Life events in early adolescence

Contextual and Behavioral Correlates of Coping Strategies Among an Ethnically Diverse Sample of Urban Adolescents in the Midwestern United States

Coping is recognized as an important life skill. In the present cross-sectional analysis, early adolescents' relationships with their caregivers (support, conflict) and exposure to stressors (uncontrollable life events, violence) were examined as contextual correlates of both positive and negative coping strategies. Coping strategies were examined as mediators of associations between adolescents' family and community contexts and adjustment outcomes (externalizing symptoms, internalizing symptoms, academic investment). Participants were recruited from an urban Pre-K-8 school and Boys and Girls Club. Adolescents who reported greater support from caregivers reported greater engagement in all forms of positive coping (behavioral/problem-focused coping, cognitive/emotion-focused coping, and coping through seeking support); they also reported less engagement in coping through anger and helplessness. Adolescents who reported greater conflict with caregivers or violence exposure reported greater engagement in coping through avoidance, anger, and helplessness. Problem-focused coping, coping through anger, and coping through helplessness mediated associations between different contextual factors and outcomes.

Psychosocial Stress, Internalized Symptoms, and the Academic Achievement of Hispanic Adolescents

This study examined the relationship between stressful life events, internalized symptoms of stress, and academic achievement among a sample of Hispanic students in a large urban high school. Using a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, students were administered the Hispanic Children’s Stress Inventory and two measures of internalized symptoms (Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale and the Children’s Depression Inventory). Perceived competence was measured using the Harter Perceived Competence Scale. A series of hierarchical multiple regressions revealed main effects for stressful life events and perceived competence on grades, anxiety, and depressive symptomatology. In addition, interaction terms were entered into the regression equations to determine if perceived competence was a moderator of stressful life events. Direct effects of stressful life events and perceived competence on school grades and internalized symptoms were found. Multiplicative interactions for perceived competence were not significant moderators of psychosocial stress on grades or internalized symptoms.

Relations among Single Mothers’ Awareness of their Adolescents’ Stressors, Maternal Monitoring, Mother-Adolescent Communication, and Adolescent Adjustment

The goal of this study was to examine the relations among mothers’ awareness of their adolescents’ stressors, mother-adolescent communication, maternal monitoring, and adolescent adjustment in single-parent families. Measures of adolescent stress, communication, monitoring, and adolescents’ anxious/depressed and aggressive behaviors were completed by 82 adolescents and their single mothers. The findings indicated that single mothers were aware of about half of their adolescents’ stressors and not as aware of the importance to their adolescents. Adolescents in the group characterized by high stress/low agreement reported more problem behaviors. Moreover, monitoring mediated the relationship between awareness group membership and adolescent adjustment as high agreement groups reported more monitoring and fewer problem behaviors than did low agreement groups. Thus, during early adolescence when adolescent stress increases and family communication and monitoring change, monitoring by single mothers may increase awareness of adolescent stress, which in turn may buffer the negative effects of stress on adolescent adjustment.

Family Economic Stress, Quality of Paternal Relationship, and Depressive Symptoms among African American Adolescent Fathers

This study examined the association between perceived family economic stress, quality of father-son relationships, and depressive symptoms among African American adolescent fathers. Data were collected during pregnancy from 65 African American adolescents who were first-time fathers, ages 14-19. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that higher paternal relationship satisfaction was associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adolescent fathers. Additionally, depressive symptoms were higher among adolescent fathers who reported experiencing higher levels of conflict with their fathers. Further, paternal conflict moderated the effect of perceived family economic stress on depressive symptoms. That is, among adolescent fathers experiencing low levels of conflict with their fathers, high perceived family economic stress was associated with more depressive symptoms. Study findings suggest that the risk for depressive symptoms is highest among adolescent fathers experiencing low family economic stress and highly conflictual relations with their fathers. These results highlight the complexities of paternal relationships and perceived economic stressors on depressive symptoms during pregnancy for African American adolescent fathers. The importance of expanding research on influential familial relationships and economic stressors on adolescent African American fathers is discussed.

