The effect of three different warm-up intensities on kayak ergometer performance

Effects of High-Intensity Warm-Up on 5000-Meter Performance Time in Trained Long-Distance Runners

Warm-up protocols with high intensities before continuous running provide potential benefits for middle-distance runners. Nevertheless, the effect of high-intensity warm-ups on long-distance runners remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of a high-intensity warm-up protocol on 5000 m performance in trained runners. Thirteen male runners (34 ± 10 years, 62 ± 6 kg, 62.7 ± 5.5 ml/kg/min) performed two 5000 m time trials, preceded by two different warm-ups. One high-intensity warm up (HIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (100% of the running intensity) and one low-intensity warm up (LIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (70% of the running intensity)), where the running intensities were calculated using the results obtained in the Cooper test. Physiological and metabolic responses, and endurance running performance parameters, were evaluated by the Counter Movement Jump (CMJ), running rating of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate concentration (BLa), and performance running. Total time for the 5000 m was lower using HIWU when compared to LIWU (1141.4 ± 110.4 s vs. 1147.8 ± 111.0 s; p = 0.03; Hedges' g = 0.66). The HIWU warm-up led to an improvement in pacing strategy during the time trial. After warm-up protocols, the performance on the CMJ was improved only when applying HIWU (p = 0.008). Post warm-up BLa was significantly higher for HIWU vs. LIWU (3.5 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1 vs. 2.3 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1; p = 0.02), with similar behavior for the RPE (p = 0.002), internal load of the session (p = 0.03). The study showed that a high-intensity warm-up protocol can improve performance in the 5000 m in trained endurance runners.

Identifying the Optimal Arm Priming Exercise Intensity to Improve Maximal Leg Sprint Cycling Performance

Priming exercises improve subsequent motor performance; however, their effectiveness may depend on the workload and involved body areas. The present study aimed to estimate the effects of leg and arm priming exercises performed at different intensities on maximal sprint cycling performance. Fourteen competitive male speed-skaters visited a lab eight times, where they underwent a body composition measurement, two V̇O_2max measurements (leg and arm ergometers), and five sprint cycling sessions after different priming exercise conditions. The five priming exercise conditions included 10-minute rest (Control); 10-minute arm ergometer exercise at 20% V̇O_2max (Arm 20%); 10-minute arm ergometer exercise at 70% V̇O_2max (Arm 70%); 1-min maximal arm ergometer exercise at 140% V̇O_2max (Arm 140%); and 10-min leg ergometer exercise at 70% V̇O_2max (Leg 70%). Power outputs of 60-s maximal sprint cycling, blood lactate concentration, heart rate, muscle and skin surface temperature, and rating of perceived exertion were compared between the priming conditions at different measurement points. Our results showed that the Leg 70% was the optimal priming exercise among our experimental conditions. Priming exercise with the Arm 70% also tended to improve subsequent motor performance, while Arm 20% and Arm 140% did not. Mild elevation in blood lactate concentration by arm priming exercise may improve the performance of high-intensity exercise.

Use of planar covariation in lower limb kinematics to characterize adaptations of running after cycling in elite triathletes

Purpose

To characterize alterations of lower limb intersegmental coordination during the acute phase of running after cycling among highly trained triathletes using an analysis of planar covariation.

Methods

Nine highly trained triathletes completed a control run (CR) and a run after transitioning from cycling exercise (transition run, or TR condition) on a motorized treadmill at a self-selected pace. Sagittal plane kinematics were recorded using a 3D Vicon motion capture system. Intersegmental coordination of the thigh, shank and foot segments of the right lower limb and run loop planarity were calculated during running before cycling and at four different times after the end of cycling.

Results

PCA showed a significant within-subject phase shift of the run loop planarity (F = 6.66, P = 0.01). Post hoc analysis showed significance median differences increase for u _3t parameter between CR_SS vs. TR₃₀ (P = 0.01), TR_t1/2 (P = 0.01) and TR_MRT (P = 0.01). No difference for u _3t parameter existed between CR_SS vs. TR_SS.

Conclusion

Prior variable-cadence, moderate intensity cycling has a significant effect on run loop planarity and therefore intersegmental coordination during the acute transition phase among highly trained triathletes. However, alterations to lower limb coordination are corrected by the 3rd minute after the beginning of the post cycle run. We suggest that planar covariation can be used as a more sensitive measure of cycling-induced variations in running to characterize adaptation in elite and importantly, developing athletes.

Investigating the Use of an Intermittent Sequential Pneumatic Compression Arm Sleeve for Recovery After Upper-Body Exercise

ABSTRACT

Cranston, AW and Driller, MW. Investigating the use of an intermittent sequential pneumatic compression arm sleeve for recovery after upper-body exercise. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1548-1553, 2022-The current study aimed to investigate the efficacy of an intermittent sequential pneumatic compression (ISPC) device placed on the arm after a fatiguing upper-body exercise circuit. Fifty resistance-trained athletes (37 males/13 females, mean ± SD; age = 27 ± 4 years) performed 3 physical performance tests (grip strength dynamometer, single-arm medicine ball throw, and preacher bench bicep curls to failure) before and after exercise, following a 30-minute recovery period. During the recovery period, subjects were randomly assigned an experimental arm, which was placed in the ISPC device, and a control arm (no device). Subjects completed a perceptual muscle soreness rating through palpation of 4 muscle groups in the upper body at the same time points and also 24 hours after recovery. There was a statistically significant interaction between conditions for the single-arm medicine ball throw (p < 0.01) in favor of the ISPC after the recovery period; however, the effect size was deemed trivial. There was a small but not statistically significant effect (d = 0.22, p > 0.05) for the bicep curls in favor of the ISPC and no significant difference for the grip strength (d = 0.09, p > 0.05). The perceptual muscle soreness scales resulted in significant differences between conditions immediately after and 24 hours after exercise across all muscle groups (p < 0.05), all in favor of the ISPC condition. This study supports the use of an upper-body ISPC device to reduce perceived muscle soreness for up to 24 hours after exercise, with negligible effects on physical performance when compared with a control trial.

Effect of Short-Duration High-Intensity Upper-Body Pre-Load Component on Performance among High-Level Cyclists

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of upper-body high-intensity exercise priming on subsequent leg exercise performance. Specifically, to compare maximal 4000 m cycling performance with upper-body pre-load (MPThigh) and common warm-up (MPTlow). In this case, 15 high-level cyclists (23.3 ± 3.6 years; 181 ± 7 cm; 76.2 ± 10.0 kg; V˙O2max: 65.4 ± 6.7 mL·kg−1·min−1) participated in the study attending three laboratory sessions, completing an incremental test and both experimental protocols. In MPThigh, warm-up was added by a 25 s high-intensity all-out arm crank effort to the traditional 20-min aerobic warm-up. Both 4000 m maximal bouts started with a 12 s all-out start. Heart rate, blood lactate concentration [La) and spirometric data were measured and analyzed. Overall MPThigh time was slower by 5.3 ± 1.2 s (p < 0.05). [La] at the start was 5.5 ± 1.5 mmol·L−1 higher for MPThigh (p < 0.001) reducing anaerobic energy contribution which was higher in MPTlow during the first and third 1000 m split (p < 0.05). Similarly, MPTlow maintained higher total average power during the entire performance (p < 0.05, d = 0.7). Although the MPThigh condition performed less effectively due to decreased anaerobic capacity, pre-load effect may have the potential to enhance performance at longer distances.

