being at risk from cardiovascular disease.

Open-label randomised pragmatic trial (CONTACT) comparing naproxen and low-dose colchicine for the treatment of gout flares in primary care

Objectives

To compare the effectiveness and safety of naproxen and low-dose colchicine for treating gout flares in primary care.

Methods

This was a multicentre open-label randomised trial. Adults with a gout flare recruited from 100 general practices were randomised equally to naproxen 750 mg immediately then 250 mg every 8 hours for 7 days or low-dose colchicine 500 mcg three times per day for 4 days. The primary outcome was change in worst pain intensity in the last 24 hours (0–10 Numeric Rating Scale) from baseline measured daily over the first 7 days: mean change from baseline was compared between groups over days 1–7 by intention to treat.

Results

Between 29 January 2014 and 31 December 2015, we recruited 399 participants (naproxen n=200, colchicine n=199), of whom 349 (87.5%) completed primary outcome data at day 7. There was no significant between-group difference in average pain-change scores over days 1–7 (colchicine vs naproxen: mean difference −0.18; 95% CI −0.53 to 0.17; p=0.32). During days 1–7, diarrhoea (45.9% vs 20.0%; OR 3.31; 2.01 to 5.44) and headache (20.5% vs 10.7%; 1.92; 1.03 to 3.55) were more common in the colchicine group than the naproxen group but constipation was less common (4.8% vs 19.3%; 0.24; 0.11 to 0.54).

Conclusion

We found no difference in pain intensity over 7 days between people with a gout flare randomised to either naproxen or low-dose colchicine. Naproxen caused fewer side effects supporting naproxen as first-line treatment for gout flares in primary care in the absence of contraindications.

Trial registration number

ISRCTN (69836939), clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01994226), EudraCT (2013-001354-95).

Variation in methods, results and reporting in electronic health record-based studies evaluating routine care in gout: A systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To perform a systematic review examining the variation in methods, results, reporting and risk of bias in electronic health record (EHR)-based studies evaluating management of a common musculoskeletal disease, gout.

METHODS

Two reviewers systematically searched MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, CINAHL, PubMed, EMBASE and Google Scholar for all EHR-based studies published by February 2019 investigating gout pharmacological treatment. Information was extracted on study design, eligibility criteria, definitions, medication usage, effectiveness and safety data, comprehensiveness of reporting (RECORD), and Cochrane risk of bias (registered PROSPERO CRD42017065195).

RESULTS

We screened 5,603 titles/abstracts, 613 full-texts and selected 75 studies including 1.9M gout patients. Gout diagnosis was defined in 26 ways across the studies, most commonly using a single diagnostic code (n = 31, 41.3%). 48.4% did not specify a disease-free period before 'incident' diagnosis. Medication use was suboptimal and varied with disease definition while results regarding effectiveness and safety were broadly similar across studies despite variability in inclusion criteria. Comprehensiveness of reporting was variable, ranging from 73% (55/75) appropriately discussing the limitations of EHR data use, to 5% (4/75) reporting on key data cleaning steps. Risk of bias was generally low.

CONCLUSION

The wide variation in case definitions and medication-related analysis among EHR-based studies has implications for reported medication use. This is amplified by variable reporting comprehensiveness and the limited consideration of EHR-relevant biases (e.g. data adequacy) in study assessment tools. We recommend accounting for these biases and performing a sensitivity analysis on case definitions, and suggest changes to assessment tools to foster this.

A novel HPLC-DAD method for simultaneous determination of febuxostat and diclofenac in biological samples: pharmacokinetic outcomes

Aim: To develop a simple HPLC-DAD method for simultaneous determination of febuxostat (FEB) and diclofenac (DIC) in biological samples to assess pharmacokinetic outcomes of their coadministration. Methodology & results: Sample preparation was performed by liquid–liquid extraction. Drugs analysis was done on C18 column using methanol-formic acid pH 2.1 (76:24, v/v) as mobile phase and time-programmed UV detection. Lower limits of quantitation for FEB and DIC were 10 and 20 ng/ml, respectively. Baseline pharmacokinetics were similar to published data on either drug alone. Coadministration led to more than twofold increase in FEB Cmax and AUC together with a reduced hepatic uptake in rats. Conclusion: DIC interfered with initial distribution and terminal clearance of FEB potentially due to reduced FEB hepatic uptake.

The Risk of Gout Among Patients With Sleep Apnea: A Matched Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is associated with a range of serious comorbidities. This study was undertaken to investigate whether people with OSA are more likely to develop gout, in the short and long term, compared to those without OSA.

METHODS

A matched retrospective cohort study was undertaken using the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Individuals age ≥18 years who received a diagnosis of OSA between 1990 and 2010 were identified and matched on age, sex, and practice with up to 4 individuals without OSA; follow-up was until the end of 2015. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated using Cox regression adjusted for general health, lifestyle, and comorbidity characteristics. The risk of developing gout was assessed at different time points, and the body mass index (BMI) category-specific results were presented.

