Reduced frontal glutamate + glutamine and N-acetylaspartate levels in patients with chronic schizophrenia but not in those at clinical high risk for psychosis or with first-episode schizophrenia

Faster bi-stable visual switching in psychosis

Bi-stable stimuli evoke two distinct perceptual interpretations that alternate and compete for dominance. Bi-stable perception is thought to be driven at least in part by mutual suppression between distinct neural populations that represent each percept. Abnormal visual perception has been observed among people with psychotic psychopathology (PwPP), and there is evidence to suggest that these visual deficits may depend on impaired neural suppression in the visual cortex. However, it is not yet clear whether bi-stable visual perception is abnormal among PwPP. Here, we examined bi-stable perception in a visual structure-from-motion task using a rotating cylinder illusion in a group of 65 PwPP, 44 first-degree biological relatives, and 43 healthy controls. Data from a 'real switch' task, in which physical depth cues signaled real switches in rotation direction were used to exclude individuals who did not show adequate task performance. In addition, we measured concentrations of neurochemicals, including glutamate, glutamine, and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), involved in excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. These neurochemicals were measured non-invasively in the visual cortex using 7 tesla MR spectroscopy. We found that PwPP and their relatives showed faster bi-stable switch rates than healthy controls. Faster switch rates also correlated with significantly higher psychiatric symptom levels, specifically disorganization, across all participants. However, we did not observe any significant relationships across individuals between neurochemical concentrations and SFM switch rates. Our results are consistent with a reduction in suppressive neural processes during structure-from-motion perception in PwPP, and suggest that genetic liability for psychosis is associated with disrupted bi-stable perception.

Identifying plasma metabolic characteristics of major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia in adolescents

Major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), and schizophrenia (SCZ) are classified as major mental disorders and together account for the second-highest global disease burden, and half of these patients experience symptom onset in adolescence. Several studies have reported both similar and unique features regarding the risk factors and clinical symptoms of these three disorders. However, it is still unclear whether these disorders have similar or unique metabolic characteristics in adolescents. We conducted a metabolomics analysis of plasma samples from adolescent healthy controls (HCs) and patients with MDD, BD, and SCZ. We identified differentially expressed metabolites between patients and HCs. Based on the differentially expressed metabolites, correlation analysis, metabolic pathway analysis, and potential diagnostic biomarker identification were conducted for disorders and HCs. Our results showed significant changes in plasma metabolism between patients with these mental disorders and HCs; the most distinct changes were observed in SCZ patients. Moreover, the metabolic differences in BD patients shared features with those in both MDD and SCZ, although the BD metabolic profile was closer to that of MDD than to SCZ. Additionally, we identified the metabolites responsible for the similar and unique metabolic characteristics in multiple metabolic pathways. The similar significant differences among the three disorders were found in fatty acid, steroid-hormone, purine, nicotinate, glutamate, tryptophan, arginine, and proline metabolism. Interestingly, we found unique characteristics of significantly altered glycolysis, glycerophospholipid, and sphingolipid metabolism in SCZ; lysine, cysteine, and methionine metabolism in MDD and BD; and phenylalanine, tyrosine, and aspartate metabolism in SCZ and BD. Finally, we identified five panels of potential diagnostic biomarkers for MDD-HC, BD-HC, SCZ-HC, MDD-SCZ, and BD-SCZ comparisons. Our findings suggest that metabolic characteristics in plasma vary across psychiatric disorders and that critical metabolites provide new clues regarding molecular mechanisms in these three psychiatric disorders.

Meta-analytic evidence of elevated choline, reduced N-acetylaspartate, and normal creatine in schizophrenia and their moderation by measurement quality, echo time, and medication status

BACKGROUND

Brain metabolite abnormalities measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) provide insight into pathological processes in schizophrenia. Prior meta-analyses have not yet answered important questions about the influence of clinical and technical factors on neurometabolite abnormalities and brain region differences. To address these gaps, we performed an updated meta-analysis of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), choline, and creatine levels in patients with schizophrenia and assessed the moderating effects of medication status, echo time, measurement quality, and other factors.

METHODS

We searched citations from three earlier meta-analyses and the PubMed database after the most recent meta-analysis to identify studies for screening. In total, 113 publications reporting 366 regional metabolite datasets met our inclusion criteria and reported findings in medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, frontal white matter, hippocampus, thalamus, and basal ganglia from a total of 4445 patient and 3944 control observations.

RESULTS

Patients with schizophrenia had reduced NAA in five of the six brain regions, with a statistically significant sparing of the basal ganglia. Patients had elevated choline in the basal ganglia and both prefrontal cortical regions. Patient creatine levels were normal in all six regions. In some regions, the NAA and choline differences were greater in studies enrolling predominantly medicated patients compared to studies enrolling predominantly unmedicated patients. Patient NAA levels were more reduced in hippocampus and frontal white matter in studies using longer echo times than those using shorter echo times. MPFC choline and NAA abnormalities were greater in studies reporting better metabolite measurement quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Choline is elevated in the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortical regions, suggesting regionally increased membrane turnover or glial activation in schizophrenia. The basal ganglia are significantly spared from the well-established widespread reduction of NAA in schizophrenia suggesting a regional difference in disease-associated factors affecting NAA. The echo time findings agree with prior reports and suggest microstructural changes cause faster NAA T2 relaxation in hippocampus and frontal white matter in schizophrenia. Separating the effects of medication status and illness chronicity on NAA and choline abnormalities will require further patient-level studies. Metabolite measurement quality was shown to be a critical factor in MRS studies of schizophrenia.

Faster bi-stable visual switching in psychosis

Bi-stable stimuli evoke two distinct perceptual interpretations that alternate and compete for dominance. Bi-stable perception is thought to be driven at least in part by mutual suppression between distinct neural populations that represent each percept. Abnormal visual perception is observed among people with psychotic psychopathology (PwPP), and there is evidence to suggest that these visual deficits may depend on impaired neural suppression in visual cortex. However, it is not yet clear whether bi-stable visual perception is abnormal among PwPP. Here, we examined bi-stable perception in a visual structure-from-motion task using a rotating cylinder illusion in a group of 65 PwPP, 44 first-degree biological relatives, and 43 healthy controls. Data from a 'real switch' task, in which physical depth cues signaled real switches in rotation direction were used to exclude individuals who did not show adequate task performance. In addition, we measured concentrations of neurochemicals, including glutamate, glutamine, and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), involved in excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. These neurochemicals were measured non-invasively in visual cortex using 7 tesla MR spectroscopy. We found that PwPP and their relatives showed faster bi-stable switch rates than healthy controls. Faster switch rates also correlated with significantly higher psychiatric symptom levels across all participants. However, we did not observe any significant relationships across individuals between neurochemical concentrations and SFM switch rates. Our results are consistent with a reduction in suppressive neural processes during structure-from-motion perception in PwPP, and suggest that genetic liability for psychosis is associated with disrupted bi-stable perception.

Variability and magnitude of brain glutamate levels in schizophrenia: a meta and mega-analysis

Glutamatergic dysfunction is implicated in schizophrenia pathoaetiology, but this may vary in extent between patients. It is unclear whether inter-individual variability in glutamate is greater in schizophrenia than the general population. We conducted meta-analyses to assess (1) variability of glutamate measures in patients relative to controls (log coefficient of variation ratio: CVR); (2) standardised mean differences (SMD) using Hedges g; (3) modal distribution of individual-level glutamate data (Hartigan's unimodality dip test). MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched from inception to September 2022 for proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) studies reporting glutamate, glutamine or Glx in schizophrenia. 123 studies reporting on 8256 patients and 7532 controls were included. Compared with controls, patients demonstrated greater variability in glutamatergic metabolites in the medial frontal cortex (MFC, glutamate: CVR = 0.15, p < 0.001; glutamine: CVR = 0.15, p = 0.003; Glx: CVR = 0.11, p = 0.002), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (glutamine: CVR = 0.14, p = 0.05; Glx: CVR = 0.25, p < 0.001) and thalamus (glutamate: CVR = 0.16, p = 0.008; Glx: CVR = 0.19, p = 0.008). Studies in younger, more symptomatic patients were associated with greater variability in the basal ganglia (BG glutamate with age: z = -0.03, p = 0.003, symptoms: z = 0.007, p = 0.02) and temporal lobe (glutamate with age: z = -0.03, p = 0.02), while studies with older, more symptomatic patients associated with greater variability in MFC (glutamate with age: z = 0.01, p = 0.02, glutamine with symptoms: z = 0.01, p = 0.02). For individual patient data, most studies showed a unimodal distribution of glutamatergic metabolites. Meta-analysis of mean differences found lower MFC glutamate (g = -0.15, p = 0.03), higher thalamic glutamine (g = 0.53, p < 0.001) and higher BG Glx in patients relative to controls (g = 0.28, p < 0.001). Proportion of males was negatively associated with MFC glutamate (z = -0.02, p < 0.001) and frontal white matter Glx (z = -0.03, p = 0.02) in patients relative to controls. Patient PANSS total score was positively associated with glutamate SMD in BG (z = 0.01, p = 0.01) and temporal lobe (z = 0.05, p = 0.008). Further research into the mechanisms underlying greater glutamatergic metabolite variability in schizophrenia and their clinical consequences may inform the identification of patient subgroups for future treatment strategies.