Passive Heat Maintenance After an Initial Warm-up Improves High-Intensity Activity During an Interchange Rugby League Movement Simulation Protocol

ABSTRACT

Fairbank, M, Highton, J, Twist, C. Passive heat maintenance after an initial warm-up improves high-intensity activity during an interchange rugby league movement simulation protocol. J Strength Cond Res 35(7): 1981-1986, 2021-This study examined using passive heat maintenance (PHM) to maintain core temperature after a warm-up and its effect on simulated first half running performance in rugby players. Thirteen male rugby players completed this randomized crossover study. Tympanic temperature was taken before a warm-up and then after a further 15 minutes of passive recovery either with (PHM) or without (CON) a PHM garment. Subjects then completed 23 minutes of the rugby league movement simulation protocol (RLMSP-i). Differences in tympanic temperature were unclear between CON and PHM before (35.7 ± 1.3 cf. 36.0 ± 1.1° C; effect size [ES] = 0.20) and during exercise (34.5 ± 0.1 cf. 35.2 ± 0.1° C; ES = 0.26-0.35). High-intensity running (ES = 0.27) and peak sprint speed were higher (ES = 0.46-0.56) during the PHM compared with the CON trial. Time spent above 20 W·kg-1 also increased in the first quartile of the PHM compared with the CON trial (ES = 0.18). All other between trial comparisons of performance were unclear. HRmean (ES = 0.38) was higher in PHM compared with CON, while differences in RPEmean (ES = -0.19) were unclear. There are small to large increases in high-intensity activity performed during a playing bout when rugby players wear a PHM garment after a warm-up. Rugby players should consider PHM during extended periods between a warm-up and starting a match.

The Effect of Lower Body Anaerobic Pre-Loading on Upper Body Ergometer Time Trial Performance

Pre-competitive conditioning has become a substantial part of successful performance. In addition to temperature changes, a metabolic conditioning can have a significant effect on the outcome, although the right dosage of such a method remains unclear. The main goal of the investigation was to measure how a lower body high-intensity anaerobic cycling pre-load exercise (HIE) of 25 s affects cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses in subsequent upper body performance. Thirteen well-trained college-level male cross-country skiers (18.1 ± 2.9 years; 70.8 ± 7.6 kg; 180.6 ± 4.7 cm; 15.5 ± 3.5% body fat) participated in the study. The athletes performed a 1000-m maximal double-poling upper body ergometer time trial performance test (TT) twice. One TT was preceded by a conventional low intensity warm-up (TT_low) while additional HIE cycling was performed 9 min before the other TT (TT_high). Maximal double-poling performance after the TT_low (225.1 ± 17.6 s) was similar (p > 0.05) to the TT_high (226.1 ± 15.7 s). Net blood lactate (La) increase (delta from end of TT minus start) from the start to the end of the TT_low was 10.5 ± 2.2 mmol L⁻¹ and 6.5 ± 3.4 mmol L⁻¹ in TT_high (p < 0.05). La net changes during recovery were similar for both protocols, remaining 13.5% higher in TT_high group even 6 min after the maximal test. VCO₂ was lower (p < 0.05) during the last 400-m split in TT_high, however during the other splits no differences were found (p < 0.05). Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was significantly lower in TT_high in the third, fourth and the fifth 200 m split. Participants individual pacing strategies showed high relation (p < 0.05) between slower start and faster performance. In conclusion, anaerobic metabolic pre-conditioning leg exercise significantly reduced net-La increase, but all-out upper body performance was similar in both conditions. The pre-conditioning method may have some potential but needs to be combined with a pacing strategy different from the usual warm-up procedure.

Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability of Amateur Show Jumping Horses Competing on Different Levels

Heart rate is one of the gold standards used to assess the workload level and fitness of horses. However, when slight differences need to be detected, it is not sensitive enough. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the effect of competition level and phase of exercise on the heart rate and heart rate variability parameters in show jumpers. Fourteen horses were examined competing on three different levels: 100 cm (n = 4), 120 cm (n = 6), and 130 cm (n = 4). The length of work (min); average and maximum heart rate; average, maximum and minimum RR intervals (ms); SD1 and SD2 (ms); RMSSD (ms) and pNN50 (%); VLF, LF, HF (%) were analyzed. The measurement was divided into four phases: warm-up, resting period, show jumping course riding, and cool-down. The level of the course had no significant effect on average and maximum heart rates throughout the entire exercise. The maximum RR interval, RMSSD, pNN50, SD1, and %VLF values were significantly different (p < 0.05) in horses competing at 100 cm height from those competing in the 120 cm group. The SD1 value was sensitive for the level of competition, while the SD2 parameter was sensitive for detecting exercise phases. In conclusion, heart rate variability parameters are more sensitive for detecting smaller differences in workload than heart rate alone in lower-level show jumpers.

Prediction of Simulated 1,000 m Kayak Ergometer Performance in Young Athletes

This study aimed to develop a predictive explanatory model for the 1,000-m time-trial (TT) performance in young national-level kayakers, from biomechanical and physiological parameters assessed in a maximal graded exercise test (GXT). Twelve young male flat-water kayakers (age 16.1 ± 1.1 years) participated in the study. The design consisted of 2 exercise protocols, separated by 48 h, on a kayak ergometer. The first protocol consisted of a GXT starting at 8 km.h⁻¹ with increments in speed of 1 km.h⁻¹ at each 2-min interval until exhaustion. The second protocol comprised the 1,000-m TT.

Results: In the GXT, they reached an absolute V∙O_2max of 3.5 ± 0.7 (L.min⁻¹), a maximum aerobic power (MAP) of 138.5 ± 24.5 watts (W) and a maximum aerobic speed (MAS) of 12.8 ± 0.5 km/h. The TT had a mean duration of 292.3 ± 15 s, a power output of 132.6 ± 22.0 W and a V∙O_2max of 3.5 ± 0.6 (L.min⁻¹). The regression model [TT (s) = 413.378–0.433 × (MAP)−0.554 × (stroke rate at MAP)] presented an R² = 84.5%.

Conclusion: It was found that V∙O_2max, stroke distance and stroke rate during the GXT were not different from the corresponding variables (V∙O_2peak, stroke distance and stroke rate) observed during the TT. The MAP and the corresponding stroke rate were strong predicting factors of 1,000 m TT performance. In conclusion, the TT can be useful for quantifying biomechanical parameters (stroke distance and stroke rate) and to monitor training induced changes in the cardiorespiratory fitness (V∙O_2max).