RESULTS

The study sample included 15,879 patients with OSA and 63,296 without. The median follow-up was 5.8 years. We found that 4.9% of patients with OSA and 2.6% of patients without the disorder developed gout. The incidence rate per 1,000 person-years was 7.83 (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 7.29-8.40) and 4.03 (95% CI 3.84-4.23) among those with and without OSA, respectively. The adjusted HR was 1.42 (95% CI 1.29-1.56). The risk of developing gout among OSA patients compared to those without was highest 1-2 years after the index date (HR 1.64 [95% CI 1.30-2.06]). This finding persisted among those who were overweight and obese. For those with normal BMI, the highest significant HR (2.02 [95% CI 1.13-3.62]) was observed at 2-5 years after the index date.

CONCLUSION

In this study, patients with OSA continued to be at higher risk of developing gout beyond the first year following the diagnosis. Our results further indicate that peak incidences of gout vary according to BMI.

Comorbidity clusters in people with gout: an observational cohort study with linked medical record review

Objective

To investigate how comorbid conditions cluster in patients with gout in a UK primary care population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was performed using baseline data from a primary-care-based prospective observational cohort of people aged ⩾18 years with gout. Participants with gout were identified through primary care medical records. Factor analysis was performed to obtain distinct clusters of comorbidity variables including obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia, coronary heart disease, heart failure, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cancer. Hierarchical cluster analysis of patient observations was also performed to identify homogenous subgroups of patients based on combinations of their comorbidities.

Results

Four distinct comorbidity clusters (C1-C4) were identified in 1079 participants [mean (s.d.) age 65.5 years (12.5); 909 (84%) male]. Cluster C1 (n = 197, 18%) was the oldest group and had the most frequent attacks of gout; 97% had CKD. Participants in C2 (n = 393, 36%) had isolated gout with few comorbidities but drank alcohol more frequently. In cluster C3 (n = 296, 27%), hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia, coronary heart disease and/or CKD were prevalent, and urate-lowering therapy was prescribed more frequently than in other clusters. All patients in C4 (193, 18%) had hypertension and were more likely to be obese than other clusters.

Conclusion

Four distinct comorbidity clusters were identified. People with multiple comorbidities were more likely to receive allopurinol. Tailoring of treatments depending on cluster and comorbidities should be considered.

Health-related quality of life in gout in primary care: Baseline findings from a cohort study

Objectives

To examine gout-related, comorbid, and sociodemographic characteristics associated with generic and disease-specific health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in gout.

Methods

Adults with gout from 20 general practices were mailed a questionnaire containing the Health Assessment Questionnaire-Disability Index (HAQ-DI), Short-Form-36 Physical Function subscale (PF-10), Gout Impact Scale (GIS), and questions about gout-specific, comorbid and sociodemographic characteristics. Variables associated with HRQOL were examined using multivariable linear regression models.

Results

A total of 1184 completed questionnaires were received (response 65.9%). Worse generic and gout-specific HRQOL was associated with frequent gout attacks (≥5 attacks PF-10 β = −4.90, HAQ-DI β = 0.14, GIS subscales β = 8.94, 33.26), current attack (HAQ-DI β = 0.15, GIS β = −1.94, 18.89), oligo/polyarticular attacks (HAQ-DI β = 0.11, GIS β = 0.78, 7.86), body pain (PF-10 β = −10.68, HAQ-DI β = 0.29, GIS β = 2.61, 11.89), anxiety (PF-10 β = −1.81, HAQ-DI β = 0.06, GIS β = 0.38, 1.70), depression (PF-10 β = −1.98, HAQ-DI β = 0.06, GIS 0.42, 1.47) and alcohol non-consumption (PF-10 β = −16.10, HAQ-DI β = 0.45). Gout-specific HRQOL was better in Caucasians than non-Caucasians (GIS β = −13.05, −13.48). Poorer generic HRQOL was associated with diabetes mellitus (PF-10 β = −4.33, HAQ-DI β = 0.14), stroke (PF-10 β = −12.21, HAQ-DI β = 0.37), renal failure (PF-10 β = −9.43, HAQ-DI β = 0.21), myocardial infarction (HAQ-DI β = 0.17), female gender (PF-10 β = −17.26, HAQ-DI β = 0.43), deprivation (PF-10 β = −7.80, HAQ-DI β = 0.19), and body mass index ≥35 kg/m² (PF-10 β = −6.10, HAQ-DI β = 0.21).

Conclusions

HRQOL in gout is impaired by gout-specific, comorbid, and sociodemographic characteristics, highlighting the importance of comorbidity screening and early urate-lowering therapy. Both gout-specific and generic questionnaires identify the impact of disease-specific features on HRQOL but studies focusing on comorbidity should include generic instruments.

A survey on the beliefs and knowledge of gout management in new medical graduates - New South Wales, Australia

AIM

To assess the beliefs and knowledge of gout management in new medical graduates.

METHOD

A survey on gout management was sent to new medical graduates during their orientation week, New South Wales, Australia.