Religiosity and behavioral health outcomes of adolescents living in disaster-vulnerable areas

The influence of religiosity on behavioral health outcomes among adolescents living in disaster-prone areas has been understudied. This study utilized data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2005-2010) to examine the relationship between religion, depression, marijuana use, and binge drinking. The sample included 12,500 adolescents residing in the Gulf Coast region of the USA. Results show that religious salience was directly related to depression, marijuana, and binge drinking. It was also indirectly related to both substance use outcomes through depression. Religious service attendance was unrelated to any of the outcomes. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Mediators of depression among low-income, adolescent mothers of infants: A longitudinal perspective

The purpose of this study was to identify, using a life events perspective, Stressors and resources that mediate depression for adolescent mothers at the time of the birth of their child and at one year postpartum. The data for this study consisted of interviews with 157 low-income adolescent mothers age 12-18 at the birth of their child. They were selected from a larger prospective study of mothers of infants and stress. Multiple regression analyses revealed two key results that were consistent for the data obtained at birth and at one year postpartum. Predictors of depressive symptomatology and of a clinical syndrome of depression were similar. Also, Stressors generally were more important as mediators of depression than resources.

Does self-complexity moderate the effects of exposure to political violence for adolescents?

This study examined the moderating role of self-complexity (SC) on well-being (WB) and psychopathology among Israeli adolescents exposed to the Second Lebanon War (2006). Adolescents (N=584, mean age 16.41) completed a SC measure, Political and Negative Life Events (NLE) scales, Brief Symptom Inventory and Satisfaction with Life Scale. The theoretical model analyzed the function of SC as a moderator of exposure effects to political life events (PLE), while controlling for general NLE. Results corroborated the model with SC moderating the effects of the war-related PLE. Adolescents with low SC are at risk for damaged WB and psychiatric consequences from political violence exposure. This opens a diagnostic avenue for identification of at-risk adolescents in this socio-political context toward whom clinical programs should be directed.

Parental practices and political violence: the protective role of parental warmth and authority-control in Jewish and Arab Israeli children

Parental warmth and parental authority-control patterns have been documented as practices with highest significance for children's well-being and development in a variety of life areas. Various forms of these practices have been shown to have a direct positive effect on children and also to protect children from adverse effects of numerous stressors. However, surprisingly, few studies have examined the role of these practices as possible protective factors for children exposed to intractable conflict and political violence. Participants in this study were Jewish (n = 88) and Arab (n = 105) Israeli families, with children aged 7-12.5 (M = 10.73, SD = 0.99). Children completed questionnaires assessing political violence exposure, behavioral, psychological, and social difficulties, and perceived paternal and maternal warmth. Mothers and fathers completed questionnaires assessing parental warmth, parental authority-control, and the child's difficulties. Results showed parental warmth to be a significant moderator of political violence, related to low levels of behavioral and social difficulties of children. Parental authority-control patterns were not protectors from adverse effects of political violence exposure. Maternal authoritarian authority-control showed an effect resembling a risk factor. Differential roles of parental warmth and authority-control, fathers' versus mothers' roles, and ethnic differences are discussed, and practical clinical implications are proposed.

Children's Body composition and Stress - the ChiBS study: aims, design, methods, population and participation characteristics

BACKGROUND

The last decades, the prevalence of childhood obesity has increased. Apart from other lifestyle factors, the effect of chronic psychosocial stress on the development of obesity has been recognized. However, more research is needed into the influence of chronic stress on appetite regulation, energy balance and body composition, as well as on the interaction with physical activity/sedentary behavior, diet and sleep in children. In this regard, the ChiBS study (Children's Body composition and Stress) was designed at the Ghent University. Within this paper, we describe the aims, design, methods, participation and population characteristics of the ChiBS study.

METHODS

The influence of chronic stress on changes in body composition is investigated over a two-year follow-up period (February-June 2010, 2011 and 2012) in primary-school children between 6 and 12 years old in the city Aalter (Flanders, Belgium).Stress is measured by child- and parent-reported stress-questionnaires, as well as by objective stress biomarkers (serum, salivary and hair cortisol) and heart rate variability. Body composition is evaluated using basic anthropometric measurements and air displacement plethysmography. Additional information on socio-economic status, medical history, physical activity, dietary intake and sleep are obtained by questionnaires, and physical activity by accelerometers.

RESULTS

The participation percentage was 68.7% (N = 523/761), with 71.3% of the children willing to participate in the first follow-up survey. Drop-out proportions were highest for serum sampling (12.1%), salivary sampling (8.3%) and heart rate variability measurements (7.4%).