Competition warm-up strategies in sub-elite and elite flat-water sprint kayak athletes

This study compared warm-up strategies employed by sub-elite and world-class elite sprint kayak athletes, evaluating their impact on subsequent race performance. Forty-seven (n = 33 male, n = 14 female) athletes competing at a National Sprint Kayak Championships had Global Navigation Satellite System devices fitted to their kayak to measure speed, distance and stroke rate during the on-water warm-up before racing (OW_WU), and during racing. The OW_WU total duration, average/peak speeds and stroke rates, and the time spent in speed-zones classified based upon athletes' relative race-pace (low-to-moderate, moderate-to-high, and race-specific) were compared between events, sexes, and athlete standard. The relationship of these variables to subsequent race performance, expressed as a percentage of the best time-to-completion for each event (%racebest), was also examined. Women spent greater OW_WU time at moderate-to-high and race-specific speeds compared to men prior to 200-m and 500-m races (P ≤.001). Sub-elite men reported greater total OW_WU duration for 200-m and 500-m (P ≤.025), but not for 1000-m races (P >.05) compared to elite men. Finally, %racebest had large inverse correlations to OW_WU peak speed for men's 200-m (r = -.53), and average stroke rate for women's 500-m races (r = -.50). This study provides valuable insight for competition warm-up routines based upon data from an elite athlete population.

Self-Selected Versus Standardised Warm-Ups; Physiological Response on 500 m Sprint Kayak Performance

This study investigated the effectiveness of a self-selected (SS) warm-up on 500 m sprint kayak performance (K500) compared to continuous (CON) and intermittent high intensity (INT)-type warm-ups. Twelve nationally ranked sprint kayakers (age 17.7 ± 2.3 years, mass 69.2 ± 10.8 kg) performed CON (15 min at the power at 2 m·mol⁻¹), INT (10 min at 2 m·mol⁻¹, followed by 5 × 10 s sprints at 200% power at VO_2max with 50 s recovery at 55% power at VO_2max), and SS (athlete’s normal competition warm-up) warm-ups in a randomised order. After a five-minute passive recovery, K500 performance was determined on a kayak ergometer. Heart rate and blood lactate (BLa) were recorded before and immediately after each warm-up and K500 performance. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at the end of the warm-up and K500. BLa, heart rate, and RPE were generally higher after the INT than CON and SS warm-ups (p < 0.05). No differences in these parameters were found between the conditions for the time trial (p > 0.05). RPE and changes in BLa and heart rate after the K500 were comparable. There were no differences in K500 performance after the CON, SS, or INT warm-ups. Applied practitioners can, therefore, attain similar performance independent of warm-up type.

The Effects of a Short Specific Versus a Long Traditional Warm-Up on Time-Trial Performance in Cross-Country Skiing Sprint

PURPOSE

To compare the effects of a short specific and a long traditional warm-up on time-trial performance in cross-country skiing sprint using the skating style, as well as related differences in pacing strategy and physiological responses.

METHODS

In total, 14 (8 men and 6 women) national-level Norwegian cross-country skiers (age 20.4 [3.1] y; VO2max 65.9 [5.7] mL/kg/min) performed 2 types of warm-up (short, 8 × 100 m with gradual increase from 60% to 95% of maximal speed with a 1-min rest between sprints, and long, ∼35 min at low intensity, including 5 min at moderate and 3 min at high intensity) in a randomized order with 1 hour and 40 minutes of rest between tests. Each warm-up was followed by a 1.3-km sprint time trial, with continuous measurements of speed and heart rate.

RESULTS

No difference in total time for the time trial between the short and long warm-ups (199 [17] vs 200 [16] s; P = .952), or average speed and heart rate for the total course, or in the 6 terrain sections (all P < .41, η2 < .06) was found. There was an effect of order, with total time-trial time being shorter during test 2 than test 1 (197 [16] vs 202 [16] s; P = .004). No significant difference in blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion was found between the short versus long warm-ups or between test 1 and test 2 at any of the measurement points during the test day (P < .58, η2 > .01).

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that a short specific warm-up could be as effective as a long traditional warm-up during a sprint time trial in cross-country skiing.

Effects of work-matched moderate- and high-intensity warm-up on power output during 2-min supramaximal cycling

We tested the hypothesis that compared with a moderate-intensity warm-up, a work-matched high-intensity warm-up improves final-sprint power output during the last 30 s of a 120-s supramaximal exercise that mimics the final sprint during events such as the 800-m run, 1,500-m speed skate, or Keirin (cycling race). Nine active young males performed a 120-s supramaximal cycling exercise consisting of 90 s of constant-workload cycling at a workload that corresponds to 110% peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak) followed by 30 s of maximal cycling. This exercise was preceded by 1) no warm-up (control), 2) a 10-min cycling warm-up at a workload of 40% VO_2peak (moderate-intensity), or 3) a 5-min cycling warm-up at a workload of 80% VO_2peak (high-intensity). Total work was matched between the two warm-up conditions. Both warm-ups increased 5-s peak (observed within 10 s at the beginning of maximal cycling) and 30-s mean power output during the final 30-s maximal cycling compared to no warm-up. Moreover, the high-intensity warm-up provided a greater peak (577±169 vs. 541±175 W, P=0.01) but not mean (482±109 vs. 470±135W, P=1.00) power output than the moderate-intensity warm-up. Both VO₂ during the 90-s constant workload cycling and the post-warm-up blood lactate concentration were higher following the high-intensity than moderate-intensity warm-up (all P≤0.05). We show that work-matched moderate- (~40% VO_2peak) and high- (~80% VO_2peak) intensity warm-ups both improve final sprint (~30 s) performance during the late stage of a 120-s supramaximal exercise bout, and that a high-intensity warm-up provides greater improvement of short-duration (<10 s) maximal sprinting performance.

Is Moderate Intensity Cycling Sufficient to Induce Cardiorespiratory and Biomechanical Modifications of Subsequent Running?

Walsh, JA, Dawber, JP, Lepers, R, Brown, M, and Stapley, PJ. Is moderate intensity cycling sufficient to induce cardiorespiratory and biomechanical modifications of subsequent running? J Strength Cond Res 31(4): 1078-1086, 2017-This study sought to determine whether prior moderate intensity cycling is sufficient to influence the cardiorespiratory and biomechanical responses during subsequent running. Cardiorespiratory and biomechanical variables measured after moderate intensity cycling were compared with control running at the same intensity. Eight highly trained, competitive triathletes completed 2 separate exercise tests; (a) a 10-minute control run (no prior cycling) and, (b) a 30-minute transition run (TR) (preceded by 20-minute of variable cadence cycling, i.e., run versus cycle-run). Respiratory, breathing frequency (fb), heart rate (HR), cost of running (Cr), rate constant, stride length, and stride frequency variables were recorded, normalized, and quantified at the mean response time (MRT), third minute, 10th minute (steady state), and overall for the control run (CR) and TR. Cost of running increased (p ≤ 0.05) at all respective times during the TR. The V[Combining Dot Above]E/V[Combining Dot Above]CO2 and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were significantly (p < 0.01) elevated at the MRT and 10th minute of the TR. Furthermore, overall mean increases were recorded for Cr, V[Combining Dot Above]E, V[Combining Dot Above]E/V[Combining Dot Above]CO2, RER, fb (p < 0.01), and HR (p ≤ 0.05) during the TR. Rate constant values for oxygen uptake were significantly different between CR and TR (0.48 ± 0.04 vs. 0.89 ± 0.15; p < 0.01). Stride length decreased across all recorded points during the TR (p ≤ 0.05) and stride frequency increased at the MRT and 3 minutes (p < 0.01). The findings suggest that at moderate intensity, prior cycling influences the cardiorespiratory response during subsequent running. Furthermore, prior cycling seems to have a sustained effect on the Cr during subsequent running.

