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Mancuso L, Fornito A, Costa T, Ficco L, Liloia D, Manuello J, Duca S, Cauda F. A meta-analytic approach to mapping co-occurrent grey matter volume increases and decreases in psychiatric disorders. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117220. [PMID: 32777357 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have investigated grey matter (GM) volume changes in diverse patient groups. Reports of disorder-related GM reductions are common in such work, but many studies also report evidence for GM volume increases in patients. It is unclear whether these GM increases and decreases are independent or related in some way. Here, we address this question using a novel meta-analytic network mapping approach. We used a coordinate-based meta-analysis of 64 voxel-based morphometry studies of psychiatric disorders to calculate the probability of finding a GM increase or decrease in one region given an observed change in the opposite direction in another region. Estimating this co-occurrence probability for every pair of brain regions allowed us to build a network of concurrent GM changes of opposing polarity. Our analysis revealed that disorder-related GM increases and decreases are not independent; instead, a GM change in one area is often statistically related to a change of opposite polarity in other areas, highlighting distributed yet coordinated changes in GM volume as a function of brain pathology. Most regions showing GM changes linked to an opposite change in a distal area were located in salience, executive-control and default mode networks, as well as the thalamus and basal ganglia. Moreover, pairs of regions showing coupled changes of opposite polarity were more likely to belong to different canonical networks than to the same one. Our results suggest that regional GM alterations in psychiatric disorders are often accompanied by opposing changes in distal regions that belong to distinct functional networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Mancuso
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alex Fornito
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University,Victoria, Australia; Monash Biomedical Imaging, Monash University,Victoria, Australia
| | - Tommaso Costa
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
| | - Linda Ficco
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Donato Liloia
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Jordi Manuello
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Sergio Duca
- GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Franco Cauda
- FOCUS Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy; GCS-fMRI, Koelliker Hospital and Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE The exact pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD) is not yet fully understood, and there are many questions in this area which should be answered. This review aims to discuss the roles of glial cells in the pathophysiology of BD and their contribution to the mechanism of action of mood-stabilising drugs. METHODS We critically reviewed the most recent advances regarding glial cell roles in the pathophysiology and treatment of BD and the neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects of these cells. RESULTS Postmortem studies revealed a decrease in the glial cell number or density in the specific layers of prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in the patients with BD, whereas there was no difference in other brain regions, such as entorhinal cortex, amygdala and hippocampus. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes were the most important glial types that were responsible for the glial reduction, but microglia activation rather than loss may be implicated in BD. The decreased number or density of glial cells may contribute to the pathological changes observed in neurons in the patients with BD. Alteration of specific neurotrophic factors such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and S100B may be an important feature of BD. Glial cells mediate the therapeutic effects of mood-stabilising agents in the treatment of BD. CONCLUSION Recent studies provide important evidence on the impairment of glial cells in the pathophysiology and treatment of BD. However, future controlled studies are necessary to elucidate different aspects of glial cells contribution to BD, and the mechanism of action of mood-stabilising drugs.
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Phase-Dependent Astroglial Alterations in Li-Pilocarpine-Induced Status Epilepticus in Young Rats. Neurochem Res 2017; 42:2730-2742. [PMID: 28444637 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-017-2276-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Epilepsy prevalence is high in infancy and in the elderly population. Lithium-pilocarpine is widely used to induce experimental animal models of epilepsy, leading to similar neurochemical and morphological alterations to those observed in temporal lobe epilepsy. As astrocytes have been implicated in epileptic disorders, we hypothesized that specific astroglial changes accompany and contribute to epileptogenesis. Herein, we evaluated time-dependent astroglial alterations in the hippocampus of young (27-day-old) rats at 1, 14 and 56 days after Li-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE), corresponding to different phases in this model of epilepsy. We determined specific markers of astroglial activation: GFAP, S100B, glutamine synthetase (GS), glutathione (GSH) content, aquaporin-4 (AQP-4) and potassium channel Kir 4.1; as well as epileptic behavioral, inflammatory and neurodegenerative changes. Phase-dependent signs of hippocampal astrogliosis were observed, as demonstrated by increments in GFAP, S100B and GS. Astrocyte dysfunction in the hippocampus was characterized, based on the decrease in GSH content, AQP-4 and Kir 4.1 channels. Degenerating neurons were identified by Fluoro-Jade C staining. We found a clear, early (at SE1) and persistent (at SE56) increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) S100B levels. Additionally, serum S100B was found to decrease soon after SE induction, implicating a rapid-onset increase in the CSF/serum S100B ratio. However, serum S100B increased at SE14, possibly reflecting astroglial activation and/or long-term increase in cerebrovascular permeability. Moreover, we suggest that peripheral S100B levels may represent a useful marker for SE in young rats and for follow up during the chronic phases of this model of epilepsy. Together, results reinforce and extend the idea of astroglial involvement in epileptic disorders.