N-Acetylaspartate and Choline Metabolites in Cortical and Subcortical Regions in Clinical High Risk Relative to Healthy Control Subjects: An Exploratory 7T MRSI Study

N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and choline (Cho) are two brain metabolites implicated in several key neuronal functions. Abnormalities in these metabolites have been reported in both early course and chronic patients with schizophrenia (SCZ). It is, however, unclear whether NAA and Cho's alterations occur even before the onset of the disorder. Clinical high risk (CHR) individuals are a population uniquely enriched for psychosis and SCZ. In this exploratory study, we utilized 7-Tesla magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) to examine differences in total NAA (tNAA; NAA + N-acetylaspartylglutamate [NAAG]) and major choline-containing compounds, including glycerophosphorylcholine and phosphorylcholine [tCho], over the creatine (Cre) levels between 26 CHR and 32 healthy control (HC) subjects in the subcortical and cortical regions. While no tCho/Cre differences were found between groups in any of the regions of interest (ROIs), we found that CHR had significantly reduced tNAA/Cre in the right dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) compared to HC, and that the right DLPFC tNAA/Cre reduction in CHR was negatively associated with their positive symptoms scores. No tNAA/Cre differences were found between CHR and HC in other ROIs. In conclusion, reduced tNAA/Cre in CHR vs. HC may represent a putative molecular biomarker for risk of psychosis and SCZ that is associated with symptom severity.

Potential diagnostic biomarkers for schizophrenia

Schizophrenia (SCH) is a complex and severe mental disorder with high prevalence, disability, mortality and carries a heavy disease burden, the lifetime prevalence of SCH is around 0.7%-1.0%, which has a profound impact on the individual and society. In the clinical practice of SCH, key problems such as subjective diagnosis, experiential treatment, and poor overall prognosis are still challenging. In recent years, some exciting discoveries have been made in the research on objective biomarkers of SCH, mainly focusing on genetic susceptibility genes, metabolic indicators, immune indices, brain imaging, electrophysiological characteristics. This review aims to summarize the biomarkers that may be used for the prediction and diagnosis of SCH.

Higher glutamatergic activity in the medial prefrontal cortex in chronic ketamine users

BACKGROUND

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays an important role in depression and addiction. Previous studies have shown alterations in glutamatergic activity in the mPFC following the administration of ketamine in patients with depression and healthy controls. However, it remains unclear whether chronic, nonmedical use of ketamine affects metabolites in the mPFC.

METHODS

Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we measured metabolites (glutamate and glutamine [Glx]; phosphocreatine and creatine [PCr+Cr]; myo-inositol; N-acetyl-aspartate; and glycerophosphocholine and phosphocholine [GPC+PC]) in the mPFC of chronic ketamine users (n = 20) and healthy controls (n = 43). Among ketamine users, 60% consumed ketamine once per day or more, 10% consumed it every 2 days and 30% consumed it every 3 or more days. Using analysis of covariance, we evaluated between-group differences in the ratios of Glx:PCr+Cr, myo-inositol:PCr+Cr, N-acetyl-aspartate:PCr+Cr and GPC+PC:PCr+Cr.

RESULTS

Chronic ketamine users showed significantly higher Glx:PCr+Cr ratios than healthy controls (median 1.05 v. 0.95, p = 0.008). We found no significant differences in myoinositol:PCr+Cr, N-acetyl-aspartate:PCr+Cr or GPC+PC:PCr+Cr ratios between the 2 groups. We found a positive relationship between N-acetyl-aspartate:PCr+Cr and Glx:PCr+Cr ratios in the healthy control group (R = 0.345, p = 0.023), but the ketamine use group failed to show such an association (ρ = 0.197, p = 0.40).

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional design of this study did not permit causal inferences related to higher Glx:PCr+Cr ratios and chronic ketamine use.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first evidence that chronic ketamine users have higher glutamatergic activity in the mPFC than healthy controls; this finding may provide new insights relevant to the treatment of depression with ketamine.

Glutamate and N-Acetylaspartate Alterations Observed in Early Phase Psychosis: A Systematic Review of Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Studies

Glutamate and N-acetylaspartate have been investigated in the neuropathology of chronic schizophrenia, with fewer studies focusing on early phase psychosis. Additionally, there has been little review and synthesis of the literature focused on multiple brain regions. This systematic review aims to provide a clear report of the current state of research on glutamate and n-acetylaspartate concentrations in early phase psychosis (defined as the first five years following psychosis onset) in multiple brain regions. Existing literature was searched systematically to compile reports of glutamate/glutamate+glutamine (Glx) and n-acetylaspartate absolute levels and ratios in both male and female individuals with early phase psychosis. Reports on glutamate/Glx concentrations in the medial prefrontal region and thalamus were varied, but the majority of reports suggested no alterations in EPP. No studies reported glutamate alterations in the hippocampus or cerebellum. There was no evidence for n-acetylaspartate alterations in the caudate, basal ganglia, and medial prefrontal cortex, and minimal evidence for NAA reductions in the thalamus, anterior cingulate cortex, and hippocampus. Future research should focus on the regions that are less commonly reported, and should aim to explore possible confounds, such as medication status and substance use.

Transdiagnostic role of glutamate and white matter damage in neuropsychiatric disorders: A Systematic Review

Neuropsychiatric disorders including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder (BD), and schizophrenia (SZ) have been considered distinct categories of diseases despite their overlapping characteristics and symptomatology. We aimed to provide an in-depth review elucidating the role of glutamate/Glx and white matter (WM) abnormalities in these disorders from a transdiagnostic perspective. The PubMed online database was searched for studies published between 2010 and 2021. After careful screening, 401 studies were included. The findings point to decreased levels of glutamate in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex in both SZ and BD, whereas Glx is elevated in the Hippocampus in SZ and MDD. With regard to WM abnormalities, the Corpus Callosum and superior Longitudinal Fascicle were the most consistently identified brain regions showing decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) across all the reviewed disorders, except GAD. Additionally, the Uncinate Fasciculus displayed decreased FA in all disorders, except OCD. Decreased FA was also found in the inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus, inferior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus, Thalamic Radiation, and Corona Radiata in SZ, BD, and MDD. Decreased FA in the Fornix and Corticospinal Tract were found in BD and SZ patients. The Cingulum and Anterior Limb of Internal Capsule exhibited decreased FA in MDD and SZ patients. The results suggest a gradual increase in severity from GAD to SZ defined by the number of brain regions with WM abnormality which may be partially caused by abnormal glutamate levels. WM damage could thus be considered a potential marker of some of the main neuropsychiatric disorders.

Glutamatergic and GABAergic metabolite levels in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies

BACKGROUND

The glutamate (Glu) and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) hypotheses of schizophrenia were proposed in the 1980s. However, current findings on those metabolite levels in schizophrenia have been inconsistent, and the relationship between their abnormalities and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia remains unclear. To summarize the nature of the alterations of glutamatergic and GABAergic systems in schizophrenia, we conducted meta-analyses of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) studies examining these metabolite levels.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted using Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, and PubMed. Original studies that compared four metabolite levels (Glu, glutamine [Gln], Glx [Glu+Gln], and GABA), as measured by ¹H-MRS, between individuals at high risk for psychosis, patients with first-episode psychosis, or patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls (HC) were included. A random-effects model was used to calculate the effect sizes for group differences in these metabolite levels of 18 regions of interest between the whole group or schizophrenia group and HC. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression were performed based on the status of antipsychotic treatment, illness stage, treatment resistance, and magnetic field strength.

RESULTS

One-hundred-thirty-four studies met the eligibility criteria, totaling 7993 participants with SZ-spectrum disorders and 8744 HC. 14 out of 18 ROIs had enough numbers of studies to examine the group difference in the metabolite levels. In the whole group, Glx levels in the basal ganglia (g = 0.32; 95% CIs: 0.18-0.45) were elevated. Subgroup analyses showed elevated Glx levels in the hippocampus (g = 0.47; 95% CIs: 0.21-0.73) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (g = 0.25; 95% CIs: 0.05-0.44) in unmedicated patients than HC. GABA levels in the MCC were decreased in the first-episode psychosis group compared with HC (g = -0.40; 95% CIs: -0.62 to -0.17). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) group had elevated Glx and Glu levels in the MCC (Glx: g = 0.7; 95% CIs: 0.38-1.01; Glu: g = 0.63; 95% CIs: 0.31-0.94) while MCC Glu levels were decreased in the patient group except TRS (g = -0.17; 95% CIs: -0.33 to -0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Increased glutamatergic metabolite levels and reduced GABA levels indicate that the disruption of excitatory/inhibitory balance may be related to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

Frontal neural metabolite changes in schizophrenia and their association with cognitive control: A systematic review

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GABA levels are decreased in medial frontal brain areas of schizophrenia patients.

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Glutamate levels are lower in medial and lateral frontal areas in chronic patients.