RESULTS

Of 15 hospital networks, 11 agreed to participate. From these, 168 graduates responded (23.7% response rate). Most (81.1%) felt that gout was a serious disease, 51.2% answered that they had been taught adequately to manage acute gout, only 37.2% for chronic gout. In an acute gout flare, 63.4% answered they would continue urate lowering therapy and 67.2% were aware of first-line pharmacological management options; 28% answered the correct dosing regimen for colchicine. Chronic management was answered poorly. Only 42.0% stated they would titrate allopurinol dosing to a target urate level; 23.5% would check the urate level monthly. More than half, 56.8%, were aware that medical prophylaxis is indicated when initiating urate lowering therapy. Of this subgroup, 46.7% (25.9% overall) knew that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and colchicine were recommended and 28.4% (15.4% overall) answered the correct timeframe of use. Close to one-third (35.0%), were aware of febuxostat, probenecid and benzbromarone as second-line urate lowering therapy.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study suggest that new graduates' knowledge of gout management, especially chronic management, is suboptimal. Many felt their teaching on gout management inadequate; this is a potential target for intervention. Up to date university education which covers chronic management may lead to better clinical outcomes for this burdensome disease.

The management of gout in different clinical specialties in Turkey: a patient-based survey

Although gout is potentially curable, the management of this disease is often suboptimal. In this study, we investigated the treatment of gout in Turkey and also compared the management approaches to gout in different clinical specialties. Three hundred and nineteen consecutive patients (mean age 58.60 ± 12.8 years; 44 females, 275 males) were included in this multicenter study. A standardized form was generated to collect data about the patient's first admission to health care, the specialty of the doctor first diagnosed the gout, the treatment options for gout including attack management, patient referral, chronic treatment including medical treatment, and life style modifications. Forty patients were referred to another center without any treatment (12.8 %), and referral rate is most common among the primary care physicians (28.8 %). Colchicine was more commonly used for attack prophylaxis than allopurinol. Ninety-two patients had never been treated with allopurinol (28.8 %). Allopurinol prescription was less common among the primary care physicians and orthopedists, and highest among the rheumatologists. Recommendation of diet and life style modifications was less common among the primary care physicians and orthopedists, and highest among the rheumatologists. The rates of life style modification recommendation and long-term allopurinol prescription were 83.7 and 77.6 %, respectively, among the rheumatologists. Both acute and chronic management of gout is suboptimal in Turkey especially among the primary care physicians and orthopedists. Moreover, chronic treatment is even suboptimal among rheumatologists.

Identifying Patient Candidates for IL-1 Inhibition: Lessons From Real-World Cases

A subgroup of patients with gouty arthritis have a chronic recurring form that is particularly difficult to treat. Such patients experience repeated flares and often have abundant tophi. Many also have underlying comorbidities, such as renal impairment, cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disorders, obesity, and hypertension, which contraindicate the use of standard anti-inflammatory medications. Five patients with difficult to treat gouty arthritis who were either candidates and/or treated with anti-IL therapy are described.

The association between gout and radiographic hand, knee and foot osteoarthritis: a cross-sectional study

Background

Gout is the most common type of inflammatory arthritis and is largely managed in primary care. It classically affects the first metatarsophalangeal joint and distal peripheral joints, whereas the axial joints are typically spared. The reason for this particular distribution is not well understood, however, it has been suggested that osteoarthritis (OA) may be the key factor.

One hypothesis is that there is an association between the disease states of gout and OA as the conditions share common risk factors. The objective of this study was to determine whether there is an association between gout and radiographic osteoarthritis (OA).

Methods

A cross-sectional study was nested within three observational cohorts of people aged ≥50 years with hand, knee and foot pain. Participants with gout were identified through primary care medical records and each matched by age and gender to four individuals without gout. The presence and severity of radiographic OA were scored using validated atlases. Conditional logistic regression models were used to examine associations between gout and the presence, frequency and severity of radiographic OA at the hand, knee and foot and adjusted for BMI, diuretic use and site of joint pain.

Results

Fifty-three people with gout were compared to 211 matched subjects without gout. No statistically significant associations were observed between gout and radiographic hand, knee or foot OA. However, individuals with gout had increased odds of having nodal hand OA (aOR 1.46; 95 % CI 0.61, 3.50), ≥8 hand joints with moderate to severe OA (aOR 3.57; 95 %CI 0.62, 20.45), foot OA (aOR 2.16; 95 % CI 0.66, 7.06), ≥3 foot joints affected (aOR 4.00; 95 % CI 0.99, 16.10) and ≥1 foot joints with severe OA (aOR 1.46; 95 % CI 0.54, 3.94) but decreased odds of tibiofemoral (aOR 0.44; 95 % CI 0.15, 1.29) or patellofemoral (aOR 0.70; 95 % CI 0.22, 2.22) OA in either knee.

Conclusion

There was no association between gout and radiographic OA, however, people with gout appeared to be more likely to have small joint OA and less likely to have large joint OA.

General practitioners' perspectives on the management of gout: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Many quantitative studies globally have identified suboptimal management of gout.

PURPOSE

To explore management of gout from the perspective of general practitioners (GPs), while identifying the barriers and possible strategies for improvement.

STUDY DESIGN

This descriptive qualitative study used semistructured interviews with 14 purposely selected GPs from four separate general practices in Townsville. The questions focused on management strategies, practicalities in managing gout, barriers and possible strategies to improve management.

RESULTS

Indomethacin was commonly reported to be used in acute gout with progression to allopurinol after the acute stage had subsided. There were differences with the initial allopurinol dose and follow-up periods. GPs reported lack of patient adherence to allopurinol and lifestyle modifications, mainly due to lack of education. Most suggested the need for allied health input and improved patient education.