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Abstract
Lithium is an effective medication for the treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Accumulating evidence suggests that inflammation plays a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder and that lithium has anti-inflammatory effects that may contribute to its therapeutic efficacy. This article summarizes the studies which examined the effects of lithium on pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Some of the summarized data suggest that lithium exerts anti-inflammatory effects (e.g., suppression of cyclooxygenase-2 expression, inhibition of interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α production, and enhancement of IL-2 and IL-10 synthesis). Nevertheless, there is a large body of data which indicates that under certain experimental conditions lithium also exhibits pro-inflammatory properties (e.g., induction of IL-4, IL-6 and other pro-inflammatory cytokines synthesis). The reviewed studies utilized various experimental model systems, and it is thus difficult to draw an unequivocal conclusion regarding the effect of lithium on specific inflammatory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Nassar
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry
and Pharmacology, and ‡School for Community
Health Professions − Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Abed N. Azab
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry
and Pharmacology, and ‡School for Community
Health Professions − Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
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Feresten AH, Barakauskas V, Ypsilanti A, Barr AM, Beasley CL. Increased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in prefrontal cortex in psychotic illness. Schizophr Res 2013; 150:252-7. [PMID: 23911257 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Revised: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Astrocyte dysregulation has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BPD), however the exact nature of astrocytic alterations remains to be identified. In this study we investigated whether levels of four astrocyte-specific proteins; glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), aldehyde dehydrogenase 1L1 (ALDH1L1), vimentin and excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAT1) are altered in SCZ and BPD. Relative concentrations of GFAP, ALDH1L1, vimentin and EAAT1 were assessed post-mortem in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in SCZ (n=35), BPD (n=34) and non-psychiatric controls (n=35) by western blotting. The same proteins were also quantified in cingulate cortex of rats administered the antipsychotics haloperidol and clozapine. Elevated levels of GFAP were observed in SCZ and BPD, when compared to controls. GFAP was also significantly increased when comparing individuals with psychotic symptoms against those without. Vimentin, ALDH1L1 and EAAT1 levels did not differ between groups. Rats exposed to antipsychotics did not exhibit significant differences in any astrocytic protein, suggesting that increased GFAP in SCZ is not attributable to antipsychotic treatment. Our findings indicate that astrocyte pathology may be associated with psychotic symptoms. Lack of ALDH1L1 and vimentin variability and increased GFAP levels may imply that astrocyte numbers are unchanged but astrocytes are partially activated, or may indicate a specific dysregulation of GFAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail H Feresten
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Li LF, Yang J, Ma SP, Qu R. Magnolol treatment reversed the glial pathology in an unpredictable chronic mild stress-induced rat model of depression. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 711:42-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2012] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Rodnight RB, Gottfried C. Morphological plasticity of rodent astroglia. J Neurochem 2012; 124:263-75. [PMID: 23278277 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 11/04/2012] [Accepted: 11/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the past two decades, there has been an explosion of research on the role of neuroglial interactions in the control of brain homeostasis in both physiological and pathological conditions. Astrocytes, a subtype of glia in the central nervous system, are dynamic signaling elements that regulate neurogenesis and development of brain circuits, displaying intimate dynamic relationships with neurons, especially at synaptic sites where they functionally integrate the tripartite synapse. When astrocytes are isolated from the brain and maintained in culture, they exhibit a polygonal shape unlike their precursors in vivo. However, cultured astrocytes can be induced to undergo morphological plasticity leading to process formation, either by interaction with neurons or by the influence of pharmacological agents. This review highlights studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying morphological plasticity in astrocyte cultures and intact brain tissue, both in situ and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Burnard Rodnight
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and Hunter Medical Research Institute, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia