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Working memory performance is associated with frontal GABA and Glu.

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Prediction errors are associated Glu and medial frontal GABA.

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Processing speed correlates with medial frontal GABA levels.

A large proportion of patients with schizophrenia exhibit deficits in cognitive control functions including working memory, processing speed and inhibitory control, which have been associated with frontal brain areas. In this systematic review, we investigated differences between chronic schizophrenia patients, first-episode (FEP) patients and healthy control groups in the neurometabolite levels of GABA, glutamate, glutamine and Glx in frontal brain areas. Additionally, we reviewed correlations between cognitive control functions or negative symptoms and these neurometabolite levels. Several studies reported decreased GABA or glutamate concentrations in frontal lobe areas, particularly in chronic schizophrenia patients, while the results were mixed for FEP patients. Working memory performance and prediction errors have been associated with frontal GABA and glutamate levels, and processing speed with frontomedial GABA levels in chronic patients. The relationship between metabolites and negative symptom severity was somewhat inconsistent. Future studies should take the participants' age, medication status or responsivity, disease stage and precise anatomical location of the voxel into account when comparing neurometabolite levels between schizophrenia patients and healthy controls.

Abnormal neurobiochemical metabolites in the first episode schizophrenia and clinical highrisk population

OBJECTIVES

To explore the metabolite characteristics in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) in the first-episode schizophrenia (FES) and clinical high-risk (CHR) people.

METHODS

A total of 46 patients with the first-episode schizophrenia (FES), 49 people with clinical high risk (CHR), 61 people with genetic high risk (GHR), and 58 healthy controls (HC) were enrolled. The levels of N-acetylaspartylglutamate+N-acetylaspartate (tNAA), choline-containing compounds (Cho) and myo-inositol (MI), glutamate+glutamine (Glx) in medial prefrontal cortex were measured by single-voxel 1H-MRS. The clinical symptoms were evaluated in the FES group and the CHR group. Continuous performance test (CPT) were carried out to assess the visual and auditory accuracy and reaction time in the 4 groups.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in Glx, tNAA, and MI concentrations among 4 groups (all P<0.05). Compared with the HC group, the FES group showed lower level of MI and Glx. The levels of Glx and tNAA in the CHR group were significantly lower than those in the GHR group (all P<0.05). The visual and auditory accuracies of CPT in the FES group were significantly lower than those in the HC group (P<0.05). In the FES group, Glx was negatively correlated with the reaction time of vision (r=-0.41, P=0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The decreased levels of MI and Glx in the FES patients suggest that there may be glial functional damage and glutamatergic transmitter dysfunction in the early stage of the disease. The compensatory increase of metabolites may be a protective factor for schizophrenia in the genetic individuals.

Dopamine and glutamate in individuals at high risk for psychosis: a meta-analysis of in vivo imaging findings and their variability compared to controls

Dopaminergic and glutamatergic dysfunction is believed to play a central role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, it is unclear if abnormalities predate the onset of schizophrenia in individuals at high clinical or genetic risk for the disorder. We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed studies that have used neuroimaging to investigate dopamine and glutamate function in individuals at increased clinical or genetic risk for psychosis. EMBASE, PsycINFO and Medline were searched form January 1, 1960 to November 26, 2020. Inclusion criteria were molecular imaging measures of striatal presynaptic dopaminergic function, striatal dopamine receptor availability, or glutamate function. Separate meta-analyses were conducted for genetic high-risk and clinical high-risk individuals. We calculated standardized mean differences between high-risk individuals and controls, and investigated whether the variability of these measures differed between the two groups. Forty-eight eligible studies were identified, including 1,288 high-risk individuals and 1,187 controls. Genetic high-risk individuals showed evidence of increased thalamic glutamate + glutamine (Glx) concentrations (Hedges' g=0.36, 95% CI: 0.12-0.61, p=0.003). There were no significant differences between high-risk individuals and controls in striatal presynaptic dopaminergic function, striatal D2/D3 receptor availability, prefrontal cortex glutamate or Glx, hippocampal glutamate or Glx, or basal ganglia Glx. In the meta-analysis of variability, genetic high-risk individuals showed reduced variability of striatal D2/D3 receptor availability compared to controls (log coefficient of variation ratio, CVR=-0.24, 95% CI: -0.46 to -0.02, p=0.03). Meta-regressions of publication year against effect size demonstrated that the magnitude of differences between clinical high-risk individuals and controls in presynaptic dopaminergic function has decreased over time (estimate=-0.06, 95% CI: -0.11 to -0.007, p=0.025). Thus, other than thalamic glutamate concentrations, no neurochemical measures were significantly different between individuals at risk for psychosis and controls. There was also no evidence of increased variability of dopamine or glutamate measures in high-risk individuals compared to controls. Significant heterogeneity, however, exists between studies, which does not allow to rule out the existence of clinically meaningful differences.

Volumetric differences in gray and white matter of cerebellar Crus I/II across the different clinical stages of schizophrenia

AIM

Schizophrenia is considered to be a disorder of progressive structural brain abnormalities. Previous studies have indicated that the cerebellar Crus I/II plays a critical role in schizophrenia. We aimed to investigate how specific morphological features in the Crus I/II at different critical stages of the schizophrenia spectrum contribute to the disease.

METHODS

The study involved 73 participants on the schizophrenia spectrum (28 with ultra-high risk for psychosis [UHR], 17 with first-episode schizophrenia [FES], and 28 with chronic schizophrenia) and 79 healthy controls. We undertook a detailed investigation into differences in Crus I/II volume using a semiautomated segmentation method optimized for the cerebellum. We analyzed the effects of group and sex, as well as their interaction, on Crus I/II volume in gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM).

RESULTS

Significant group × sex interactions were found in WM volumes of the bilateral Crus I/II; the males with UHR demonstrated significantly larger WM volumes compared with the other male groups, whereas no significant group differences were found in the female groups. Additionally, WM and GM volumes of the Crus I/II had positive associations with symptom severity in the UHR group, whereas, in contrast, GM volumes in the FES group were negatively associated with symptom severity.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings provide evidence that the morphology of Crus I/II is involved in schizophrenia in a sex- and disease stage-dependent manner. Additionally, alterations of WM volumes of Crus I/II may have potential as a biological marker of early detection and treatment for individuals with UHR.

Association of Age, Antipsychotic Medication, and Symptom Severity in Schizophrenia With Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Brain Glutamate Level: A Mega-analysis of Individual Participant-Level Data

Importance

Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) studies indicate that altered brain glutamatergic function may be associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and the response to antipsychotic treatment. However, the association of altered glutamatergic function with clinical and demographic factors is unclear.

Objective

To assess the associations of age, symptom severity, level of functioning, and antipsychotic treatment with brain glutamatergic metabolites.

Data Sources

The MEDLINE database was searched to identify journal articles published between January 1, 1980, and June 3, 2020, using the following search terms: MRS or magnetic resonance spectroscopy and (1) schizophrenia or (2) psychosis or (3) UHR or (4) ARMS or (5) ultra-high risk or (6) clinical high risk or (7) genetic high risk or (8) prodrome* or (9) schizoaffective. Authors of 114 1H-MRS studies measuring glutamate (Glu) levels in patients with schizophrenia were contacted between January 2014 and June 2020 and asked to provide individual participant data.

Study Selection

In total, 45 1H-MRS studies contributed data.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Associations of Glu, Glu plus glutamine (Glx), or total creatine plus phosphocreatine levels with age, antipsychotic medication dose, symptom severity, and functioning were assessed using linear mixed models, with study as a random factor.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Glu, Glx, and Cr values in the medial frontal cortex (MFC) and medial temporal lobe (MTL).

Results

In total, 42 studies were included, with data for 1251 patients with schizophrenia (mean [SD] age, 30.3 [10.4] years) and 1197 healthy volunteers (mean [SD] age, 27.5 [8.8] years). The MFC Glu (F1,1211.9 = 4.311, P = .04) and Glx (F1,1079.2 = 5.287, P = .02) levels were lower in patients than in healthy volunteers, and although creatine levels appeared lower in patients, the difference was not significant (F1,1395.9 = 3.622, P = .06). In both patients and volunteers, the MFC Glu level was negatively associated with age (Glu to Cr ratio, F1,1522.4 = 47.533, P < .001; cerebrospinal fluid-corrected Glu, F1,1216.7 = 5.610, P = .02), showing a 0.2-unit reduction per decade. In patients, antipsychotic dose (in chlorpromazine equivalents) was negatively associated with MFC Glu (estimate, 0.10 reduction per 100 mg; SE, 0.03) and MFC Glx (estimate, -0.11; SE, 0.04) levels. The MFC Glu to Cr ratio was positively associated with total symptom severity (estimate, 0.01 per 10 points; SE, 0.005) and positive symptom severity (estimate, 0.04; SE, 0.02) and was negatively associated with level of global functioning (estimate, 0.04; SE, 0.01). In the MTL, the Glx to Cr ratio was positively associated with total symptom severity (estimate, 0.06; SE, 0.03), negative symptoms (estimate, 0.2; SE, 0.07), and worse Clinical Global Impression score (estimate, 0.2 per point; SE, 0.06). The MFC creatine level increased with age (estimate, 0.2; SE, 0.05) but was not associated with either symptom severity or antipsychotic medication dose.