DISCUSSION

The ChiBS project is unique in its setting: its standardized and longitudinal approach provides valuable data and new insights into the relationship between stress and changes in body composition in a large cohort of young children. In addition, this study allows an in-depth investigation of the validity of the different methods that were used to assess stress levels in children.

Epidemiological approaches to measure childhood stress

The prevalence of childhood stress has repeatedly been shown to be high, with 'parental separation' and 'being bullied at school' as the most frequently reported stressors in the child's everyday life. This is quite alarming as children are most vulnerable to the adverse psychological and physiological health consequences of chronic stress exposure. Despite growing research interest in this field over the last years, literature falls short in providing an overview of methods to adequately assess stress in elementary school children (6-12 years old). This review describes questionnaires and interviews, as well as laboratory measurements of cortisol in biological samples (serum, urine, saliva and hair) as stress assessment methods in children, with the emphasis on epidemiological research settings. Major characteristics, strengths and limitations of these methods are established, examples of child-specific stressor questionnaires and interviews are provided and specific recommendations with respect to epidemiological research are formulated. In addition, hair cortisol as a potential biomarker for chronic stress (in children) is discussed more thoroughly. This review is meant to serve as a preliminary guide for health researchers new to this research area by reflecting on theoretical and methodological aspects in childhood stress assessment.

Parenting style as a moderator of effects of political violence

This study examined cross-cultural differences in the moderating function of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles for Jewish and Arab Israeli children exposed to political violence. Respondents were parents and children aged 10–11 from 94 families (42 Arab, 52 Jewish). Parents completed the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire and a demographic questionnaire, and children completed the Brief Symptom Inventory, Political Life Events Scale, and Negative Life Events Scale. Political violence exposure and parenting style influenced children’s psychological distress. Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting style moderated effects of political-violence exposure differently for Jewish and Arab children. These findings highlight the need to examine both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting style and ways in which parenting style effects are culturally dependent.

Posttraumatic stress without trauma in children

OBJECTIVE

It remains unclear to what degree children show signs of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after experiencing low-magnitude stressors, or stressors milder than those required for the DSM-IV extreme stressor criterion.

METHOD

A representative community sample of 1,420 children, ages 9, 11, and 13 at intake, was followed annually through age 16. Low-magnitude and extreme stressors as well as subsequent posttraumatic stress symptoms were assessed with the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment. Two measures of posttraumatic stress symptoms were used: having painful recall, hyperarousal, and avoidance symptoms (subclinical PTSD) and having painful recall only.

RESULTS

During any 3-month period, low-magnitude stressors occurred four times as often as extreme stressors (24.0% compared with 5.9%). Extreme stressors elicited painful recall in 8.7% of participants and subclinical PTSD in 3.1%, compared with 4.2% and 0.7%, respectively, for low-magnitude stressors. Because of their higher prevalence, however, low-magnitude stressors accounted for two-thirds of cases of painful recall and half of cases of subclinical PTSD. Moreover, exposure to low-magnitude stressors predicted symptoms even among youths with no prior lifetime exposure to an extreme stressor.

CONCLUSIONS

Relative to low-magnitude stressors, extreme stressors place children at greater risk for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Nevertheless, a sizable proportion of children manifesting posttraumatic stress symptoms experienced only a low-magnitude stressor.

Efficacy of a school-based primary prevention program for coping with exposure to political violence

A paradigm conceptualizing resilience as factors moderating between political violence exposure and psychological distress administered in a 7-year research project yielded a profile of factors promoting Israeli children's coping in conflict conditions. Three factors — social support mobilization, selfefficacy, and meaning attribution — were incorporated into a school-based primary intervention program. In a repeated measures design, the study assessed pre to post-test modifications in the three resilience factors and psychological distress in a primary and control intervention condition and the interaction of actual political violence exposure on distress reduction. Results validated modification only of the mobilization of support factor, but nonetheless confirmed the primary program's efficacy in moderating psychological distress particularly among children with low actual political violence exposure, who showed greater distress increases in the control condition. Findings reinforce the educational system's role in promoting resilience among children in conflict environments.