Influence of warm-up duration and recovery interval prior to exercise on anaerobic performance

The purpose of the study was to determine the impact of different active warm-up (AWU) durations and the rest interval separating it from exercise on anaerobic performance. Eleven male physical education students (22.6 ± 2.52 years; 179.2 ± 4.3 cm; 82.5 ± 9.7 kg; mean ± SD) participated in a cross-over randomized study, and they all underwent the Wingate test after three AWU durations: 5 min (AWU5), 15 min (AWU15) and 20 min (AWU20), with recovery (WREC) or without a recovery interval (NREC) separating the AWU and anaerobic exercise performance. All the AWUs consisted of pedalling at a constant pace of 60 rpm at 50% of the maximal aerobic power. The rest interval between the end of warm-up and the beginning of exercise was set at 5 min. During the Wingate test, peak power (PP), mean power (MP) and the fatigue index (FI) were recorded and analysed. Oral temperature was recorded at rest and at the end of the warm-up. Likewise, rest, post-warm-up and post-Wingate heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded during each session. The ANOVA showed a significant effect of recovery interval, warm-up duration and measurement point on RPE scores (P<0.001). Although the effect of AWU duration on MP and PP was significant (P<0.05), the effect of the recovery interval on both parameters was not significant (P>0.05). Moreover, the analyses showed a significant interaction between recovery interval and AWU duration (P<0.001 and P<0.05 for MP and PP respectively). The AWU15 duration improves the MP and PP when associated with a recovery interval prior to exercise of 5 min. However, the AWU5 duration allows better improvement of power output when the exercise is applied immediately after the warm-up. Consequently, physically active males, as well as educators and researchers interested in anaerobic exercise, must take into account the duration of warm-up and the following recovery interval when practising or assessing activities requiring powerful lower limb muscle contractions.

Post-warm-up muscle temperature maintenance: blood flow contribution and external heating optimisation

Purpose

Passive muscle heating has been shown to reduce the drop in post-warm-up muscle temperature (T_m) by about 25 % over 30 min, with concomitant sprint/power performance improvements. We sought to determine the role of leg blood flow in this cooling and whether optimising the heating procedure would further benefit post-warm-up T_m maintenance.

Methods

Ten male cyclists completed 15-min sprint-based warm-up followed by 30 min recovery. Vastus lateralisT_m (T_mvl) was measured at deep-, mid- and superficial-depths before and after the warm-up, and after the recovery period (POST-REC). During the recovery period, participants wore water-perfused trousers heated to 43 °C (WPT43) with either whole leg heating (WHOLE) or upper leg heating (UPPER), which was compared to heating with electrically heated trousers at 40 °C (ELEC40) and a non-heated control (CON). The blood flow cooling effect on T_mvl was studied comparing one leg with (BF) and without (NBF) blood flow.

Results

Warm-up exercise significantly increased T_mvl by ~3 °C at all depths. After the recovery period, BF T_mvl was lower (~0.3 °C) than NBF T_mvl at all measured depths, with no difference between WHOLE versus UPPER. WPT43 reduced the post-warm-up drop in deep-T_mvl (−0.12 °C ± 0.3 °C) compared to ELEC40 (−1.08 ± 0.4 °C) and CON (−1.3 ± 0.3 °C), whereas mid- and superficial-T_mvl even increased by 0.15 ± 0.3 and 1.1 ± 1.1 °C, respectively.

Conclusion

Thigh blood flow contributes to the post-warm-up T_mvl decline. Optimising the external heating procedure and increasing heating temperature of only 3 °C successfully maintained and even increased T_mvl, demonstrating that heating temperature is the major determinant of post-warm-up T_mvl cooling in this application.

Inspiratory muscle warm-up has no impact on performance or locomotor muscle oxygenation during high-intensity intermittent sprint cycling exercise

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of inspiratory muscle (IM) warm-up on performance and locomotor muscle oxygenation during high-intensity intermittent sprint cycling exercise. Ten subjects performed identical exercise tests (10 × 5 s with 25-s recovery on a cycle ergometer) after performing one of two different IM warm-up protocols. The IM warm-up consisted of two sets of 30 inspiratory efforts against a pressure-threshold load equivalent to 15 % (PLA) or 40 % (IMW) of maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP). MIP was measured with a portable autospirometer. Peak power and percent decrease in power were determined. Oxyhemoglobin (O₂Hb) was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy. The MIP increased relative to baseline after IMW (115 ± 21 vs. 123 ± 17 cmH₂O, P = 0.012, ES = 0.42), but not after PLA (115 ± 20 vs. 116 ± 17 cmH₂O). Peak power (PLA: 10.0 ± 0.6 vs. IMW: 10.2 ± 0.5 W kg⁻¹), percent decrease in power (PLA: 13.4 ± 5.6 vs. IMW: 13.2 ± 5.5 %), and changes in O₂Hb levels (PLA: −10.8 ± 4.8 vs. −10.7 ± 4.1 μM) did not differ between the trials. IM function was improved by IMW. However, this did not enhance performance or locomotor muscle oxygenation during high-intensity intermittent sprint cycling exercise in untrained healthy males.

A systematic review of the effects of upper body warm-up on performance and injury

PURPOSE

This systematic review was conducted to identify the impact of upper body warm-up on performance and injury prevention outcomes.

METHODS

Web of Science, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO and Cochrane databases were searched using terms related to upper extremity warm-up. Inclusion criteria were English language randomised controlled trials from peer-reviewed journals in which investigation of upper body warm-up on performance and injury prevention outcomes was a primary aim. Included studies were assessed for methodological quality using the PEDro scale. A wide variety of warm-up modes and outcomes precluded meta-analysis except for one group of studies. The majority of warm-ups were assessed as having 'positive', 'neutral', 'negative' or 'specific' effects on outcomes.

RESULTS

Thirty-one studies met the inclusion criteria with 21 rated as having 'good' methodological quality. The studies investigated a total of 25 warm-up modes and 43 outcome factors that could be grouped into eight mode and performance outcome categories. No studies of upper body warm-up effects on injury prevention were discovered.

CONCLUSIONS

Strong research-based evidence was found for the following: high-load dynamic warm-ups enhance power and strength performance; warm-up swings with a standard weight baseball bat are most effective for enhancing bat speed; short-duration static stretching warm-up has no effect on power outcomes; and passive heating/cooling is a largely ineffective warm-up mode. A clear knowledge gap in upper body warm-up literature is the lack of investigation of injury prevention outcomes.

Effects of general, specific and combined warm-up on explosive muscular performance

The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effects of general, specific and combined warm-up (WU) on explosive performance. Healthy male (n = 10) subjects participated in six WU protocols in a crossover randomized study design. Protocols were: passive rest (PR; 15 min of passive rest), running (Run; 5 min of running at 70% of maximum heart rate), stretching (STR; 5 min of static stretching exercise), jumping [Jump; 5 min of jumping exercises – 3x8 countermovement jumps (CMJ) and 3x8 drop jumps from 60 cm (DJ60)], and combined (COM; protocols Run+STR+Jump combined). Immediately before and after each WU, subjects were assessed for explosive concentric-only (i.e. squat jump – SJ), slow stretch-shortening cycle (i.e. CMJ), fast stretch-shortening cycle (i.e. DJ60) and contact time (CT) muscle performance. PR significantly reduced SJ performance (p =0.007). Run increased SJ (p =0.0001) and CMJ (p =0.002). STR increased CMJ (p =0.048). Specific WU (i.e. Jump) increased SJ (p =0.001), CMJ (p =0.028) and DJ60 (p =0.006) performance. COM increased CMJ performance (p =0.006). Jump was superior in SJ performance vs. PR (p =0.001). Jump reduced (p =0.03) CT in DJ60. In conclusion, general, specific and combined WU increase slow stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) muscle performance, but only specific WU increases fast SSC muscle performance. Therefore, to increase fast SSC performance, specific fast SSC muscle actions must be included during the WU.