CONCLUSIONS

Tailor-made plan in terms of education and lifestyle advice could help adherence to gout management.

Genetic variants of SLC17A1 are associated with cholesterol homeostasis and hyperhomocysteinaemia in Japanese men

Hyperuricaemia is an undisputed and highly predictive biomarker for cardiovascular risk. SLC17A1, expressed in the liver and kidneys, harbours potent candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms that decrease uric acid levels. Therefore, we examined SLC17A1 polymorphisms (rs1165196, rs1179086, and rs3757131), which might suppress cardiovascular risk factors and that are involved in liver functioning, via a large-scale pooled analysis of the Japanese general population in a cross-sectional study. Using data from the Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort Study, we identified 1842 participants of both sexes, 35–69-years-old, having the requisite data, and analysed their SLC17A1 genotypes. In men, logistic regression analyses revealed that minor alleles in SLC17A1 polymorphisms (rs1165196 and rs3757131) were associated with a low-/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio >2.0 (rs1165196: odds ratio [OR], 0.703; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.536–0.922; rs3757131: OR, 0.658; 95% CI, 0.500–0.866), and with homocysteine levels of >10.0 nmol/mL (rs1165196: OR, 0.544; 95% CI, 0.374–0.792; rs3757131: OR, 0.509; 95% CI, 0.347–0.746). Therefore, these polymorphisms had dominant negative effects on cholesterol homeostasis and hyperhomocysteinaemia, in men, independent of alcohol consumption, physical activity, or daily energy and nutrition intake. Thus, genetic variants of SLC17A1 are potential biomarkers for altered cholesterol homeostasis and hyperhomocysteinaemia in Japanese men.

Foot problems in people with gout in primary care: baseline findings from a prospective cohort study

Background

Foot problems are common in people with gout yet the prevalence of current foot problems in people with gout and the burden they present to healthcare systems is not known. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the prevalence and associations of hallux valgus, foot pain and disability in people with gout, and to assess the frequency with which foot problems lead to consultation with healthcare professionals.

Methods

Adults registered with 20 general practices who had consulted their GP about gout or been prescribed allopurinol or colchicine in the preceding two years were mailed a questionnaire. Prevalence of hallux valgus, foot pain in the last month, and disabling foot pain in the mailed population were ascertained using validated instruments and estimated by inverse-weighted logistic regression. Associations with socio-demographic, comorbid and gout-specific factors were examined using logistic regression. Participants were asked if they had seen health care professionals for foot problems within the preceding 12 months.

Results

One thousand one hundred eighty-four questionnaires were received (response 66 %). Prevalence of hallux valgus was 36.3 %, foot pain in the last month 22.3 % and disabling foot pain 14.5 %. Hallux valgus associated with age (adjusted OR 1.47 per 10-year increase, 95 % CI 1.26, 1.72) and female gender (2.03; 1.31, 3.15). Foot pain in the last month associated with age (1.24; 1.00, 1.55), obesity (BMI 30.0–34.9 2.67; 1.32, 5.38; BMI ≥ 35.0 3.16; 1.44, 6.93), mild depression (2.04; 1.09, 3.81) and polyarticular gout attacks (1.86; 1.18, 2.95). Disabling foot pain associated with age (1.42; 1.08, 1.87), obesity (BMI 30.0–34.9 3.73; 1.54, 9.09; BMI ≥ 35.0 4.36; 1.64, 11.64), depression (mild 2.63; 1.25, 5.53; moderate 3.53; 1.11, 11.26) and ischaemic heart disease (2.45; 1.32, 4.53). In the previous 12 months, 495 (42.8 %) reported consulting their GP about their feet and 281 (23.7 %) a podiatrist/chiropodist.

Conclusions

Foot problems are common in people with gout and frequently lead to healthcare consultation. Hallux valgus has similar associations to those seen in the general population, whereas foot pain associates with obesity and gout characteristics, and disabling foot pain with obesity and comorbidity. Patient assessment should consider foot problems and offer specific treatment where relevant.

Effect of allopurinol on all-cause mortality in adults with incident gout: propensity score-matched landmark analysis

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between allopurinol use and all-cause mortality for patients with incident gout.

METHODS

We compared all-cause mortality in incident gout patients who received allopurinol for at least 6 months within the exposure window (1 year or 3 years) with those who did not, using the UK Clinical Practice Research Data-link. Landmark analysis was used to account for immortal time bias and propensity score matching was used to control for potential effects of known confounders.

RESULTS

Of 23 332 incident gout patients identified, the propensity score-matched cohorts contained 1016 patients exposed to allopurinol on the date 1 year from diagnosis (landmark date) and 1016 allopurinol non-users. Over a median follow-up period of 10 years after the landmark date, there were 437 allopurinol users and 443 allopurinol non-users who died during follow-up. Allopurinol users and non-users had similar risk for all-cause mortality (hazard ratio 0.99; 95% CI 0.87, 1.12). In the 3-year landmark analysis, 3519 allopurinol users (1280 died) were compared with 3519 non-users (1265 died). The hazard ratio for all-cause mortality was 1.01 (95% CI 0.92, 1.09).