Conclusions and Relevance

Findings from this mega-analysis suggest that lower brain Glu levels in patients with schizophrenia may be associated with antipsychotic medication exposure rather than with greater age-related decline. Higher brain Glu levels may act as a biomarker of illness severity in schizophrenia.

Resting state quantitative electroencephalogram gamma power spectra in patients with first episode psychosis: An observational study

INTRODUCTION

Electrophysiological abnormalities, especially in the gamma frequency range, have been well documented in schizophrenia. This study was aimed to investigate the gamma spectral power of the brain in patients with first episode psychosis, using high-resolution electroencephalography.

METHODOLOGY

Twenty-nine neuroleptic naïve/free male patients with non-affective psychosis as per ICD 10 DCR clinical criteria were compared with thirty age, sex, education and handedness matched healthy individuals as controls. All participants underwent 192-channel resting electroencephalography (EEG) recording. Gamma spectral power was calculated for low (31-50 Hz) and high-gamma (51-70 and 71-100 Hz) bands and compared between two groups using MANOVA and supplementary one-way ANOVA. Pearson correlation and linear regression analyses were conducted between spectral power parameters and various clinical variables.

RESULTS

The gamma spectral power in 31-50 Hz and 51-70 Hz frequency bands was found to be significantly higher in patients in most brain regions. Duration of illness predicted the gamma spectral power in both right and left frontal regions of the brain in the frequency range 31-50 Hz and 71-100 Hz, as well as in the right temporal region in 71-100 Hz range, where it was negatively correlated.

CONCLUSION

Patients with first episode psychosis have increased gamma spectral power, which might be indirectly related to the duration of illness.

Alterations of neurometabolism in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and thalamus in transition to psychosis patients change under treatment as usual - A two years follow-up 1H/31P-MR-spectroscopy study

BACKGROUND

The ultra-high risk (UHR) paradigm allows early contact with patients developing acute psychosis and the study of treatment effects on the underlying pathology.

METHODS

29 patients with first acute psychosis according to CAARMS criteria (transition patients, TP) (T0) and thereof 22 patients after two-year follow-up (mean 788 d) (T1) underwent ¹H-/³¹P-MR spectroscopy of the prefrontal (DLPFC) and anterior midcingulate (aMCC) cortices and the thalamus. N-acetylaspartate (NAA), glutamate (Glu, Glx), energy (PCr, ATP) and phospholipid metabolites (PME, PDE) were compared to 27 healthy controls by ANCOVA and correlated with patients' symptom ratings (BPRS-E, SCL-90R). For longitudinal analysis, linear mixed model (LMM) and ANCOVA for repeated measures were used.

RESULTS

DLPFC: In patients, NAA and PME were decreased bilaterally and Glu on the left side at T0. Left-sided Glu and NAA (trend) and bilateral Glx increased during follow-up. Thalamus: In TP, bilateral NAA, left-sided Glu and right-sided Glx were decreased at T0; bilateral NAA and left-sided Glx increased during follow-up. aMCC: In TP, bilateral NAA, right-sided Glu, and bilateral PME and PDE were decreased, while left-sided PCr was increased at T0. No changes were observed during follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Regardless of the long-term diagnosis, the psychotic state of illness includes disturbed neuronal function in the DLPFC, thalamus and aMCC. Treatment-as-usual (TAU), including antipsychotic/antidepressant medication and supportive psychotherapy, had an effect on the thalamo-frontal area but not or less pronounced on the neurometabolic deficits of the aMCC.

Reduced cortical GABA and glutamate in high schizotypy

RATIONALE

Abnormal functioning of the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and excitatory (glutamate) systems is proposed to play a role in the development of schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Although results are mixed, previous 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies in schizophrenia and clinical high-risk samples report these metabolites are altered in comparison to healthy controls. Currently, however, there are few studies of these metabolites in schizotypy samples, a personality dimension associated with the experience of schizophrenia and psychosis-like symptoms.

OBJECTIVES

We investigated if GABA and glutamate metabolite concentrations are altered in people with high schizotypy. We also explored the relationship between resilience to stress, GABA metabolite concentrations and schizotypy.

METHODS

We used MRS to examine GABA and glutamate levels in the medial prefrontal cortex in people with low and high schizotypy traits as assessed with the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. Resilience to stress was assessed using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale.

RESULTS

Compared to individuals with low schizotypy traits, high schizotypy individuals showed lower cortical prefrontal GABA (F (1,38) = 5.18, p = 0.03, η² = 0.09) and glutamate metabolite levels (F (1, 49) = 6.25, p = 0.02, η² = 0.02). Furthermore, participants with high GABA and high resilience levels were significantly more likely to be in the low schizotypy group than participants with low GABA and high resilience or high GABA and low resilience (95% CI 1.07-1.34, p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that subclinical schizotypal traits are associated with abnormal functioning of both inhibitory and excitatory systems and suggest that these transmitters are implicated in a personality trait believed to be on a continuum with psychosis.

An imaging-based risk calculator for prediction of conversion to psychosis in clinical high-risk individuals using glutamate 1H MRS

Risk calculators for prediction of conversion of Clinical High-Risk (CHR) individuals to syndromal psychosis have recently been developed and have generated considerable clinical use and research interest. Predictor variables in these calculators have been clinical rather than biological, and our goal was to incorporate a neurochemical imaging measure into this framework and assess its impact on prediction. We combined striatal glutamate ¹H MRS data with the SIPS symptoms identified by the Columbia Risk Calculator as having the greatest predictive value in order to develop an imaging-based risk calculator for conversion to psychosis. We evaluated the calculator in 19 CHR individuals, 7 (36.84%) of whom converted to syndromal psychosis during the 2-year follow up. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for the logistic model including only striatal glutamate and visual perceptual abnormalities showed an AUC = 0.869 (95% CI = [0.667, 1.000]) and AUC_oa = 0.823, with sensitivity of 0.714, specificity of 0.917, positive predictive value of 0.833, and negative predictive value of 0.846. These results represent modest improvements over each of the individual ROC curves based on either striatal glutamate or visual perceptual abnormalities alone. The preliminary model building and evaluation presented here in a small CHR sample suggests that the approach of incorporating predictive imaging measures into risk classification is not only feasible but offers the potential of enhancing risk assessment.

A meta-analysis of ultra-high field glutamate, glutamine, GABA and glutathione 1HMRS in psychosis: Implications for studies of psychosis risk

Ultra-high field proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HMRS) offers a unique opportunity to measure the concentration of neurometabolites implicated in psychosis (PSY). The extant 7 T 1HMRS literature measuring glutamate-associated neurometabolites in the brain in PSY in vivo is small, but a comprehensive, quantitative summary of these data can offer insight and guidance to this emerging field. This meta-analysis examines proton spectroscopy (1HMRS) measures of glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln), glutamate+glutamine (Glx), gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), and glutathione (GSH) across 255 individuals with PSY (121 first episode) and 293 healthy comparison participants (HC). While all five neurometabolites were lower in PSY as compared to HC, only Glu (Cohen's d = -0.18) and GSH (Cohen's d = -0.21) concentrations were significantly lower in PSY, whereas concentrations of Gln, Glx, and GABA did not significantly differ between groups. Notably, 1HMRS methodological choices and sample demographic characteristics did not impact study-specific effect sizes for PSY-related Glu or GSH differences. This review thus provides further evidence of neurometabolite dysfunction in first episode and chronic PSY, and thereby suggests that Glu and GSH abnormalities may additionally play a role in more incipient stages of the disorder: in clinical high risk stages. Additional 7 T neurochemical imaging studies in larger, longitudinal, and unmedicated samples and in youth at risk for developing psychosis are needed. Such studies will be critical for elucidating the neurodevelopmental and clinical time course of PSY-related neurometabolite alterations, and for assessing the potential for implicated metabolites to serve as druggable targets for decreasing PSY risk.

Metabolite abnormalities in psychosis risk: A meta-analysis of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies

Accumulating evidence implicates that individuals at high-risk of psychosis have already exhibited pathophysiological changes in brain metabolites including glutamate, gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), N-Acetylaspartate (NAA), creatine (Cr), myo-inositol (MI) and choline (Cho). These changes may contribute to the development of schizophrenia and associate with psychotic genes. However, specific metabolic changes of brain sub-regions in individuals at risk have still been controversial. Thus, the current study aimed to investigate the brain metabolic changes including glutamate, Glx, GABA, GABA/Glx, NAA, Cr, MI and Cho levels in individuals at risk by conducting a case-control meta-analysis and meta-regression of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies. Primary outcomes revealed that individuals at risk exhibited increased Cr levels at the rostral medial prefrontal cortex (rmPFC), decreased NAA and Cr levels at the thalamus, and increased MI levels at the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Sub-group analyses further indicated that individuals with clinical high-risk (CHR) exhibited increased Cr levels at the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and decreased Glx levels at the thalamus, while individuals with genetic risk (siblings of psychiatric patients) exhibited significant increased Glx and MI levels at the mPFC. However, GABA, GABA/Glx and Cho levels showed no significant result. These findings suggest that the dysfunctional metabolites at the mPFC and the thalamus may be an essential neurobiological basis at the early stage of psychosis.