Effects of high-intensity intermittent priming on physiology and cycling performance

The pre-event warm-up or "priming" routine for optimising cycling performance is not well-defined or uniform to a specific event. We aimed to determine the effects of varying the intensity of priming on 3 km cycling performance. Ten endurance-trained male cyclists completed four 3 km time-trials (TT) on four separate occasions, each preceded by a different priming strategy including "self-selected" priming and three intermittent priming strategies incorporating 10 min of constant-load cycling followed by 5 × 10 s bouts of varying relative intensity (100% and 150% of peak aerobic power, Wpeak, and all-out priming). The self-selected priming trial (379 ± 44 W) resulted in similar mean power during the 3 km TT to intermittent priming at 100% (376 ± 45 W; -0.7%; unclear) and 150% (374 ± 48 W; -1.5%, unclear) of Wpeak, but significantly greater than all-out priming (357 ± 45 W; -5.8%, almost certainly harmful). Differences between intermittent and self-selected priming existed with regards to heart rate (6.2% to 11.5%), blood lactate (-22.9% to 125%) and VO2 kinetics (-22.9% to 8.2%), but these were not related to performance outcomes. In conclusion, prescribed intermittent priming strategies varying in intensity did not substantially improve 3 km TT performance compared to self-selected priming.

Warm-up strategy and high-intensity endurance performance in trained cyclists

PURPOSE

To evaluate the influence of warm-up exercise intensity and subsequent recovery on intense endurance performance, selected blood variables, and the oxygen-uptake (VO2) response.

METHODS

Twelve highly trained male cyclists (VO2max 72.4 ± 8.0 mL · min-1 · kg-1, incremental-test peak power output (iPPO) 432 ± 31 W; mean ± SD) performed 3 warm-up strategies lasting 20 min before a 4-min maximal-performance test (PT). Strategies consisted of moderate-intensity exercise (50%iPPO) followed by 6 min of recovery (MOD6) or progressive high-intensity exercise (10-100%iPPO and 2 × 20-s sprints) followed by recovery for 6 min (HI6) or 20 min (HI20).

RESULTS

Before PT venous pH was lower (P < .001) in HI6 (7.27 ± 0.05) than in HI20 (7.34 ± 0.04) and MOD6 (7.35 ± 0.03). At the same time, differences (P < .001) existed for venous lactate in HI6 (8.2 ± 2.0 mmol/L), HI20 (5.1 ± 1.7 mmol/L), and MOD6 (1.4 ± 0.4 mmol/L), as well as for venous bicarbonate in HI6 (19.3 ± 2.6 mmol/L), HI20 (22.6 ± 2.3 mmol/L), and MOD6 (26.0 ± 1.4 mmol/L). Mean power in PT in HI6 (402 ± 38 W) tended to be lower (P = .11) than in HI20 (409 ± 34 W) and was lower (P = .007) than in MOD6 (416 ± 32 W). Total VO2 (15-120 s in PT) was higher in HI6 (8.18 ± 0.86 L) than in HI20 (7.85 ± 0.82 L, P = .008) and MOD6 (7.90 ± 0.74 L, P = .012).

CONCLUSIONS

Warm-up exercise including race-pace and sprint intervals combined with short recovery can reduce subsequent performance in a 4-min maximal test in highly trained cyclists. Thus, a reduced time at high exercise intensity, a reduced intensity in the warm-up, or an extension of the recovery period after an intense warm-up is advocated.

Effect of warm-up on intermittent sprint performance

We aimed to investigate the effects of different warm-up (WUP) intensities on 10 min of subsequent intermittent-sprint running performance. Eleven male, team-sport players performed four trials in a randomized, cross-over design, consisting of an intermittent-sprint protocol (15 × 20-m sprints) that followed either no-WUP or one of three 10-min WUP trials that varied in intensity. Warm-up intensities were performed at either (1) half the difference between anaerobic threshold (AT) and lactate threshold (LT) [(AT-LT)/2] below the LT = WUP 1; (2) midway between LT and AT level = WUP 2; (3) [(AT-LT)/2] above AT = WUP 3. Sprint times were fastest following WUP 3, compared with all other trials, for sprints 1-9 and 14, as well as for total accumulated sprints, with these results supported by moderate to large effect size (ES; range: d = -0.50 to -1.06) and "possible" to "almost certain" benefits. Warm-up 3 resulted in faster intermittent-sprint running performance compared with lower intensity WUPs and no WUP for the first 6 min of sprinting, with accumulated sprints for the entire 10 min protocol also being faster after WUP 3. This information may be pertinent to coaches of team-sport games with respect to player substitutions.

Warm-up with a weighted vest improves running performance via leg stiffness and running economy

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effects of "strides" with a weighted-vest during a warm-up on endurance performance and its potential neuromuscular and metabolic mediators. A bout of resistance exercise can enhance subsequent high-intensity performance, but little is known about such priming exercise for endurance performance.

DESIGN

A crossover with 5-7 days between an experimental and control trial was performed by 11 well-trained distance runners.

METHODS

Each trial was preceded by a warm-up consisting of a 10-min self-paced jog, a 5-min submaximal run to determine running economy, and six 10-s strides with or without a weighted-vest (20% of body mass). After a 10-min recovery period, runners performed a series of jumps to determine leg stiffness and other neuromuscular characteristics, another 5-min submaximal run, and an incremental treadmill test to determine peak running speed. Clinical and non-clinical forms of magnitude-based inference were used to assess outcomes. Correlations and linear regression were used to assess relationships between performance and underlying measures.

RESULTS

The weighted-vest condition resulted in a very-large enhancement of peak running speed (2.9%; 90% confidence limits ±0.8%), a moderate increase in leg stiffness (20.4%; ±4.2%) and a large improvement in running economy (6.0%; ±1.6%); there were also small-moderate clear reductions in cardiorespiratory measures. Relationships between change scores showed that changes in leg stiffness could explain all the improvements in performance and economy.

CONCLUSIONS

Strides with a weighted-vest have a priming effect on leg stiffness and running economy. It is postulated the associated major effect on peak treadmill running speed will translate into enhancement of competitive endurance performance.