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Stockmeier CA, Rajkowska G. Cellular abnormalities in depression: evidence from postmortem brain tissue. DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE 2012. [PMID: 22033633 PMCID: PMC3181793 DOI: 10.31887/dcns.2004.6.2/cstockmeier] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During the past two decades, in vivo neuroimaging studies have permitted significant insights into the general location of dysfunctional brain regions in depression. In parallel and often intersecting ways, neuroanatomical, pharmacological, and biochemical studies of postmortem brain tissue are permitting new insights into the pathophysiology of depression. In addition to long-recognized neurochemical abnormalities in depression, novel studies at the microscopic level support the contention that mood disorders are associated with abnormalities in cell morphology and distribution. In the past 6 years, cell-counting studies have identified changes in the density and size of both neurons and glia in a number of frontolimbic brain regions, including dorsolateral prefrontal, orbitofrontal, and anterior cingulate cortex, and the amygdala and hippocampus. Convergence of cellular changes at the microscopic level with neuroimaging changes detected in vivo provides a compelling integration of clinical and basic research for disentangling the pathophysiology of depression. The ultimate integration of these two research approaches will occur with premortem longitudinal clinical studies on well-characterized patients linked to postmortem studies of the same subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Stockmeier
- The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Jackson, Miss, USA
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Liu Q, Li B, Zhu HY, Wang YQ, Yu J, Wu GC. Glia atrophy in the hippocampus of chronic unpredictable stress-induced depression model rats is reversed by electroacupuncture treatment. J Affect Disord 2011; 128:309-13. [PMID: 20801523 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2010.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 07/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Growing evidence indicates that glia atrophy contributes to the pathophysiology and possibly the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder. Electroacupuncture (EA), one of Chinese traditional therapy, has potent antidepressant-like effect in many clinical studies. The mechanism by which EA improves behavioral deficits is still unclear. METHOD Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS)-induced depression model rats were used to study the effect of EA treatment. EA was performed on acupoints 'Bai-Hui' (Du 20) and unilateral 'An-Mian' (EX 17) once daily for three consecutive weeks, two weeks post CUS procedure. The antidepressant-like effect of EA treatment was analyzed by physical state (PS) and open field test (OFT). Astrocytic marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) level in the hippocampus was detected by immunohistochemistry, Western blot analysis and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS Exposure to CUS resulted in a decrease of behavioral activity, whereas a daily session of EA treatment significantly reversed the behavioral deficit of these depression model rats. Moreover, the levels of GFAP mRNA and protein were decreased in the hippocampus of depression model rats. Intriguingly, EA treatment blocked effectively the decreased GFAP level. LIMITATION The relative small number of the depression model rats may cause some bias of behavioral tests. CONCLUSION EA has potential antidepressant-like effect on CUS-induced depression model rats, which might be mediated by affecting the glial atrophy in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, State Key Lab of Medical Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P.R. China
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Fountoulakis KN, Vieta E, Bouras C, Notaridis G, Giannakopoulos P, Kaprinis G, Akiskal H. A systematic review of existing data on long-term lithium therapy: neuroprotective or neurotoxic? Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2008; 11:269-87. [PMID: 17506922 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145707007821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lithium is an efficacious agent for the treatment of bipolar disorder, but it is unclear to what extent its long-term use may result in neuroprotective or toxic consequences. Medline was searched with the combination of the word 'Lithium' plus key words that referred to every possible effect on the central nervous system. The papers were further classified into those supporting a neuroprotective effect, those in favour of a neurotoxic effect and those that were neutral. The papers were classified into research in humans, animal and in-vitro research, case reports, and review/opinion articles. Finally, the Natural Standard evidence-based validated grading rationale was used to validate the data. The Medline search returned 970 papers up to February 2006. Inspection of the abstracts supplied 214 papers for further reviewing. Eighty-nine papers supported the neuroprotective effect (6 human research, 58 animal/in vitro, 0 case reports, 25 review/opinion articles). A total of 116 papers supported the neurotoxic effect (17 human research, 23 animal/in vitro, 60 case reports, 16 review/opinion articles). Nine papers supported no hypothesis (5 human research, 3 animal/in vitro, 0 case reports, 1 review/opinion articles). Overall, the grading suggests that the data concerning the effect of lithium therapy is that of level C, that is 'unclear or conflicting scientific evidence' since there is conflicting evidence from uncontrolled non-randomized studies accompanied by conflicting evidence from animal and basic science studies. Although more papers are in favour of the toxic effect, the great difference in the type of papers that support either hypothesis, along with publication bias and methodological issues make conclusions difficult. Lithium remains the 'gold standard' for the prophylaxis of bipolar illness, however, our review suggests that there is a rare possibility of a neurotoxic effect in real-life clinical practice even in closely monitored patients with 'therapeutic' lithium plasma levels. It is desirable to keep lithium blood levels as low as feasible with prophylaxis.