Candidate metabolic biomarkers for schizophrenia in CNS and periphery: Do any possible associations exist?

Due to the limitations of analytical techniques and the complicity of schizophrenia, nowadays it is still a challenge to diagnose and stratify schizophrenia patients accurately. Many attempts have been made to identify and validate available biomarkers for schizophrenia from CSF and/or peripheral blood in clinical studies with consideration to disease stages, antipsychotic effects and even gender differences. However, conflicting results handicap the validation and application of biomarkers for schizophrenia. In view of availability and feasibility, peripheral biomarkers have superior advantages over biomarkers in CNS. Meanwhile, schizophrenia is considered to be a devastating neuropsychiatric disease mainly taking place in CNS featured by widespread defects in multiple metabolic pathways whose dynamic interactions, until recently, have been difficult to difficult to investigate. Evidence for these alterations has been collected piecemeal, limiting the potential to inform our understanding of the interactions among relevant biochemical pathways. Taken these points together, it will be interesting to investigate possible associations of biomarkers between CNS and periphery. Numerous studies have suggested putative correlations within peripheral and CNS systems especially for dopaminergic and glutamatergic metabolic biomarkers. In addition, it has been demonstrated that blood concentrations of BDNF protein can also reflect its changes in the nervous system. In turn, BDNF also interacts with glutamatergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. Therefore, this review will summarize metabolic biomarkers identified both in the CNS (brain tissues and CSF) and peripheral blood. Further, more attentions will be paid to discussing possible physical and functional associations between CNS and periphery, especially with respect to BDNF.

Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of N-acetyl Aspartate in Chronic Schizophrenia, First Episode of Psychosis and High-Risk of Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA) is a readily measured marker of neuronal metabolism. Previous analyses in schizophrenia have shown NAA levels are low in frontal, temporal and thalamic regions, but may be underpowered to detect effects in other regions, in high-risk states and in first episode psychosis. We searched for magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies comparing NAA in chronic schizophrenia, first episode psychosis and high risk of psychosis to controls. 182 studies were included and meta-analysed using a random-effects model for each region and illness stage. NAA levels were significantly lower than controls in the frontal lobe [Hedge's g = -0.36, p < 0.001], hippocampus [-0.52, p < 0.001], temporal lobe [-0.35, p = 0.031], thalamus [-0.32, p = 0.012] and parietal lobe [-0.25, p = 0.028] in chronic schizophrenia, and lower than controls in the frontal lobe [-0.26, p = 0.002], anterior cingulate cortex [-0.24, p = 0.016] and thalamus [-0.28, p = 0.028] in first episode psychosis. NAA was lower in high-risk of psychosis in the hippocampus [-0.20, p = 0.049]. In schizophrenia, NAA alterations appear to begin in hippocampus, frontal cortex and thalamus, and extend later to many other regions.

Baseline measures of cerebral glutamate and GABA levels in individuals at ultrahigh risk for psychosis: Implications for clinical outcome after 12 months

Background.

Cerebral glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) levels might predict clinical outcome in individuals at ultrahigh risk (UHR) for psychosis but have previously primarily been investigated in smaller cohorts. We aimed to study whether baseline levels of glutamate and GABA in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and glutamate in thalamus could predict remission status and whether baseline metabolites differed in the remission versus the nonremission group. We also investigated the relationship between baseline metabolite levels and severity of clinical symptoms, functional outcome, and cognitive deficits at follow-up.

Methods.

About 124 UHR individuals were recruited at baseline. In this, 74 UHR individuals were clinically and cognitively assessed after 12 months, while remission status was available for 81 (25 remission/56 nonremission). Glutamate and GABA levels were assessed at baseline using 3 T proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Psychopathology, symptom severity, and remission were assessed with the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States and Clinical Global Impression and functional outcome with the Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale. Cognitive function was estimated with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery.

Results.

There were no differences between baseline glutamate and GABA levels in subjects in the nonremission group compared with the remission group, and baseline metabolites could not predict remission status. However, higher baseline levels of GABA in ACC were associated with clinical global improvement (r = −0.34, N = 51, p = 0.01) in an explorative analysis.

Conclusions.

The variety in findings across studies suggests a probable multifactorial influence on clinical outcome in UHR individuals. Future studies should combine multimodal approaches to attempt prediction of long-term outcome.

Treatment effects on neurometabolite levels in schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies

BACKGROUND

Although there is growing evidence of alterations in the neurometabolite status associated with the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, how treatments influence these metabolite levels in patients with schizophrenia remains poorly studied.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search using Embase, Medline, and PsycINFO to identify proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies that compared neurometabolite levels before and after treatment in patients with schizophrenia. Six neurometabolites (glutamate, glutamine, glutamate + glutamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, N-acetylaspartate, myo-inositol) and six regions of interest (frontal cortex, temporal cortex, parieto-occipital cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia, hippocampus) were investigated.

RESULTS

Thirty-two studies (n = 773 at follow-up) were included in our meta-analysis. Our results demonstrated that the frontal glutamate + glutamine level was significantly decreased (14 groups; n = 292 at follow-up; effect size = -0.35, P = 0.0003; I² = 22%) and the thalamic N-acetylaspartate level was significantly increased (7 groups; n = 184 at follow-up; effect size = 0.47, P < 0.00001; I² = 0%) after treatment in schizophrenia patients. No significant associations were found between neurometabolite changes and age, gender, duration of illness, duration of treatment, or baseline symptom severity.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results suggest that glutamatergic neurometabolite levels in the frontal cortex and neuronal integrity in the thalamus in schizophrenia might be modified following treatment.

Discriminative Analysis of Symptom Severity and Ultra-High Risk of Schizophrenia Using Intrinsic Functional Connectivity

Past studies have consistently shown functional dysconnectivity of large-scale brain networks in schizophrenia. In this study, we aimed to further assess whether multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) could yield a sensitive predictor of patient symptoms, as well as identify ultra-high risk (UHR) stage of schizophrenia from intrinsic functional connectivity of whole-brain networks. We first combined rank-based feature selection and support vector machine methods to distinguish between 43 schizophrenia patients and 52 healthy controls. The constructed classifier was then applied to examine functional connectivity profiles of 18 UHR individuals. The classifier indicated reliable relationship between MVPA measures and symptom severity, with higher classification accuracy in more severely affected schizophrenia patients. The UHR subjects had classification scores falling between those of healthy controls and patients, suggesting an intermediate level of functional brain abnormalities. Moreover, UHR individuals with schizophrenia-like connectivity profiles at baseline presented higher rate of conversion to full-blown illness in the follow-up visits. Spatial maps of discriminative brain regions implicated increases of functional connectivity in the default mode network, whereas decreases of functional connectivity in the cerebellum, thalamus and visual areas in schizophrenia. The findings may have potential utility in the early diagnosis and intervention of schizophrenia.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies in subjects with high risk for psychosis: A meta-analysis and review

INTRODUCTION

Even though anomalies on brain metabolites have been found in schizophrenia, researches about subjects with high risk (HR) show heterogeneous results. Thus, this meta-analysis aims to characterize the metabolic profile of HR subjects, first, compared to controls (HC) and then compared to people with schizophrenia.

METHODS

After a systematic database search, means and standard deviations were extracted to calculate standardized mean differences (SMD). Cerebral metabolites levels were compared between HR subjects and HC or patients with schizophrenia in all regions of interest investigated in included studies. Meta-regressions were performed to explore the influence of demographic and clinical variables on metabolites level's SMDs.

RESULTS

Thirty-nine studies were included in this meta-analysis. A higher level of glutamine + glutamate (Glx) was found in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) (p < 0.01) and potentially in the basal ganglia (p = 0,05) as well as a higher level of myo-inositol (mI) in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) (p = 0.04) in HR subjects compared to HC. A higher level of choline (Cho) was found in people with schizophrenia compared to HR subjects in the DLPFC (p < 0.001) and the medial temporal lobe (p = 0.02). Meta-regression analyses showed negative associations between SMD for Cho concentration, the percentage of females or the age (p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The present meta-analysis provides evidence that some brain metabolites concentrations are disrupted before the transition to psychosis and could be considered like a vulnerability.

Neurochemical and brain functional changes in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex of first-episode psychosis patients: A combined functional magnetic resonance imaging-proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies showed alterations of brain function in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia patients. Also, neurochemical changes, especially GABA level alteration, have been found in the medial prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia patients. However, the relationship between GABA level in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and brain functional activity in schizophrenia patients remains unexplored.

METHODS

In total, 23 drug-naïve, first-episode psychosis patients and 26 matched healthy controls completed the study. The single voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy data were acquired in ventromedial prefrontal cortex region, which was used as the seed region for resting-state functional connectivity analysis. The proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy data were processed to quantify the concentrations of GABA+, glutamine and glutamate, and N-acetylaspartate in ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Spearman correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between metabolite concentration, functional connectivity and clinical variables. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between GABA+ concentration and functional connectivity value.