CONCLUSION

This propensity score-matched landmark analysis in a population of incident gout patients in the UK primary care setting found a neutral effect on the risk of all-cause mortality. Our study provides reassurance about the prescription of allopurinol for gout patients early in their disease course to prevent untoward consequences of chronic uncontrolled hyperuricaemia. However, whether higher than the commonly used dose of allopurinol could influence mortality remains to be determined.

Validity of gout diagnosis in Swedish primary and secondary care - a validation study

Background

The diagnostic golden standard for gout is to detect monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in synovial fluid. While some gout classification criteria include this variable, most gout diagnoses are based on clinical features. This discrepancy between clinical practice and classification criteria can hinder gout epidemiological studies. Here, the objective was to validate gout diagnoses (International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10 gout codes) in primary and secondary care relative to five classification criteria (Rome, New York, ARA, Mexico, and Netherlands). The frequency with which MSU crystal identification was used to establish gout diagnosis was also determined.

Methods

In total, 394 patients with ≥1 ICD-10 gout diagnosis between 2009 and 2013 were identified from the medical records of two primary care centers (n = 262) and one secondary care center (n = 132) in Gothenburg, Sweden. Medical records were assessed for all classification criteria.

Results

Primary care patients met criteria cutoffs more frequently when ≥2 gout diagnoses were made. Even then, few primary care patients met the Rome and New York cutoffs (19 % and 8 %, respectively). The ARA, Mexico, and Netherlands cutoffs were met more frequently by primary care patients with ≥2 gout diagnoses (54 %, 81 %, and 80 %, respectively). Mexico and Netherlands cutoffs were met more frequently by the rheumatology department patients (80 % and 71 %, respectively), even when patients with only 1 gout diagnosis were included. Analysis of MSU crystals served to establish gout diagnoses in only 27 % of rheumatology department and 2 % of primary care cases.

Conclusions

If a patient was deemed to have gout at ≥2 primary care center or ≥1 rheumatology-center visits according to an ICD-10 gout code, the positive predictive value of this variable in relation with the Mexico and Netherlands classification criteria was ≥80 % for both primary care and rheumatology care settings in Sweden. MSU crystal identification was rarely used to establish gout diagnosis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12891-015-0614-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Presentation of respiratory symptoms prior to diagnosis in general practice: a case-control study examining free text and morbidity codes

OBJECTIVE

General practitioners can record patients' presenting symptoms by using a code or free text. We compared breathlessness and wheeze symptom codes and free text recorded prior to diagnosis of ischaemic heart disease (IHD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.

DESIGN

A case-control study.

SETTING

11 general practices in North Staffordshire, UK, contributing to the Consultations in Primary Care Archive consultation database.

PARTICIPANTS

Cases with an incident diagnosis of IHD, COPD or asthma in 2010 were matched to controls (four per case) with no such diagnosis. All prior consultations with codes for breathlessness or wheeze symptoms between 2004 and 2010 were identified. Free text of cases and controls were also searched for mention of these symptoms.

RESULTS

592 cases were identified, 194 (33%) with IHD, 182 (31%) with COPD and 216 (37%) with asthma. 148 (25%) cases and 125 (5%) controls had a prior coded consultation for breathlessness. Prevalence of a prior coded symptom of breathlessness or wheeze was 30% in cases, 6% in controls. Median time from first coded symptom to diagnosis among cases was 57 weeks. After adding symptoms recorded in text, prevalence rose to 62% in cases and 25% in controls. Median time from first recorded symptom increased to 144 weeks. The associations between diagnosis of cases and prior symptom codes was strong IHD relative risk ratio (RRR) 3.21 (2.15 to 4.79); COPD RRR 9.56 (6.74 to 13.60); asthma RRR 10.30 (7.17 to 14.90).

CONCLUSIONS

There is an association between IHD, COPD and asthma diagnosis and earlier consultation for respiratory symptoms. Symptoms are often noted in free text by GPs long before they are coded. Free text searching may aid investigation of early presentation of long-term conditions using GP databases, and may be an important direction for future research.

Gout and risk of chronic kidney disease and nephrolithiasis: meta-analysis of observational studies

Introduction

To determine the prevalence of chronic kidney disease and nephrolithiasis in people with gout, and the association between gout and prevalent or incident chronic kidney disease and nephrolithiasis.

Methods

Systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Data sources; MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL databases, hand-searched reference lists, citation history and contact with authors. Eligibility criteria: cohort, case–control or cross-sectional studies which examined the occurrence of chronic kidney disease or nephrolithiasis amongst adults with gout (with or without a non-gout comparator group) in primary care or general population samples. Prevalence and risk estimate meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model.

Results

Seventeen studies were included in the meta-analysis (chronic kidney disease n = 7, nephrolithiasis n = 8, both n = 2). Pooled prevalence estimates of chronic kidney disease stage ≥3 and self-reported lifetime nephrolithiasis in people with gout were 24% (95% confidence interval 19% to 28%) and 14% (95% CI 12% to 17%) respectively. Gout was associated with both chronic kidney disease (pooled adjusted odds ratio 2.41, 95% confidence interval 1.86 to 3.11) and self-reported lifetime nephrolithiasis (1.77, 1.43 to 2.19).