The effects of elapsed time after warm-up on subsequent exercise performance in a cold environment

Athletes often compete in cold environments and may face delays because of weather or race logistics between performance of a warm-up and the start of the race. This study sought to determine, (a) whether a delay after warm-up affects subsequent time trial (TT) performance and (b) if exposure to a cold environment has an additive effect. We hypothesized that after a warm-up, 30 minutes of rest in a cold environment would negatively affect subsequent rowing and running performance. In a temperate (temp; 24° C) or cold (cold; 5° C) environment, 5 rowers (33 ± 10 years; 83 ± 12 kg) and 5 runners (23 ± 2 years; 65 ± 8 kg) performed a 15-minute standardized warm-up followed by a 5- or 30-minute rest and then performed a 2-km rowing or 2.4 km running TT. The 5-minute rest following warm-up in the temperate environment (5Temp) served as the control trial to which the other experimental trials (5Cold; 30Temp; and 30Cold) were compared. Heart rate, lactate, and esophageal (Tes) and skin (Tsk) temperatures were measured throughout. Postrest and post-TT, Tes, and Tsk were lowest in the 30Cold trials. The greatest decrement in TT performance vs. 5Temp occurred in 30Cold (-4.0%; difference of 20 seconds). This difference is considered to have practical importance, as it was greater than the reported day-to-day variation for events of this type. We conclude that longer elapsed time following warm-up, combined with cold air exposure, results in potentially important reductions in exercise performance. Athletes should consider the appropriate timing of warm-up. In addition, performance may be preserved by maintaining skin and core temperatures following a warm-up, via clothing or other means.

The influence of passive heat maintenance on lower body power output and repeated sprint performance in professional rugby league players

OBJECTIVES

The pre-competition warm-up mediates many temperature related physiological changes which generally lead to an improvement in performance. However, after ceasing exercise body temperature declines rapidly, which reduces some of the benefits of the initial warm-up. We examined the effects of a passive heat maintenance strategy on post-warm-up core temperature (Tcore) and performance in professional rugby league players.

DESIGN

Twenty professional rugby league players completed this randomised and counter-balanced study.

METHODS

After a standardised warm-up, players completed a countermovement jump (CMJ) before resting for 15min wearing normal training attire (control) or wearing a passive heat maintenance jacket (PHM), players then completed another CMJ and a repeated sprint protocol (RSA). Tcore was measured at baseline, post-warm-up, pre-RSA and post-RSA. CMJ were analysed for peak power output (PPO), and RSA for fastest, mean and total sprint time.

RESULTS

Post-warm-up Tcore (mean±SD; control 37.70±0.28; PHM 37.70±0.27°C; p=0.741) and PPO (control 5220±353 vs. PHM 5213±331W; p=0.686) were similar between conditions. At pre-RSA, PHM was associated with greater Tcore (control 37.14±0.31 vs. PHM 37.51±0.30°C; p<0.001) and PPO (control 4868±345 vs. PHM 5056±344W; p<0.001) when compared to control. The decline in PPO from post-warm-up to pre-RSA was related to the drop in Tcore (r=0.71; p<0.001). During the RSA, fastest, mean and total sprint time were all improved under PHM compared to control (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Passive heat maintenance is an effective method of attenuating the post-warm-up decline in Tcore and improves PPO and repeated sprint ability in professional rugby league players.

Influence of post-warm-up recovery time on swim performance in international swimmers

OBJECTIVES

Swimmers must enter a marshalling call-room 20min prior to racing, which results in some swimmers completing their warm-up 45min pre-race. Since a recovery period longer than 15-20min may prove problematic, this study examined 200m freestyle performance after a 20 and 45min post-warm-up recovery period.

DESIGN

Eight international swimmers completed this randomised and counter-balanced study.

METHODS

After a standardised warm-up, swimmers rested for either 20 (20min) or 45min (45min) prior to completing a 200m freestyle time-trial (TT). Core temperature (T(core)), blood lactate (BL), heart rate and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded at baseline, post-warm-up, pre-TT, immediately post-TT and at 3min post-TT.

RESULTS

T(core) was similar after the warm-up under both conditions, however, at pre-TT T(core) was greater under 20min (mean±SD; 20min 37.8±0.2 vs. 45min 37.5±0.2°C; P=0.002). BL was similar between conditions at all-time points before the TT (P>0.05). Swimmers demonstrated a 1.5±1.1% improvement in performance under 20min (20min 125.74±3.64 vs. 45min 127.60±3.55s; P=0.01). T(core) was similar between conditions at immediately post-TT and 3min post-TT (P>0.05), however, BL was higher at these time points under 20min (P<0.05). Heart rate and RPE were similar between conditions at all-time points (P>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

200m freestyle performance is faster 20min post-warm-up when compared to 45min probably due to better T(core) maintenance. This has implications for swim race preparation as warm-up procedures should be completed close to entering the pre-race call room, in order to maintain elevated core temperature.

Effects of dynamic stretching on energy cost and running endurance performance in trained male runners

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of dynamic stretching on running energy cost and endurance performance in trained male runners. Fourteen male runners performed both a 30-minute preload run at 65% VO2max and a 30-minute time trial to assess running energy cost and performance, respectively. The subjects repeated both the trials after either 15 minutes of dynamic stretching (i.e., experimental condition) or quiet sitting (i.e., control condition) while the order was balanced between the subjects to avoid any order effect. The total calories expended were determined for the 30-minute preload run, whereas the distance covered was measured in the time trial. Average resting VO2 increased significantly (p < 0.05) after dynamic stretching (prestretch: 6.2 ± 1.7 vs. poststretch: 8.4 ± 2.1 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) but not during the quiet-sitting condition. Caloric expenditure was significantly higher during the 30-minute preload run for the stretching (416.3 ± 44.9 kcal) compared with that during the quiet sitting (399.3 ± 50.4 kcal) (p < 0.05). There was no difference in the distance covered after quiet sitting (6.3 ± 1.1 km) compared with that for the stretching condition (6.1 ± 1.3 km). These findings suggest that dynamic stretching does not affect running endurance performance in trained male runners.

The effect of warm-up on intermittent sprint performance and selected thermoregulatory parameters

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the effect of various warm-up intensities based upon individual lactate thresholds on subsequent intermittent sprint performance, as well as to determine which temperature (muscle; T(mu), rectal; T(re) or body; T(b)) best correlated with performance (total work, work and power output of the first sprint, and % work decrement).

DESIGN

Nine male team-sport participants performed five 10-min warm-up protocols consisting of different exercise intensities on five separate occasions, separated by a week.

METHODS

Each warm-up protocol was followed by a 6×4-s intermittent sprint test performed on a cycle ergometer with 21-s of recovery between sprints. T(mu), T(re) and T(b) were monitored throughout the test.

RESULTS

There were no differences between warm-up conditions for total work (J kg⁻¹; P=0.442), first sprint work (J kg⁻¹; P=0.769), power output of the first sprint (W kg⁻¹; P=0.189), or % work decrement (P=0.136), respectively. Moderate to large effect sizes (>0.5; Cohen's d) suggested a tendency for improvement in every performance variable assessed following a warm-up performed at an intensity midway between lactate inflection and lactate threshold. While T(mu), T(re), T(b), heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion and plasma lactate increased significantly during the exercise protocols (P<0.05), there were no significant correlations between T(mu), T(re), and T(b) assessed immediately after each warm-up condition and any performance variable assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

Warm-up performed at an intensity midway between lactate inflection and lactate threshold resulted in optimal intermittent sprint performance. Significant increases in T(mu), T(re) and T(b) during the sprint test did not affect exercise performance between warm-up conditions.