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Schloesser RJ, Chen G, Manji HK. Neurogenesis and Neuroenhancement in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Bipolar Disorder. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 77:143-78. [PMID: 17178474 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(06)77005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Schloesser
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Research Program National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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12
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Czéh B, Simon M, Schmelting B, Hiemke C, Fuchs E. Astroglial plasticity in the hippocampus is affected by chronic psychosocial stress and concomitant fluoxetine treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:1616-26. [PMID: 16395301 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Analysis of post-mortem tissue from patients with affective disorders has revealed a decreased number of glial cells in several brain areas. Here, we examined whether long-term psychosocial stress influences the number and morphology of hippocampal astrocytes in an animal model with high validity for research on the pathophysiology of major depression. Adult male tree shrews were submitted to 5 weeks of psychosocial stress, after which immunocytochemical and quantitative stereological techniques were used to estimate the total number and somal volume of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive astrocytes in the hippocampal formation. Stress significantly decreased both the number (-25%) and somal volume (-25%) of astroglia, effects that correlated notably with the stress-induced hippocampal volume reduction. Additionally, we examined whether antidepressant treatment with fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, offered protection from these stress-induced effects. Animals were subjected to 7 days of psychosocial stress before the onset of daily oral administration of fluoxetine (15 mg/kg per day), with stress continued throughout the 28-day treatment period. Fluoxetine treatment prevented the stress-induced numerical decrease of astrocytes, but had no counteracting effect on somal volume shrinkage. In nonstressed animals, fluoxetine treatment had no effect on the number of astrocytes, but stress exposure significantly reduced their somal volumes (-20%). These notable changes of astroglial structural plasticity in response to stress and antidepressant treatment support the notion that glial changes may contribute to the pathophysiology of affective disorders as well as to the cellular actions of antidepressants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boldizsár Czéh
- Clinical Neurobiology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany.
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Webster MJ, O'Grady J, Kleinman JE, Weickert CS. Glial fibrillary acidic protein mRNA levels in the cingulate cortex of individuals with depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Neuroscience 2005; 133:453-61. [PMID: 15885920 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2004] [Revised: 01/27/2005] [Accepted: 02/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown a decrease in glial number and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels in the frontal and cingulate cortices of individuals with mood disorders and schizophrenia. In an attempt to verify and expand these findings we examined GFAP messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) levels in postmortem sections of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) from the Stanley Neuropathology Consortium (SNC). The consortium consists of 15 cases in each of four groups (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, non-psychotic depression and unaffected controls). By in situ hybridization, we found higher levels of GFAP mRNA in white matter and at the pial surface as compared with gray matter levels in all cases. In the white matter of ACC we detected a significant effect of diagnosis (P<0.04) with GFAP mRNA levels decreased in individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder as compared with normal controls. In the gray matter there was a significant effect of layer (P<0.01) with the highest levels of GFAP mRNA in layer VI in all groups. As in the white matter, the mean GFAP mRNA levels were decreased in individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder as compared with the unaffected controls, however the difference failed to reach statistical significance. Thus, astrocytes positive for GFAP may contribute to the decrease in glial density previously described in subjects with major mental illness, however the relative contribution of astrocytes may vary with diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Webster
- Stanley Lab of Brain Research, Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University for the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4799, USA.