RESULTS

In first-episode psychosis patients, GABA+ level in ventromedial prefrontal cortex was higher and was positively correlated with ventromedial prefrontal cortex-left middle orbital frontal cortex functional connectivity. N-acetylaspartate level was positively correlated with positive symptoms, and the functional connectivity between ventromedial prefrontal cortex and left precuneus was negatively associated with negative symptoms of first-episode psychosis patients.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated that ventromedial prefrontal cortex functional connectivity changes were positively correlated with higher local GABA+ level in first-episode psychosis patients. The altered neurochemical concentration and functional connectivity provide insights into the pathology of schizophrenia.

Intra-Regional Glu-GABA vs Inter-Regional Glu-Glu Imbalance: A 1H-MRS Study of the Neurochemistry of Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Schizophrenia

Glutamate (Glu), gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA), and excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) imbalance have inconsistently been implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia. Elevated Glu levels in language regions have been suggested to mediate auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), the same regions previously associated with neuronal hyperactivity during AVHs. It is, however, not known whether alterations in Glu levels are accompanied by corresponding GABA alterations, nor is it known if Glu levels are affected in brain regions with known neuronal hypo-activity. Using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), we measured Glx (Glu+glutamine) and GABA+ levels in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), left and right superior temporal gyrus (STG), and left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), in a sample of 77 schizophrenia patients and 77 healthy controls. Two MRS-protocols were used. Results showed a marginally significant positive correlation in the left STG between Glx and AVHs, whereas a significant negative correlation was found in the ACC. In addition, high-hallucinating patients as a group showed decreased ACC and increased left STG Glx levels compared to low-hallucinating patients, with the healthy controls in between the 2 hallucinating groups. No significant differences were found for GABA+ levels. It is discussed that reduced ACC Glx levels reflect an inability of AVH patients to cognitively inhibit their "voices" through neuronal hypo-activity, which in turn originates from increased left STG Glu levels and neuronal hyperactivity. A revised E/I-imbalance model is proposed where Glu-Glu imbalance between brain regions is emphasized rather than Glu-GABA imbalance within regions, for the understanding of the underlying neurochemistry of AVHs.

Neurometabolic correlates of 6 and 16 weeks of treatment with risperidone in medication-naive first-episode psychosis patients

Antipsychotic medications are the cornerstone of treatment in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In first-episode psychosis, the recommended time for an antipsychotic medication trial is up to 16 weeks, but the biological correlates of shorter and longer antipsychotic treatment trials in these cohorts remain largely unknown. We enrolled 29 medication-naive first-episode patients (FEP) and 22 matched healthy controls (HC) in this magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) study, examining the levels of combined glutamate and glutamine (commonly referred to as Glx) in the bilateral medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) with a PRESS sequence (TR/TE = 2000/80 ms) before initiation of antipsychotic treatment, after 6 and 16 weeks of treatment with risperidone. Data were quantified in 18 HC and 20 FEP at baseline, for 19 HC and 15 FEP at week 6, and for 14 HC and 16 FEP at week 16. At baseline, none of the metabolites differed between groups. Metabolite levels did not change after 6 or 16 weeks of treatment in patients. Our data suggest that metabolite levels do not change after 6 or 16 weeks of treatment with risperidone in FEP. It is possible that our choice of sequence parameters and the limited sample size contributed to negative findings reported here. On the other hand, longer follow-up may be needed to detect treatment-related metabolic changes with MRS. In summary, our study adds to the efforts in better understanding glutamatergic neurometabolism in schizophrenia, especially as it relates to antipsychotic exposure.

Anterior Cingulate Cortex Glutamate Levels Are Related to Response to Initial Antipsychotic Treatment in Drug-Naive First-Episode Schizophrenia Patients

The glutamatergic system has previously been shown to be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and the mechanisms of action of antipsychotic treatment. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the levels of glutamate (Glu) or Glu/total creatine (Glu/Cr+PCr) in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and psychiatric symptoms as well as the response to antipsychotic treatment. We performed proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) to measure Glu and Glu/Cr+PCr in the ACC of 35 drug-naïve first-episode schizophrenia (FES) patients and 40 well-matched healthy controls (HCs). After scanning, we treated the patients with risperidone for eight weeks. Remission status was based on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) scores at week 8. At baseline, there were no significant differences in the levels of Glu or Glu/Cr+PCr in the ACC between drug-naïve FES patients and HCs. Lower baseline levels of Glu/Cr+PCr but not Glu in the ACC were associated with more severe negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Compared to the remission group (RM), the non-remission group (NRM) had lower baseline ACC Glu levels (P < 0.05). Our results suggest that ACC Glu levels may be related to the severity of symptoms in the early stages of schizophrenia and therefore may be a marker with which to evaluate the treatment effect of antipsychotics in schizophrenia patients.

Cerebral glutamate and GABA levels in high-risk of psychosis states: A focused review and meta-analysis of 1H-MRS studies

Disturbances in the brain glutamate and GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) homeostasis may be markers of transition to psychosis in individuals at high-risk (HR). Knowledge of GABA and glutamate levels in HR stages could give an insight into changes in the neurochemistry underlying psychosis. Studies on glutamate in HR have provided conflicting data, and GABA studies have only recently been initialized. In this meta-analysis, we compared cerebral levels of glutamate and GABA in HR individuals with healthy controls (HC). We searched Medline and Embase for articles published on ¹H-MRS studies on glutamate and GABA in HR states until April 9th, 2019. We identified a total of 28 eligible studies, of which eight reported GABA (243 HR, 356 HC) and 26 reported glutamate (299 HR, 279 HC) or Glx (glutamate + glutamine) (584 HR, 632 HC) levels. Sample sizes varied from 6 to 75 for HR and 10 to 184 for HC. Our meta-analysis of ¹H-MRS studies on glutamate and GABA in HR states displayed significantly lower (P = 0.0003) levels of thalamic glutamate in HR individuals than in HC and significantly higher (P = 0.001) Glx in the frontal lobe of genetic HR individuals (1st-degree relatives) than in HC. No other significant differences in glutamate and GABA levels were found. Subject numbers in the studies on glutamate as well as GABA levels were generally small and the data conflicting. Our meta-analytical findings highlight the need for larger and more homogeneous studies of glutamate and GABA in high-risk states.

Glutamatergic function in a genetic high-risk group for psychosis: A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in individuals with 22q11.2 deletion

Glutamatergic dysregulation is one of the leading theories regarding the pathoaetiolopy of schizophrenia. Meta-analysis of magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies in schizophrenia shows increased levels of glutamate and glutamine (Glx) in the medial frontal cortex and basal ganglia in clinical high-risk groups for psychosis and increased glutamine levels in the thalamus, but it is unclear if this is also the case in people at genetic high risk for psychosis. The aim of this study was to investigate glutamatergic function in the anterior cingulate cortex, striatum and thalamus in carriers of a genetic variant (22q11.2 deletion) associated with a high risk for psychosis. 53 volunteers (23 22q11.2 deletion carriers and 30 controls) underwent proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy imaging and neuropsychological assessments for prodromal psychotic symptoms, schizotypy, anxiety, depression and FSIQ. We did not find any difference between groups in Glx in the anterior cingulate cortex, striatum or thalamus (Glx: t(50)=-1.26, p = 0.21; U = 251, z = -0.7, p = 0.49; U = 316, z= -0.26, p = 0.79, respectively). No correlation was detected between Glx levels in any region and symptomatology or FSIQ. Our findings indicate that glutamatergic function is not altered in people at genetic high risk of psychosis due to the 22q11.2 deletion, which could suggest that this is not the mechanism underlying psychosis risk in 22q11.2 deletion carriers.

Age-dependent effects of (+)-MK801 treatment on glutamate release and metabolism in the rat medial prefrontal cortex

NMDAR antagonist treatments in adolescent/young adult rodents are associated with augmented glutamate (Glu) release and perturbed Glu/glutamine (Gln) metabolism in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) resembling those found in first-episode schizophrenia. Few studies, however, investigated NMDAR antagonist-induced changes in the adult mPFC and whether there is an age-dependence to this end. In this study, the effects of acute/repeated (+)-MK801 treatment on Glu release/metabolism were measured in the mPFC of male adolescent (postnatal day 30) and adult (14 weeks) rats. Acute (+)-MK801 treatment at 0.5 mg/kg body weight induced an approximately 4-fold increase of extracellular Glu concentration in the adolescent rats, and repeated treatment for 6 consecutive days significantly increased the levels of Glu + Gln (Glx) and glial metabolites 7 days after the last dose. Histologically (+)-MK801 treatments induced reactive astrocytosis and elevated oxidative stress in the mPFC of adolescent rats, without causing evident neuronal degeneration in the region. All (+)-MK801-induced changes observed in the mPFC of adolescent rats were not present or evident in the adult rats, suggesting that the treatments might have caused less disinhibition in the adult mPFC than in the adolescent mPFC. In conclusion, the effects of (+)-MK801 treatments on the Glu release/metabolism in the mPFC were found to be age-dependent; and the adult mPFC is likely equipped with more robust neurobiological mechanisms to preserve excitatory-inhibitory balance in response to NMDAR hypofunction.