Conclusions

Chronic kidney disease and nephrolithiasis are commonly found amongst patients with gout. Gout is independently associated with both chronic kidney disease and nephrolithiasis. Patients with gout should be actively screened for chronic kidney disease and its consequences.

Epidemiology and management of gout in Taiwan: a nationwide population study

INTRODUCTION

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis worldwide and is the only type of chronic arthritis that potentially can be 'cured'. However, data on gout incidence, prevalence and management, assessed at multiple time points in the same population, are sparse, particularly in Asian populations. The aim of this study was to describe trends in the epidemiology of gout in the general population of Taiwan.

METHODS

The National Health Insurance Research Database was used to identify patients with gout and to estimate the prevalence and incidence of gout for each calendar year from 2005 to 2010. The pattern of gout management was also examined.

RESULTS

Of 23,371,362 beneficiaries in 2010, there were 1,458,569 prevalent and 56,595 incident cases of gout, giving a prevalence of 6.24% (95% confidence interval (CI), 6.23% to 6.25%) and an incidence of 2.74 (95% CI, 2.72 to 2.76) per 1,000 person-years. The annual percentage change (APC) of the standardised prevalence was -0.7% (95% CI, -1.7% to 0.3%; P=0.14), suggesting that the prevalence of gout was essentially the same throughout the study period. However, The APC of incidence was -13.4 (95% CI, -16.1 to -10.6) between 2005 and 2007 and -2.1 (95% CI, -10.4 to 7.1) between 2007 and 2010. Regions with the highest prevalence and incidence were eastern coastal counties and offshore islets, where indigenous people are clustered. Among prevalent gout cases in 2010, only 22.93% (95% CI, 22.87% to 23.00%) were prescribed urate-lowering treatment (ULT), which remained unchanged between 2005 and 2010 at an APC of 0.0 (95% CI, -3.8 to 4.0). Uricosuric agents were more commonly prescribed than xanthine oxidase inhibitors in Taiwan.

CONCLUSIONS

In Taiwan, 1 in 16 people have gout. Whereas the incidence has decreased recently, the prevalence remains unchanged. Management of gout in Taiwan is poor, with only one in five affected people being treated with ULT.

Increased risk of vascular disease associated with gout: a retrospective, matched cohort study in the UK clinical practice research datalink

Objectives

To determine whether gout increases risk of incident coronary heart disease (CHD), cerebrovascular (CVD) and peripheral vascular disease (PVD) in a large cohort of primary care patients with gout, since there have been no such large studies in primary care.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was performed using data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD). Risk of incident CHD, CVD and PVD was compared in 8386 patients with an incident diagnosis of gout, and 39 766 age, sex and registered general practice-matched controls, all aged over 50 years and with no prior vascular history, in the 10 years following incidence of gout, or matched index date (baseline). Multivariable Cox Regression was used to estimate HRs and covariates included sex and baseline measures of age, Body Mass Index, smoking, alcohol consumption, Charlson comorbidity index, history of hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, chronic kidney disease, statin use and aspirin use.

Results

Multivariable analysis showed men were at increased risk of any vascular event (HRs (95% CIs)) HR 1.06 (1.01 to 1.12), any CHD HR 1.08 (1.01 to 1.15) and PVD HR 1.18 (1.01 to 1.38), while women were at increased risk of any vascular event, HR 1.25 (1.15 to 1.35), any CHD HR 1.25 (1.12 to 1.39), and PVD 1.89 (1.50 to 2.38)) but not any CVD.

Conclusions

In this cohort of over 50s with gout, female patients with gout were at greatest risk of incident vascular events, even after adjustment for vascular risk factors, despite a higher prevalence of both gout and vascular disease in men. Further research is required to establish the reason for this sex difference.

Optimizing current treatment of gout

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis worldwide. Although effective treatments exist to eliminate sodium urate crystals and to 'cure' the disease, the management of gout is often suboptimal. This article reviews available treatments, recommended best practice and barriers to effective care, and how these barriers might be overcome. To optimize the management of gout, health professionals need to know not only how to treat acute attacks but also how to up-titrate urate-lowering therapy against a specific target level of serum uric acid that is below the saturation point for crystal formation. Current perspectives are changing towards much earlier use of urate-lowering therapy, even at the time of first diagnosis of gout. Holistic assessment and patient education are essential to address patient-specific risk factors and ensuring adherence to individualized therapy. Shared decision-making between a fully informed patient and practitioner greatly increases the likelihood of curing gout.

Rising burden of gout in the UK but continuing suboptimal management: a nationwide population study

OBJECTIVES

To describe trends in the epidemiology of gout and patterns of urate-lowering treatment (ULT) in the UK general population from 1997 to 2012.

METHODS

We used the Clinical Practice Research Datalink to estimate the prevalence and incidence of gout for each calendar year from 1997 to 2012. We also investigated the pattern of gout management for both prevalent and incident gout patients.