Risk factors for adolescent alcohol use following a natural disaster

INTRODUCTION

On 29 March 1998, a series of category F-3 and F-4 tornadoes caused wide-spread destruction in four rural southern Minnesota counties in the United States. Extensive research has examined the impact of disaster exposure on adults' psychological functioning, including alcohol use. However, there has been little research on potential risk factors for adolescents' alcohol use following disaster exposure.

HYPOTHESIS

It was hypothesized that demographic variables such as age and gender, prior drinking involvement, extent of prior trauma history, level of disaster exposure, and current disaster-related, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology would predict alcohol use among adolescents.

METHODS

Six months following a natural disaster, survey data were collected from 256 adolescents assessing these factors. Risk factors for adolescents' alcohol use were identified using hierarchical, multiple regression and logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Greater age, prior drinking involvement, and the extent of prior trauma history were significantly associated with higher levels of binge drinking. Prior trauma history and current levels of disaster-related PTSD symptomatology were significant risk factors for adolescents' report of increases in their alcohol consumption since the tornado.

CONCLUSION

In general, the extent of trauma exposure was associated with greater binge drinking among adolescents. Similar to adults, post-traumatic stress symptoms experienced in the aftermath of a disaster can lead to increased alcohol consumption among adolescents.

The prevalence of potentially traumatic events in childhood and adolescence

This paper examines exposure to potentially traumatic events from middle childhood through adolescence, and vulnerability to such exposure. Analyses are based on the first 4 annual waves of data from a longitudinal general population study of youth in western North Carolina, involving 4,965 interviews with 1,420 children and adolescents and their parents or guardians. Participants reported on DSM extreme stressors ("high magnitude events"), other potentially traumatic events ("low magnitude events"), and background vulnerability factors. In this general population sample, one-quarter experienced at least one high magnitude event by age 16, 6% within the past 3 months. One third experienced a low magnitude event in the past 3 months. The likelihood of such exposure increased with the number of vulnerability factors.

Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: predictors of change

In a sample of 240 adolescents assessed annually in Grades 6 through 11, the developmental trajectories of their depressive symptoms were examined using latent factor growth modeling. Growth in mother-reported adolescent depressive symptoms was quadratic; growth in adolescent-reported symptoms was linear. In the model with gender and maternal depression, girls reported a greater increase in depressive symptoms over time than boys, and adolescents of mothers with histories of mood disorders had higher initial levels of depressive symptoms than offspring of never-depressed mothers. After gender and maternal depression were controlled, initial levels of negative attributions and stressors significantly predicted initial levels of adolescent- and mother-reported depressive symptoms. Attributional styles that were increasingly negative across time were associated with significantly higher initial levels (mother reported) and increasing growth (adolescent reported) of depressive symptoms. Reciprocal models in which development of depressive symptoms predicted the development of attributions and stress also were examined.

Reports of stress: a comparison between eating disordered and non-eating disordered adolescents

This study utilizes a unique method to examine reports of stressful life events provided by eating disordered and non-eating disordered adolescents. Subjects (all females) participated in a standardized procedure to obtain reports of stressful life events. The Life Events and Coping Inventory (LECI) was used to categorize reported stressors. Eating disorder subjects discussed more stressors than non-eating disorder subjects only when eating disorder events were included. Furthermore, eating disorder subjects reported more events that could not be classified within the LECI and were rated as non-normative. The findings point to the importance of qualitative rather than purely quantitative approaches to stressful life events assessment with adolescents.

Ecology of Depression in Spanish Children

The research described here is based on Moos' theoretical framework -(1988), which assumes that events and coping strategies in the lives of individuals depend on personal and social factors operating on these individuals. The present project attempts to clarify: (1) possible relationships between emotional (depressive and anxious) states and specific, recent life events; and (2) the strategies employed by individuals in coping with disturbing life events. The results could serve to orientate preventive intervention in adolescents in order to promote safer problem-solving strategies in young people.

Adolescent girls. II. Background factors in anxiety and depressive states

BACKGROUND

This study investigated the prevalence and background variables associated with anxiety and depressive disorders occurring in a community population of older teenage girls.

METHOD

Girls aged 15-20 years (n = 529) whose names were drawn from general practitioner age/sex registers completed self-report Great Ormond Street Mood Questionnaires. From this sample, 143 girls (69 with high self-report scores and 74 controls) were intensively interviewed. Information was obtained on confiding/supportive relationships, family arguments and rows, quality of marital relationship, and degree of parental control. Psychiatric state was assessed by use of the Clinical Interview Schedule to provide a Total Weighted Score. A modified form of the Bedford Life Events and Difficulties Schedule was applied.