The dynamics of elite paddling on a kayak simulator

During kayak paddling, athletes attempt to maximize kayak velocity with the generation of optimal paddle forces. The aim of the current study was to examine ten elite kayakers and identify a number of key biomechanical performance variables during maximal paddling on a custom kayak simulator. These included analysing the effect of side (left and right) and period (beginning, middle, and end of the kayak simulation) on paddle force, paddle angle, mechanical efficiency, and stroke timing data. Paddle kinetics and kinematics were measured with strain gauge force transducers attached to either end of the ergometer paddle and using a 3D motion analysis system respectively. Results indicated a significantly greater mechanical efficiency during the right paddle stroke compared with the left (P < 0.025). In addition, analysing the effect of period, peak paddle force demonstrated a significant reduction when comparing the beginning to the middle and end of the simulated race respectively (P < 0.025). Examination of individual force profiles revealed considerable individuality, with significant variation in the time course of force application. Analysis of the profiles presented may provide meaningful feedback for kayakers and their coaches.

Effect of different warm-up procedures on subsequent swim and overall sprint distance triathlon performance

This study investigated the effect of 3 warm-up procedures on subsequent swimming and overall triathlon performance. Seven moderately trained, amateur triathletes completed 4 separate testing sessions comprising 1 swimming time trial (STT) and 3 sprint distance triathlons (SDT). Before each SDT, the athletes completed 1 of three 10-minute warm-up protocols including (a) a swim-only warm-up (SWU), (b) a run-swim warm-up (RSWU), and (c) a control trial of no warm-up (NWU). Each subsequent SDT included a 750-m swim, a 500-kJ (∼20 km) ergometer cycle and a 5-km treadmill run, which the athletes performed at their perceived race intensity. Blood lactate, ratings of perceived exertion, core temperature, and heart rate were recorded over the course of each SDT, along with the measurement of swim speed, swim stroke rate, and swim stroke length. There were no significant differences in individual discipline split times or overall triathlon times between the NWU, SWU, and RSWU trials (p > 0.05). Furthermore, no difference existed between trials for any of the swimming variables measured (p > 0.05) nor did they significantly differ from the preliminary STT (p > 0.05). The findings of this study suggest that warming up before an SDT provides no additional benefit to subsequent swimming or overall triathlon performance.

No effect of upper body compression garments in elite flat-water kayakers

While the effect of lower body compression garments on performance and physiological responses are well documented, no studies have examined the effect of upper body compression garments (UBCG) on upper-body dominant exercise. This study examined the effects of wearing UBCG on performance and physiological responses during simulated flat-water kayaking. Five male (mean values±s: 21.8±2.8 years; 83.5±9.2 kg; 63.0±5.5 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) and two female (mean values±s: 25.0±4.2 years; 71.4±2.7 kg; 51.0±4.8 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) elite flat-water kayakers completed a six-step incremental test followed by a four-minute maximal performance test (4minPT) in both UBCG and control (no shirt or sports training bra) conditions in a randomized counter-balanced order. Heart rate and oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]O2) as well as performance measures (power, distance covered, stroke rate) were recorded during the tests, and blood lactate was measured immediately after each incremental step and three minutes following the 4minPT. Near-infrared spectroscopy-derived measures of blood flow and oxygenation of the flexor carpi radialis were monitored continuously for all tests. No significant differences between the UBCG and control conditions were evident for any performance, cardiorespiratory or oxygenation measure across the incremental step test and 4minPT. It was concluded that wearing UBCG did not provide any significant physiological or performance benefits during simulated flat-water kayaking.

The Effect of Warm-up on Tethered Front Crawl Swimming Forces

This study was conducted to determine the effect of warm-up on high-intensity front crawl tethered swimming and thus to better understand possible variations in the force exerted by the swimmers. Ten male national level swimmers (mean ± SD; age 15.3 ± 0.95 years old, height: 1.73 ± 5.2 m, body mass: 64.3 ± 7.8 kg, Fat mass 8.31 ± 3.1 kg) participated in this study. After a typical competition warm-up, the subjects performed a 30 s tethered swimming all-out effort in front crawl swimming technique. The same test was repeated in the day after but performed without warming up. Capillary blood lactate concentration was assessed before and after the swimming test and the Borg ratings of perceived exertion scale was used. Without a previous warm-up, the mean ± SD values of maximum and mean forces were 299.62 ± 77.56 N and 91.65 ± 14.70 N, respectively. These values were different (p<0.05) from the values obtained with warm-up (351.33 ± 81.85 N and 103.97 ± 19.11 N). Differences were also observed when regarding to the forces relative to body mass. However, the values of lactate net concentrations after the test performed with and without warm-up were not different (6.27 ± 2.36 mmol·l⁻¹ and 6.18 ± 2.353 mmol·l ⁻¹) and the same occurs with the values of ratings of perceived exertion (15.90 ± 2.42 and 15.60 ± 2.27). These results suggest an improvement of the maximum and mean force of the swimmer on the tethered swimming due to previous warm-up.

High-intensity warm-ups elicit superior performance to a current soccer warm-up routine

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the acute effects of a currently implemented team-sport warm-up and two alternative, high-intensity, short-duration protocols - 5 repetition maximum leg press and small-sided games.

DESIGN

Ten male soccer players participated in a randomised, cross-over study.

METHODS

Participants performed a team-sport, a leg-press, or a small-sided game warm-up. Subsequent performance tests included counter-movement jump, reactive agility, and 15×20 m sprints embedded in an intermittent exercise task. Physiological measures included core temperature, blood lactate concentration, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion. Data were analysed using the effect size statistic with 90% confidence intervals, and percentage change, to determine magnitude of effects.

RESULTS

Counter-movement jump height improved following the small-sided game (6%, ES: 0.8±0.8) and leg-press warm-up (2%, ES: 0.3±0.5), but not after the team-sport warm-up ('unclear' effect). Reactive agility improved after the small-sided game (4%, ES: 0.8±0.7) and leg-press warm-ups only (5%, ES: 1.1±0.7), when compared to baseline. Mean 20-m sprint times during the intermittent exercise task improved following the leg-press warm-up, when compared with the small-sided game (9%, ES: 0.9±0.3) and team-sport warm-ups (7%, ES: 0.6±0.6). Core temperature was lower following the leg-press warm-up compared to small-sided game (1%, ES: 0.9±0.7) and the team-sport WUs (2%, ES: 2.4±0.8). Blood lactate was highest following the small-sided game (67%, ES: 2.7±0.8) and team-sport warm-ups (66%, ES: 2.9±0.9).

CONCLUSIONS

A leg-press and small-sided game warm-up may improve acute team-sport performance tests when compared to a traditional warm-up protocol.