RESULTS

In 2012, the prevalence of gout was 2.49% (95% CI 2.48% to 2.51%) and the incidence was 1.77 (95% CI 1.73 to 1.81) per 1000 person-years. Prevalence and incidence both were significantly higher in 2012 than in 1997, with a 63.9% increase in prevalence and 29.6% increase in incidence over this period. Regions with highest prevalence and incidence were the North East and Wales. Among prevalent gout patients in 2012, only 48.48% (95% CI 48.08% to 48.89%) were being consulted specifically for gout or treated with ULT and of these 37.63% (95% CI 37.28% to 38.99%) received ULT. In addition, only 18.6% (95% CI 17.6% to 19.6%) of incident gout patients received ULT within 6 months and 27.3% (95% CI 26.1% to 28.5%) within 12 months of diagnosis. The management of prevalent and incident gout patients remained essentially the same during the study period, although the percentage of adherent patients improved from 28.28% (95% CI 27.33% to 29.26%) in 1997 to 39.66% (95% CI 39.11% to 40.22%) in 2012.

CONCLUSIONS

In recent years, both the prevalence and incidence of gout have increased significantly in the UK. Suboptimal use of ULT has not changed between 1997 and 2012. Patient adherence has improved during the study period, but it remains poor.

Improvement in the management of gout is vital and overdue: an audit from a UK primary care medical practice

Background

Gout is estimated to affect 1.4% of adults in the UK. Appropriate and timely management is essential to reduce the risk of further flares, complications, and to reduce cardiovascular disease risk. The British Society for Rheumatology and British Health Professionals in Rheumatology (BSR/BHPR) and the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) have published guidance regarding the management of gout, thereby providing standards against which performance can be measured. This audit was designed to assess the extent to which patients diagnosed with gout in one primary care medical practice in North Staffordshire, UK, are managed in accordance with current best practice guidelines, and to identify strategies for improvement where appropriate.

Methods

Audit criteria were derived from the EULAR and BSR/BHPR guidelines; standards were set arbitrarily, but with consideration of patient comorbidity and other factors which may influence concordance. An electronic search of the practice records was performed to identify adults with a diagnosis of gout. Medical record review with a descriptive analysis was undertaken to assess the extent to which medical management adhered to the predefined standards.

Results

Of the total ≥18 year-old practice population (n = 8686), 305 (3%) patient records included a diagnosis of gout. Of these, 74% (n = 226) had an electronic record of serum uric acid (SUA), and 11% (n = 34) and 53% (n = 162) a measure of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) ever and serum glucose since diagnosis respectively. 34% (n = 105) of patients had ever taken urate-lowering therapy with 25% (n = 77) currently prescribed this at the time of data extraction. Dose adjustment and monitoring of treatment according to SUA was found to be inadequate. Provision of lifestyle advice and consideration of comorbidities was also lacking.

Conclusions

The primary care management of gout in this practice was not concordant with national and international guidance, a finding consistent with previous studies. This demonstrates that the provision of guidelines alone is not sufficient to improve the quality of gout management and we identify possible strategies to increase guideline adherence.

The association of gout with socioeconomic status in primary care: a cross-sectional observational study

Objective. Little is known about the association between gout and socioeconomic status (SES). Inequalities in rheumatology provision associated with SES may need to be addressed by health care planners. The aim of this study is to investigate the association of gout and SES in the community at both the individual and area levels.

Methods. Questionnaires were sent to all patients older than age 50 years who were registered with eight general practices in North Staffordshire. Data on individual SES were collected by questionnaire while area SES was measured using the Index of Multiple Deprivation derived from respondents’ postcodes. Responders reported their occupation, education and the adequacy of their income; their medical records were searched for consultations for gout.

Results. Of the 348 consultations for gout in this period, at the individual level there was a significant association between gout and income. An association of gout with education was seen only in the unadjusted analyses. No association was found between gout and area level deprivation.

Conclusion. Gout is associated with some aspects of individual level but not area level deprivation. More extensive musculoskeletal services may need to be provided in low income areas, although further research is needed.

The association of gout with sleep disorders: a cross-sectional study in primary care

BACKGROUND

Both gout and sleep apnoea are associated with the metabolic syndrome. Hyperuricaemia is also prevalent in sleep apnoea syndrome. The objective of this study was to examine the association between gout and sleep apnoea and other sleep disorders.

METHODS

Data were taken from a validated database of general practice records from nine practices in the UK between 2001 and 2008. People consulting for gout were identified via Read codes and each matched with four controls for age, gender, practice and year of gout consultation. Sleep problems and confounding comorbidities were also identified via Read codes. Medications were identified through a linked database of prescription records. The association between gout and sleep disorders was assessed using a logistic regression model, adjusting for ischaemic heart disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and diuretic use.

RESULTS

1689 individuals with gout were identified and each successfully matched to four controls. Amongst those with gout, the prevalence of any sleep problem was 4.9%, sleep problems other than sleep apnoea 4.2%, and sleep apnoea 0.7%, compared to 3.5%, 3.2% and 0.3% respectively in controls. Gout was associated with any sleep problem (odds ratio (OR) 1.44; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11, 1.87), sleep problems other than sleep apnoea (OR 1.36; 95% CI 1.03, 1.80), and sleep apnoea (OR 2.10; 95% CI 1.01, 4.39). On multivariable analysis, gout remained significantly associated with any sleep problem (OR 1.39; 95% CI 1.06, 1.81) and sleep problems other than sleep apnoea (OR 1.37; 95% CI 1.03, 1.82), however the association with sleep apnoea was attenuated (OR 1.48, 95% CI 0.70, 3.14).