RESULTS

The estimated one-year prevalence rate for psychiatric disorder was 18.9%, and 16.9% for depression and anxiety disorders. Using a logit analysis, it was shown that maternal distress (P < 0.02) and the quality of the mother's marriage (P < 0.02) were independently associated with the presence of depression and anxiety disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

About 17% of girls in a community sample living at home showed a depression or anxiety disorder. Even in late adolescence, the presence of a mood disorder is closely linked to the quality of family relationships within the home.

Depressive symptomatology among rural youth: a test of the circumplex model

This study assessed the utility of the circumplex model in predicting depression among 108 rural youth. Only cohesion was linearly related to depression, but the r of -.23 may underestimate the association if the variables are not linearly related.

Adolescent stress and coping: a longitudinal study

The purpose of this longitudinal panel study was to investigate developmental and gender influences on stress and coping in adolescents attending a suburban high school in Tennessee. Data were collected from the same 167 subjects during the freshman year and again during the senior year. Life events stress was measured through the Adolescent Life Change Event Scale (ALCES) and ways of coping were categorized from data gathered from an open-ended questionnaire. Girls reported more life events stress at both testings than boys. Life events stress was greater at senior testing for both girls and boys, but girls' scores increased more. The "gender intensification" phenomenon may account for the greater disparity in types of stress reported by boys and girls as seniors. Girls generally reported more life events associated with interpersonal and family relationships. Both girls and boys reported coping with stress mostly through active distraction techniques such as exercise. However, girls' use of active distraction decreased over time, while passive distraction increased. Self-destructive and aggressive coping behaviors increased for boys. There were no relationships between amounts or types of life events stress and ways of coping for subjects at either time.

Life events, problems, stresses, and coping methods of adolescents

The purpose of this pilot study is to explore the life events, problems, stressful situations, and coping methods used by adolescents. A sample of 69 volunteer adolescents age 16-18 was obtained from a rural western Pennsylvania high school. The following instruments were administered: The Life Event Scale, senior high version (Coddington, 1972); Mooney Problem Checklist (1951); Stress Questionnaire (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984); and the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). Descriptive statistics revealed the most frequent life event listed was breaking up with a boyfriend/girlfriend; most frequent problems were related to adjustment to school; and most common stress situations related to family. Coping methods were delineated with a few gender differences noted. The most common method of coping was self-control. The adolescent population has many issues to deal with during a time of psychosocial and physiological change and vulnerability. The psychiatric-mental health nurse specialist could be a valuable asset to help school systems teach health promotion and prevention concepts about mental health, identify students at high risk for mental health disorders, and offer counseling and guidance for students and consultative services for both teachers and parents.

Life events: children's reports

Children 7 to 12 years of age were asked to indicate events they had experienced in the previous three months in a questionnaire devised for the study. Most children were able to complete the questionnaire and reported positive and negative events, the most common themes being personal achievement, illness-related events and problems in relationships. The agreement between parents and child reporting of individual events was uneven and children reported more events than parents. Psychiatrically disturbed children noted an excess of negative and loss events and children attending paediatric clinics reported fewer events, particularly fewer positive happenings, than non-attending primary school children. A child Life Events questionnaire may be of use to explore disturbed and ill children's perception of their lives.

Children at risk: I. Risk factors and child symptomatology

The authors compared 134 6- to 12-year-old children from a military psychiatric clinic with a control sample to determine the salience of various risk factors in predicting levels of child psychopathology. Parents provided demographic information and completed standardized questionnaires on themselves and their children, while children completed two self-report symptom inventories. Results indicated that all hypothesized risk factors mediated effects on child psychopathology, but the effects of various risk factors differed as a function of the rater and type of psychopathological construct being measured. Generally, parental psychopathology and life stress mediated the greatest effects on overall child symptoms levels. Furthermore, the clinical and community samples differed in the presence and extent of risk factors. Results indicate the need for caution in studies of child psychopathology using only clinical samples and may suggest the importance of therapies based on environmental manipulations for a substantial proportion of patients seeking child psychiatric assistance.