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Kim JS, Chang MY, Yu IT, Kim JH, Lee SH, Lee YS, Son H. Lithium selectively increases neuronal differentiation of hippocampal neural progenitor cells both in vitro and in vivo. J Neurochem 2004; 89:324-36. [PMID: 15056276 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2004.02329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Lithium has been demonstrated to increase neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of rodent hippocampus. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of lithium on the proliferation and differentiation of rat neural progenitor cells in hippocampus both in vitro and in vivo. Lithium chloride (1-3 mM) produced a significant increase in the number of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cells in high-density cultures, but did not increase clonal size in low-density cultures. Lithium chloride at 1 mM (within the therapeutic range) also increased the number of cells double-labeled with BrdU antibody and TuJ1 (a class III beta-tubulin antibody) in high-density cultures and the number of TuJ1-positive cells in a clone of low-density cultures, whereas it decreased the number of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells in both cultures. These results suggest that lithium selectively increased differentiation of neuronal progenitors. These actions of lithium appeared to enhance a neuronal subtype, calbindin(D28k)-positive cells, and involved a phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase and phosphorylated cyclic AMP response element-binding protein-dependent pathway both in vitro and in vivo. These findings suggest that lithium in therapeutic amounts may elicit its beneficial effects via facilitation of neural progenitor differentiation toward a calbindin(D28k)-positive neuronal cell type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Seuk Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Abstract
The existence of depression has been recognized for decades, but its precise neurobiological basis remains unknown. Whereas neuroimaging studies unravel the gross morphological localization of dysfunctional brain regions in depression, postmortem studies provide further insights into the cellular and neurochemical substrates of depression. Recent cell-counting studies have established that major depressive disorder and bipolar illness are characterized by alterations in the density and size of neuronal and glial cells in fronto-limbic brain regions. It remains to be fully elucidated to what extent these findings represent neurodevelopmental abnormalities or disease progression and whether the cellular changes observed in depression can be reversed by antidepressant and mood-stabilizing medications. Efforts to unravel specific groups of genes that are compromised in depression have recently been undertaken by investigators in the postmortem research field. Future studies will determine whether these genes may be novel targets of therapeutic medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Rajkowska
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson 39216, USA.
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Fatemi SH, Emamian ES, Sidwell RW, Kist DA, Stary JM, Earle JA, Thuras P. Human influenza viral infection in utero alters glial fibrillary acidic protein immunoreactivity in the developing brains of neonatal mice. Mol Psychiatry 2003; 7:633-40. [PMID: 12140787 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2000] [Revised: 08/15/2001] [Accepted: 09/24/2001] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological reports describe a strong association between prenatal human influenza viral infection and later development of schizophrenia. Postmodern human brain studies, however, indicate a lack of gliosis in schizophrenic brains presumably secondary to absence of glial cells during the second trimester viral infection in utero. We hypothesized that human influenza infection in day 9 pregnant mice would alter the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, an important marker of gliosis, neuron migration, and reactive injury) in developing brains of postnatal days 0, 14 and 35 mice. Determination of cellular GFAP immunoreactivity (IR) expressed as cell density in cortex and hippocampus of control and experimental brains showed increases in GFAP-positive density in exposed cortical (P = 0.03 day 14 vs control) and hippocampal cells (P = 0.035 day 14, P = 0.034 day 35). Similarly, ependymal cell layer GFAP-IR cell counts showed increases with increasing brain age from day 0, to days 14 and 35 in infected groups (P = 0.037, day 14) vs controls. The GFAP-positive cells in prenatally exposed brains showed 'hypertrophy' and more stellate morphology. These results implicate a significant role of prenatal human influenza viral infection on subsequent gliosis, which persists throughout brain development in mice from birth to adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Fatemi