Heritability of cerebral glutamate levels and their association with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a 1[H]-spectroscopy twin study

Research findings implicate cerebral glutamate in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, including genetic studies reporting associations with glutamatergic neurotransmission. The extent to which aberrant glutamate levels can be explained by genetic factors is unknown, and if glutamate can serve as a marker of genetic susceptibility for schizophrenia remains to be established. We investigated the heritability of cerebral glutamate levels and whether a potential association with schizophrenia spectrum disorders could be explained by genetic factors. Twenty-three monozygotic (MZ) and 20 dizygotic (DZ) proband pairs con- or discordant for schizophrenia spectrum disorders, along with healthy control pairs (MZ = 28, DZ = 18) were recruited via the National Danish Twin Register and the Psychiatric Central Register (17 additional twins were scanned without their siblings). Glutamate levels in the left thalamus and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were measured using 1[H]-magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 3 Tesla and analyzed by structural equation modeling. Glutamate levels in the left thalamus were heritable and positively correlated with liability for schizophrenia spectrum disorders (phenotypic correlation, 0.16, [0.02-0.29]; p = 0.010). The correlation was explained by common genes influencing both the levels of glutamate and liability for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In the ACC, glutamate and glx levels were heritable, but not correlated to disease liability. Increases in thalamic glutamate levels found in schizophrenia spectrum disorders are explained by genetic influences related to the disease, and as such the measure could be a potential marker of genetic susceptibility, useful in early detection and stratification of patients with psychosis.

A pilot case-control study on the association between N-acetyl derivatives in serum and first-episode schizophrenia

N-acetyl group metabolites are a general class of endogenous compounds characterized by a conjugated system consisting of an acetyl group and nitrogen moiety. The aim of our exploratory pilot case-control study is to compare the levels of five N-acetyl derivatives (i.e., N-acetyl-glutamine, N-acetyl-ornithine, N⁶-acetyl-L-lysine, N-acetyl-putrescine, and N-acetyl-galactosamine) in serum samples between individuals with first-episode schizophrenia and healthy controls (HC). A 1:2 age- and sex- matched pilot case-control study was performed, involving 30 cases of first-episode schizophrenia and 60 HC aged between 18 and 40 years old. The serum samples containing these N-acetyl derivatives from (first-episode patients with schizophrenia and HC were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Results indicated that higher levels of N-acetyl-glutamine and lower levels of N⁶-acetyl-L-lysine may have a significant association with schizophrenia after adjusting for age, sex and BMI. N-acetyl-putrescine was elevated among subjects with first-episode schizophrenia when compared to HC, suggesting it as a predictor for schizophrenia onset. Further exploration of the mechanisms of N-acetyl group metabolites with respect to schizophrenia is warranted and may be useful for identifying novel disease markers and/or drug target molecules in schizophrenia.

Nerve Growth Factor Serum Levels Are Associated With Regional Gray Matter Volume Differences in Schizophrenia Patients

Numerous neuroimaging studies have revealed structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia patients. There is emerging evidence that dysfunctional nerve growth factor (NGF) signaling may contribute to structural brain alterations found in these patients. In this pilot study, we investigated whether there was a correlation between NGF serum levels and gray matter volume (GMV) in schizophrenia patients. Further, we investigated whether there was an overlap between the correlative findings and cross-sectional GMV differences between schizophrenia patients (n = 18) and healthy controls (n = 19). Serum NGF was significantly correlated to GMV in the left prefrontal lobe, the left midcingulate cortex, and the brainstem in schizophrenia patients. However, we did not find any correlations of NGF serum levels with GMV in healthy controls. Schizophrenia patients showed smaller GMV than healthy controls in brain regions located in the bilateral limbic system, bilateral parietal lobe, bilateral insula, bilateral primary auditory cortex, left frontal lobe, and bilateral occipital regions. In a conjunction analysis, GMV in the left midcingulate cortex (MCC) appears negatively correlated to NGF serum levels in the group of schizophrenia patients and also to be reduced compared to healthy controls. These results suggest an increased vulnerability of schizophrenia patients to changes in NGF levels compared to healthy controls and support a role for NGF signaling in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. As our pilot study is exploratory in nature, further studies enrolling larger sample sizes will be needed to further corroborate our findings and to investigate the influence of additional covariates.

Occipital Alpha Connectivity During Resting-State Electroencephalography in Patients With Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis and Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia patients always show cognitive impairment, which is proved to be related to hypo-connectivity or hyper-connectivity. Further, individuals with an ultra-high risk for psychosis also show abnormal functional connectivity-related cognitive impairment, especially in the alpha rhythm. Thus, the identification of functional networks is essential to our understanding of the disorder. We investigated the resting-state functional connectivity of the alpha rhythm measured by electroencephalography (EEG) to reveal the relation between functional network and clinical symptoms. The participants included 28 patients with first-episode schizophrenia (FES), 28 individuals with ultra-high risk for psychosis (UHR), and 28 healthy controls (HC). After the professional clinical symptoms evaluation, all the participants were instructed to keep eyes closed for 3-min resting-state EEG recording. The 3-min EEG data were segmented into artefact-free epochs (the length was 3 s), and the functional connectivity of the alpha phase was estimated using the phase lag index (PLI), which measures the phase differences of EEG signals. The FES and UHR groups displayed increased resting-state PLI connectivity compared with the HC group [F(2,74) = 10.804, p < 0.001]. Significant increases in the global efficiency, the local efficiency, and the path length were found in the FES and UHR groups compared with those of the HC group. FES and UHR showed an increased degree of connectivity compared with HC. The degree of the left occipital lobe area was higher in the UHR group than in the FES group. The hypothesis of disconnection is confirmed. Furthermore, differences between the UHR and FES group were found, which is valuable for producing clinical significance before the onset of schizophrenia.

Abnormal metabolite concentrations and amygdala volume in patients with recent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder

BACKGROUND

Previous psychoradiological studies of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were mainly of patients at a chronic stage, focusing on brain regions outside the amygdala. The goals of this study were to investigate the early biochemical and structural changes of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and amygdala in patients with PTSD and to explore their relationships.

METHODS

Seventy-eight drug-naïve PTSD subjects and 71 non-PTSD age- and sex-matched control subjects were enrolled, all of whom had suffered the same earthquake about one year before. Single-voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) was performed and absolute metabolite concentrations in ACC and bilateral amygdalae were estimated with LCModel. Bilateral amygdalae were manually outlined and their volumes were calculated and corrected for the total intracranial volume.

RESULTS

The PTSD group showed significantly increased N-acetylaspartate (NAA) concentration in the ACC, increased creatine (Cr) concentration in the left amygdala, and increased myo-inositol (mI) concentration in the right amygdala, compared to non-PTSD controls. The NAA concentration in ACC was negatively correlated with the time since trauma. The PTSD group showed significantly decreased volumes of bilateral amygdalae compared to non-PTSD controls, but amygdala volumes were not correlated with metabolite concentrations.

LIMITATIONS

Longitudinal studies are needed to explore the metabolic and structural changes of PTSD at different stages. The volume of ACC was not measured.

CONCLUSIONS

This concurrent increase in some metabolite concentrations and decrease of amygdala volumes may represent a pattern of biochemical and morphological changes in recent-onset PTSD which is different from that reported in chronic PTSD.

Response to initial antipsychotic treatment in first episode psychosis is related to anterior cingulate glutamate levels: a multicentre 1H-MRS study (OPTiMiSE)

Conventional antipsychotic medication is ineffective in around a third of patients with schizophrenia, and the nature of the therapeutic response is unpredictable. We investigated whether response to antipsychotics is related to brain glutamate levels prior to treatment. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to measure glutamate levels (Glu/Cr) in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and in the thalamus in antipsychotic-naive or minimally medicated patients with first episode psychosis (FEP, n = 71) and healthy volunteers (n = 60), at three sites. Following scanning, patients were treated with amisulpride for 4 weeks (n = 65), then ¹H-MRS was repeated (n = 46). Remission status was defined in terms of Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS) scores. Higher levels of Glu/Cr in the ACC were associated with more severe symptoms at presentation and a lower likelihood of being in remission at 4 weeks (P < 0.05). There were longitudinal reductions in Glu/Cr in both the ACC and thalamus over the treatment period (P < 0.05), but these changes were not associated with the therapeutic response. There were no differences in baseline Glu/Cr between patients and controls. These results extend previous evidence linking higher levels of ACC glutamate with a poor antipsychotic response by showing that the association is evident before the initiation of treatment.