CONCLUSIONS

Gout and sleep problems appear to be associated and clinicians should be aware of the co-existence of these two conditions. Larger prospective epidemiological studies are required to explore causality.

2011 recommendations for the diagnosis and management of gout and hyperuricemia

Gout is a major health problem in the United States; it affects 8.3 million people, which is approximately 4% of the adult population. Gout is most often diagnosed and managed in primary care practices; thus, primary care physicians have a significant opportunity to improve patient outcomes. Following publication of the 2006 European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) gout guidelines, significant new evidence has accumulated, and new treatments for patients with gout have become available. It is the objective of these 2011 recommendations to update the 2006 EULAR guidelines, paying special attention to the needs of primary care physicians. The revised 2011 recommendations are based on the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach as an evidence-based strategy for rating quality of evidence and grading the strength of recommendation formulated for use in clinical practice. A total of 26 key recommendations, 10 for diagnosis and 16 for management, of patients with gout were evaluated, resulting in important updates for patient care. The presence of monosodium urate crystals and/or tophus and response to colchicine have the highest clinical diagnostic value. The key aspect of effective management of an acute gout attack is initiation of treatment within hours of symptom onset. Low-dose colchicine is better tolerated and is as effective as a high dose. When urate-lowering therapy (ULT) is indicated, the xanthine oxidase inhibitors allopurinol and febuxostat are the options of choice. Febuxostat can be prescribed at unchanged doses for patients with mild-to-moderate renal or hepatic impairment. The target of ULT should be a serum uric acid level that is ≤ 6 mg/dL. For patients with refractory and tophaceous gout, intravenous pegloticase is a new treatment option. This article is a summary of the 2011 clinical guidelines published in Postgraduate Medicine. This article provides a streamlined, accessible overview intended for quick review by primary care physicians, with the full guidelines being a resource for those seeking additional background information and expanded discussion.

Gout treatment and comorbidities: a retrospective cohort study in a large US managed care population

Background

Gout prevalence increased in recent years to become one of the most common causes of inflammatory arthritis in most industrialised countries. Comorbidities may affect the disease severity and treatment patterns. We describe the main characteristics of gout patients, gout-related treatment patterns and prevalent comorbidities in a managed care population.

Methods

From the large US PharMetrics Patient-Centric Database, patients aged 20-89 with at least 2 claims for a diagnosis of gout (ICD9 274.xx) and related prescriptions between January 1, 1996 and December 31, 2008 were included. Gout flares were ascertained during follow-up. Sex-specific multivariable Poisson regression models were used to assess factors associated with number of flares.

Results

177,637 gout patients were included (mean age 55.2 years; men 75.6%). Overall, more than half (58.1%) had any of the considered comorbidities; hypertension (36.1%), dyslipidemia (27.0%) and diabetes (15.1%) being the most common. Nonselective NSAIDs were the most commonly dispensed (in 38.7% of patients). Notably, 39% of patients did not receive any prescription medication for gout. Patients with comorbidities were significantly more likely to receive anti-gout prescriptions. During an acute episode the prescription of NSAIDs and colchicine increased; and 29.9% of patients received allopurinol. The risk of flares was associated with cardiometabolic comorbidities and older age in women (highest at age 60-69), while in men it decreased by age. Women with these conditions were 60% more likely to have flares (incidence rate ratio, IRR 1.60;1.48-1.74), while men were 10% (IRR 1.10; 1.06-1.13) more likely.

Conclusions

Comorbidities affected gout treatment patterns and the occurrence and frequency of acute attacks. Cardiometabolic comorbidities, common in this patients' population, were associated with an increased risk of flares.

[Treatment of gout]

In France, colchicine remains the standard treatment for the acute flare of gout. The lowest dose currently used decreases digestive toxicity. Doses of colchicine should be adapted to renal function and age, and possible drug interactions should be considered. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are an alternative to colchicine, but their use is frequently limited by comorbidity. When these treatments are contraindicated, corticosteroid injections can be performed after excluding septic arthritis. Systemic corticosteroids could be used in severe polyarticular flares. Anti-IL1 should provide a therapeutic alternative for severe cortico dependant gout with tophus. To prevent acute flares and reduce tophus volume, uric acid serum level should be reduced and maintained below 60mg/L (360μmol/L). To achieve this objective, it is often necessary to increase the daily dose of allopurinol above 300mgs, but the need to adapt the dose to renal function is a frequent cause of therapeutic failure. In the absence of renal stone or renal colic and hyperuraturia, uricosuric drugs are the second-line treatment. Probenecid is effective when creatinine clearance is superior to 50mL/min Benzbromarone, which was withdrawn due to hepatotoxicity, can be obtained on an individualized patient basis in the case of failure of allopurinol and probenecid. Febuxostat, which was recently approved, is a therapeutic alternative. Diuretics should be discontinued if possible. Use of fenofibrate should be discussed in the presence of dyslipidemia and losartan in patient with high blood pressure. Uricolytic drugs (pegloticase), which are currently being investigated, may be useful for the treatment of serious gout with tophus, especially in the presence of renal failure. Education of patient, identification and correction of cardiovascular risk factors should not be forgotten.