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Neuroscience Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Santos PD, Gehlen G, Faccioni-Heuser MC, Zancan DM, Achaval M. Distribution of glial cells in the central nervous system of the pulmonate snail Megalobulimus oblongus identified by means of a glial fibrillary acidic protein marker. ACTA ZOOL-STOCKHOLM 2002. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1463-6395.2002.00126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Rajkowska G, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ, Makkos Z, Meltzer H, Overholser J, Stockmeier C. Layer-specific reductions in GFAP-reactive astroglia in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2002; 57:127-38. [PMID: 12223243 DOI: 10.1016/s0920-9964(02)00339-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies have implicated the prefronto-striatal loop as a substrate for the cognitive deficits in schizophrenia (SCHZ). Postmortem morphometric studies reveal that layers III and V of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), which gave rise to glutamatergic projections to neostriatum, demonstrate the most structural pathology in this region of the SCHZ. These neuronal alterations in SCHZ are not accompanied by marked glial changes as revealed by Nissl staining. We examined the glial-type specific pathology in SCHZ by analyzing the glial fibrillary acidic protein- (GFAP) immunoreactive astroglia in contrast to the Nissl-stained general pool of glial cells in dlPFC (area 9) from 9 subjects with SCHZ and 15 psychiatrically normal control subjects. In layer V of the dlPFC in SCHZ, there was a significant 32% reduction in the GFAP-area fraction, 81% increase in the density of the GFAP-positive cell bodies and a 14% decrease in the width of the cortical layer V, as compared to the control subjects. None of these parameters were affected in layers III and IV in the SCHZ. Therefore, only subtle, type- and layer-specific glial pathology is present in the dlPFC in SCHZ. Astroglial pathology in dlPFC may reflect disturbances of the neuron-glia interactions in layer V and may be related to the dysfunctional prefronto-striatal circuits, dopaminergic alterations and cognitive pathology in SCHZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Rajkowska
- Laboratory of Quantitative Neuroanatomy, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Box: 127, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N. State St., Jackson, MS 39216, USA.
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Rasia-Filho AA, Xavier LL, dos Santos P, Gehlen G, Achaval M. Glial fibrillary acidic protein immunodetection and immunoreactivity in the anterior and posterior medial amygdala of male and female rats. Brain Res Bull 2002; 58:67-75. [PMID: 12121815 DOI: 10.1016/s0361-9230(02)00758-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The medial amygdala (MeA) has receptors for gonadal hormones and modulates reproductive behaviors in rats. Adult male and female rats were used for the immunodetection, a less accurate technique, and the immunohistochemistry for the astrocytic marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in the anterior and posterior MeA. Both procedures were done using polyclonal anti-GFAP and were quantified by densitometry. The first technique provided no evidence for a difference between sexes in the immunocontent of GFAP in any region of the MeA (p > 0.1). Nevertheless, the measure of the intensity of GFAP immunoreactivity (GFAP-IR) showed that females had a higher GFAP-IR in the posterodorsal (p < 0.01) and in the posteroventral subregions of the MeA (p < 0.01) than males. No sex difference was found in its anterodorsal part (p > 0.1). The present results point out the differences between these two above-mentioned techniques but add a new finding to the previously described sexual dimorphism in the MeA, i.e., the GFAP-IR. Data also suggest that probably astrocytes can be affected by sex steroids in this brain area. It is likely that this regionally specific difference in the GFAP-IR may contribute to the distinct functional roles that the MeA subregions have in male and female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto A Rasia-Filho
- Laboratório de Histofisiologia Comparada, Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Regner A, Alves LB, Chemale I, Costa MS, Friedman G, Achaval M, Leal L, Emanuelli T. Neurochemical characterization of traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18:783-92. [PMID: 11526984 DOI: 10.1089/089771501316919148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trauma is the leading cause of death in individuals between the ages of 1 and 44 years. And, in the case of severe head injury mortality can reach as high as 35-70%. Despite this fact, there has been little progress in the development of effective pharmacological agents to protect brain injured patients. To date, there is little data on the mechanisms involved in neuronal cellular insult after severe head injury, especially in humans. Glutamate acts both as a primary excitatory neurotransmitter and a potential neurotoxin within the mammalian brain. Evidence indicates that hyperactivity of the glutamate system contributes to neuronal death in brain trauma. Also, in animal models of neurotrauma, this