The Impact and Mechanism of Methylated Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors 1 and 5 in the Hippocampus on Depression-Like Behavior in Prenatal Stress Offspring Rats

An increasing number of epidemiological investigations and animal models research suggest that prenatal stress (PS) could cause depression-like behavior in the offspring, which is sex specific. However, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. This study is to investigate the promoter methylation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) and metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 5 (mGluR5) gene modification on PS induced depression-like behavior in offspring rats (OR). PS models were established, with or without 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5-azaD, decitabine) treatment. Animal behavior was assessed by the sucrose preference test (SPT), forced swimming test (FST), and open field test (OFT). The mRNA and protein expression levels of mGluR1 and mGluR5 in the hippocampus of offspring were detected with quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. The promoter methylation in the hippocampus of mGluR1 and mGluR5 OR were also analyzed. SPT showed significantly reduced sucrose preference in PS induced OR. FST showed significantly prolonged immobility time in PS induced OR. OFT showed significantly reduced central residence time in PS induced OR and no significantly influence in rearing as well as in frequency of micturition. Moreover, the mRNA, protein expression levels, and gene promoter methylation level of mGluR1 and mGluR5 in the hippocampus were significantly increased in the PS induced male OR, while no significantly influence in the PS induced female OR. Furthermore, the PS induced effects in male OR could be reversed by the microinjection of 5-azaD. In conclusion, our results showed that the promoter methylation of mGluR1 and mGluR5 gene modification is only involved in PS induced depression-like behavior in male OR in a sex-specific manner. These findings might contribute to the understanding of the disease pathogenesis and clinical treatment in future.

In vivo gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate levels in people with first-episode schizophrenia: A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study

BACKGROUND

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) dysfunction and its consequent imbalance are implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Reduced GABA production would lead to a disinhibition of glutamatergic neurons and subsequently cause a disruption of the modulation between GABAergic interneurons and glutamatergic neurons. In this study, levels of GABA, Glx (summation of glutamate and glutamine), and other metabolites in the anterior cingulate cortex were measured and compared between first-episode schizophrenia subjects and healthy controls (HC). Diagnostic potential of GABA and Glx as upstream biomarkers for schizophrenia was explored.

METHODS

Nineteen first-episode schizophrenia subjects and fourteen HC participated in this study. Severity of clinical symptoms of patients was measured with Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Metabolites were measured using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and quantified using internal water as reference.

RESULTS

First-episode schizophrenia subjects revealed reduced GABA and myo-inositol (mI), and increased Glx and choline (Cho), compared to HC. No significant correlation was found between metabolite levels and PANSS scores. Receiver operator characteristics analyses showed Glx had higher sensitivity and specificity (84.2%, 92.9%) compared to GABA (73.7%, 64.3%) for differentiating schizophrenia patients from HC. Combined model of both GABA and Glx revealed the best sensitivity and specificity (89.5%, 100%).

CONCLUSION

This study simultaneously showed reduction in GABA and elevation in Glx in first-episode schizophrenia subjects, and this might provide insights on explaining the disruption of modulation between GABAergic interneurons and glutamatergic neurons. Elevated Cho might indicate increased membrane turnover; whereas reduced mI might reflect dysfunction of the signal transduction pathway. In vivo Glx and GABA revealed their diagnostic potential for schizophrenia.

The relationship between the alterations in metabolite levels in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and clinical symptoms of patients with first-episode schizophrenia: a one year follow-up study

Background

Reduced brain metabolites such as N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA), glutamate (Glx), Choline (Cho) and myo-inositol (MI) have been repeatedly found in first-episode schizophrenia (FES) and suggest neuronal loss or dysfunction. However, the potential relationship between the metabolite level and the clinical symptoms or the recovery of FES remained unclear.

Objectives

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between the alterations in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) metabolite levels of patients with first-episode schizophrenia (FES) and the changes in clinical symptoms after one year treatment.

Materials and Methods

FES patients underwent 1H-MRS scan twice: one time at the baseline and the other one year later, while the healthy group patients underwent only once at the baseline time. The symptom severity of patients was measured by PANSS.

Principal Observations

An increase in the NAA/Cr level was detected in the left DLPFC of patients with FES. The change in the NAA/Cr level was significantly correlated with the alteration in their PANSS-P score. The Cho/Cr levels on both sides of DLPFC in patients with FES were lower compared with the healthy controls both at the baseline and after the treatment. The NAA/Cr and MI/Cr levels in the right DLPFC were decreased after the treatment.

Conclusions

(1) the depletion of NAA in left DLPFC might be a state characteristic; (2) the Cho/Cr level might be the potential endophenotype of schizophrenia; (3) the decrease of NAA/Cr and MI/Cr level in right DLPFC might be due to the development of schizophrenia.

Cannabis use in early psychosis is associated with reduced glutamate levels in the prefrontal cortex

RATIONALE

Recent studies have shown that cannabis may disrupt glutamate (Glu) signaling depressing Glu tone in frequent users. Current evidence have also consistently reported lower Glu-levels in various brain regions, particularly in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of chronic schizophrenia patients, while findings in early psychosis (EP) are not conclusive. Since cannabis may alter Glu synaptic plasticity and its use is a known risk factor for psychosis, studies focusing on Glu signaling in EP with or without a concomitant cannabis-usage seem crucial.

OBJECTIVE

We investigate the effect of cannabis use on prefrontal Glu-levels in EP users vs. both EP non-users and healthy controls (HC).

METHODS

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to measure [Glu_mPFC] of 35 EP subjects (18 of whom were cannabis users) and 33 HC. For correlative analysis, neuropsychological performances were scored by the MATRICS-consensus cognitive battery.

RESULTS

[Glu_mPFC] was lower in EP users comparing to both HC and EP non-users (p < 0.001 and p = 0.01, respectively), while no differences were observed between EP non-users and HC. A greater [Glu_mPFC]-decline with age was observed in EP users (r = -.46; p = 0.04), but not in EP non-users or HC. Among neuropsychological outcomes, working memory was the only domain that differentiates patients depending on their cannabis use, with users having poorer performances.

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabis use is associated with reduced prefrontal [Glu_mPFC] and with a stronger Glu-levels decline with age. Glutamatergic abnormalities might influence the cognitive impairment observed in users and have some relevance for the progression of the disease.

Evaluation of short interval cortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in patients with schizophrenia

GABAergic and glutamatergic dysfunction in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) are thought to be the core pathophysiological mechanisms of schizophrenia. Recently, we have established a method to index these functions from the DLPFC using the paired transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) paradigms of short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and facilitation (ICF) combined with electroencephalography (EEG). In this study, we aimed to evaluate neurophysiological indicators related to GABA_A and glutamate receptor-mediated functions respectively from the DLPFC in patients with schizophrenia using these paradigms, compared to healthy controls. Given that these activities contribute to cognitive functions, the relationship between the TMS-evoked potential (TEP) modulations by SICI/ICF and cognitive/clinical measures were explored. Compared to controls, patients showed reduced inhibition in P60 (t₂₂ = −4.961, p < 0.0001) by SICI and reduced facilitation in P60 (t₂₂ = 5.174, p < 0.0001) and N100 (t₂₂ = 3.273, p = 0.003) by ICF. In patients, the modulation of P60 by SICI was correlated with the longest span of the Letter-Number Span Test (r = −0.775, p = 0.003), while the modulation of N100 by ICF was correlated with the total score of the Positive and Negative. Syndrome Scale (r = 0.817, p = 0.002). These findings may represent the pathophysiology, which may be associated with prefrontal GABA_A and glutamatergic dysfunctions, in the expression of symptoms of schizophrenia.

Towards a neurodynamical understanding of the prodrome in schizophrenia

The identification of biomarkers for the early diagnosis of schizophrenia that could inform novel treatment developments is an important objective of current research. This paper will summarize recent work that has investigated changes in oscillatory activity and event-related potentials with Electro/Magnetoencephalography (EEG/MEG) in participants at high-risk for the development of schizophrenia, highlighting disruptions in sensory and cognitive operations prior to the onset of the syndrome. Changes in EEG/MEG-data are consistent with evidence for alterations in Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission as disclosed by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and brain stimulation, indicating changes in Excitation/Inhibition balance parameters prior to the onset of psychosis. Together these data emphasize the importance of research into neuronal dynamics as a crucial approach to establish functional relationships between impairments in neural circuits and emerging psychopathology that together could be fundamental for early intervention and the identification of novel treatments for emerging psychosis.

Glutamatergic metabolites among adolescents at risk for psychosis

Proton-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) may serve as an important tool for identifying biomarkers that aid the understanding of early psychosis, as development of this condition may be associated with metabolite concentration changes that reflect an alteration in glutamatergic mechanisms. The current study explored ¹H-MRS metabolite concentrations in the striatum and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as potential biomarkers of psychosis-risk symptom severity. In a sample of 12 adolescents at clinical high-risk for psychosis, the subclinical symptom of grandiosity significantly correlated with glutamate in the ACC. Striatal glutathione, a marker of oxidative stress linked to the glutamatergic system, significantly correlated with grandiosity. Anterior cingulate glutathione significantly correlated with grandiosity and disorganized communication. These findings suggest that within a small sample of young people at clinical high-risk, glutamatergic metabolites are correlated with symptomatology generally predictive of conversion to psychosis. These mechanisms may serve as relevant biomarkers for facilitating prediction of symptom severity and providing insight into the etiology of early psychosis.