neural injury is followed by gliosis which has been linked to the severity of brain injury. To investigate the glutamate system in brain trauma, we carried out [3H]glutamate and [3H]MK801 (a noncompetitive NMDA-receptor antagonist) binding and [3H]glutamate uptake assays in human cerebral cortex preparations obtained from severely brain injured and control victims. Additionally, to investigate gliosis following brain injury, we performed GFAP immunohistochemistry. There were no significant differences in [3H]glutamate binding (affinity or density of sites) between the control and head injured groups. In contrast, cerebral cortical [3H]MK801 binding revealed both a significant increase in the density of sites (Bmax) and a decrease in the dissociation constant (Kd) in the head injured group when compared to controls. There were no significant differences in [3H]glutamate uptake between groups. The injured brains presented an increased number of GFAP-positive astrocytes and more intense GFAP reaction in comparison to control brains. In the context of traumatic brain injury, our results encourage further investigation into compounds capable of selective modulation of NMDA receptor subtype in humans while also therapeutically manipulating glial cell responses following brain trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Regner
- Department of Biochemistry of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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Cotter DR, Pariante CM, Everall IP. Glial cell abnormalities in major psychiatric disorders: the evidence and implications. Brain Res Bull 2001; 55:585-95. [PMID: 11576755 DOI: 10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent quantitative post-mortem investigations of the cerebral cortex have convincingly demonstrated cortical glial cell loss in subjects with major depression. Evidence is also mounting that glial cell loss may also be a feature of schizophrenia. These findings coincide with a re-evaluation of the importance of glial cells in normal cortical function. In addition to their traditional roles in neuronal migration and inflammatory processes, glia are now accepted to have roles in providing trophic support to neurons, neuronal metabolism, and the formation of synapses and neurotransmission. Consequently, reduced cortical glial cell numbers could be responsible for some of the pathological changes in schizophrenia and depression, including reduced neuronal size, reduced levels of synaptic proteins, and abnormalities of cortical neurotransmission. Additionally, as astrocytes provide the energy requirements of neurons, deficient astrocyte function could account for aspects of the functional magnetic imaging abnormalities found in these disorders. We discuss the possible basis of glial cell loss in these disorders and suggest that elevated levels of glucocorticoids, due to illness-related stress or to hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal may down-regulate glial activity and so predispose to, or exacerbate psychiatric illness through enhanced excitotoxicity. The potential therapeutic impact of agents which up-regulate glial activity or normalise glial cell numbers is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- D R Cotter
- Section of Experimental Neuropathology and Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, DeCrespigny Park, London, UK.
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Abstract
In addition to their neurochemical effects, antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs produce structural brain changes. This property is relevant not only for understanding the drugs' mode of action, but because it complicates morphological studies of schizophrenia. Here the histological neuropathological effects of antipsychotics are reviewed, together with brief mention of those produced by other treatments sometimes used in schizophrenia (electroconvulsive shock, lithium and antidepressants). Most data come from drug-treated rats, though there are also some human post-mortem studies with broadly congruent findings. The main alteration associated with antipsychotic medication concerns the ultrastructure and proportion of synaptic subpopulations in the caudate nucleus. In rats, synapses and dendrites in lamina VI of the prefrontal cortex are also affected. The changes are indicative of a drug-induced synaptic plasticity, although the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Similarly, it is unclear whether the neuropathological features relate primarily to the therapeutic action of antipsychotics or, more likely, to their predisposition to cause tardive dyskinesia and other motor side-effects. Clozapine seems to cause lesser and somewhat different alterations than do typical antipsychotics, albeit based on few data. There is no good evidence that antipsychotics cause neuronal loss or gliosis, nor that they promote neurofibrillary tangle formation or other features of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Harrison
- University Department of Psychiatry, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK.
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