Metabolic and performance effects of warm-up intensity on sprint cycling

Warm-up is generally considered beneficial for performance, although the reduction in anaerobic glycolytic metabolism may be detrimental to sprinting. This study examined the effect of warm-up intensity on metabolism and performance in sprint cycling. The mean power was determined during a 1-min sprint on 11 trained males preceded by easy (WE), moderate (WM) or hard (WH) warm-up and a 10-min recovery. Aerobic, anaerobic glycolytic and phosphocreatine energy provision to the sprint was determined from oxygen uptake and lactate production. Blood lactate concentration before the sprint increased with the warm-up intensity (WE: 1.2±0.3; WM: 2.0±0.3; WH: 4.2±0.9 mmol/L, P<0.001), with WH reducing the increase in lactate production during exercise vs WE (WE: 11.6±1.6; WM: 10.9±1.9; WH: 9.2±1.4 mmol/L, P<0.05). Despite the lower relative anaerobic glycolytic energy provision in WH vs WE (WH: 38±5; WM: 36±6; WE: 34±3%, P<0.05), the mean power was unaffected (WE: 516±28; WM: 521±26; WH: 526±34 W, P>0.05) due to increased oxygen uptake in WH during the sprint (WE: 3.2±0.4; WM: 3.3±0.3; WH: 3.4±0.4 liters, P<0.05). This study supports a warm-up-induced reduction in glycolytic rate, although sprint performance, at least of a long duration, may be maintained due to increased oxygen utilization.

The effects of the contract-relax-antagonist-contract form of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on postural stability

To investigate the effects of the contract-relax-antagonist-contract (CRAC) form of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching, with and without a warm-up, on postural stability. Thirty volunteers (15 men and 15 women, age: 25.17 +/- 5.4 years, height: 173.76 +/- 8.2 cm, and weight: 72.03 +/- 14.87 kg) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: warm-up and stretch (WS), stretching only (SO), and a control condition (CON). Contract-relax-antagonist-contract PNF of the hamstrings, plantar flexors, and hip flexors was performed during WS and SO. A 6-minute treadmill warm-up was applied before CRAC in the WS condition. Measures of anterior/posterior and medial/lateral (M/L) postural stability were taken before and after treatment conditions. A 2 x 3 analysis of variance was used to assess for differences between conditions. Significance was set at p < 0.05. There was a time x condition interaction (F = 3.962,58; p = 0.024, Power = 0.69) for M/L stability. There was a difference between WS and CON (p = 0.037, Power = 0.57) and SO and CON (p = 0.041, Power = 0.51) posttesting. This study suggests that CRAC PNF stretching with or without warm-up improves M/L stability. Contract-relax-antagonist-contract form of stretching is a useful protocol for improving M/L stability.

Effects of prior heavy exercise on energy supply and 4000-m cycling performance

PURPOSE

This study was designed to determine the effects of prior exercise on energy supply and performance in a laboratory-based 4000-m time trial.

METHODS

After one familiarization trial, eight well-trained cyclists (mean +/- SD; age = 30 +/- 8 yr, body mass = 78.7 +/- 8.6 kg, stature = 181 +/- 5 cm, .VO2 peak = 63.7 +/- 6.7 mL.kg.(-1)min(-1), peak power output (PPO) = 366 +/- 39 W) performed three 4000-m laboratory-based cycling time trials each preceded by one of three prior exercise regimens in randomized order: no prior exercise (control), prior heavy exercise, and self-selected prior exercise.

RESULTS

Cyclists adopted a wide range of self-selected prior exercise regimens: duration ranged = 11-80 min, intensity = 48-120% PPO, and recovery = 2-11 min. Relative to control, pre-time-trial blood lactate was raised by 2.5 +/- 1.9 and 1.4 +/- 1.5 mmol.L(-1) after prior heavy and self-selected exercise, respectively. The 4000 m was completed 2.0 +/- 2.3% and 2.2 +/- 1.9% faster after prior heavy and self-selected exercise regimens, respectively, and mean power output was 5.4 +/- 3.6% and 6.0 +/- 5.8% higher, respectively. The overall aerobic contribution (.VO2) and oxygen deficit were not different between conditions (approximately 323 +/- 23 and approximately 64 +/- 22 mL.kg,(-1) respectively), although .VO2 was higher (P < 0.05) in the prior heavy (by 2.1-5.8 mL.kg(-1).min(-1)) and self-selected (2.5-4.3 mL.kg(-1).min(-1)) regimens compared with the control throughout the first half of the time trial.

CONCLUSION

Very high intensity cycling performance was improved after both self-selected and prior heavy exercise. Such priming increased the early aerobic contribution but did not change overall aerobic contribution or oxygen deficit. Thus, athletes seem to manage their energy potential to exploit the available anaerobic capacity, independent of the aerobic contribution. Athletes are advised to perform a bout of heavy exercise as part of their prior exercise regimen.

Effects of warm-up intensity on oxygen transport during supramaximal exercise in horses

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether warm-up exercise at different intensities alters kinetics and total contribution of aerobic power to total metabolic power in subsequent supramaximal exercise in horses.

ANIMALS

11 horses.

PROCEDURES

Horses ran at a sprint until fatigued at 115% of maximal oxygen consumption rate (VO(2max)), beginning at 10 minutes following each of 3 warm-up protocols: no warmup (NoWU), 1 minute at 70% VO(2max) (moderate-intensity warm-up [MoWU]), or 1 minute at 115% VO(2max) (high-intensity warm-up [HiWU]). Cardiopulmonary and blood gas variables were measured during exercise.

RESULTS

The VO(2) was significantly higher in HiWU and MoWU than in NoWU throughout the sprint exercise period. Blood lactate accumulation rate in the first 60 seconds was significantly lower in MoWU and HiWU than in NoWU. Specific cardiac output after 60 seconds of sprint exercise was not significantly different among the 3 protocols; however, the arterial mixed-venous oxygen concentration difference was significantly higher in HiWU than in NoWU primarily because of decreased mixed-venous saturation and tension. Run time to fatigue following MoWU was significantly greater than that with NoWU, and there was no difference in time to fatigue between MoWU and HiWU.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

HiWU and MoWU increased peak values for VO(2) and decreased blood lactate accumulation rate during the first minute of intense exercise, suggesting a greater use of aerobic than net anaerobic power during this period.

Warm-up in dressage competitions: association with level, competition type and final score

Warm-up of 267 competitors at British Dressage affiliated competitions was observed, including competitors at novice (N) (n = 104), medium (M) (n = 65), Prix St Georges (PSG) (n = 60) and Grand Prix (GP) (n = 38) levels. Competitions were classified as local (n = 103), regional (n = 57) and national championship (n = 107) events. Overall, the mean warm-up duration for competitors at dressage competitions was 29 min 53 s. Total warm-up duration was 25 min 23 s ± 10 min 2 s (mean ± SD) at N level; 31 min 32 s ± 11 min 32 s at M level; 32 min 53 s ± 11 min 19 s at PSG and 34 min 34 s ± 10 min 10 s at GP. Mean proportion of walk, trot and canter at each level was N: walk = 39.26%, trot = 40.31%, canter = 20.43%; M: walk = 43.77%, trot = 32.54%, canter = 23.69%; PSG: walk = 38.53%, trot = 31.03%, canter = 30.43% and GP: walk = 38.79%, trot = 33.26%, canter = 27.95%. There was no effect of rider experience, but level and type of competition affected the proportion of time spent in different paces and total time of warm-up, which was increased at higher levels and championships. Increased warm-up time and specific warm-up design were positively associated with final score at novice and Prix St Georges levels.

Effect of prior exercise above and below critical power on exercise to exhaustion

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to ascertain whether the intensity of prior exercise altered the time to exhaustion at critical power (CP).

METHODS

Eleven participants volunteered to take part in the study (mean +/- SD: VO2max 4.1 +/- 0.5 L x min(-1); age 30.1 +/- 7.2 yr; body mass 74.6 +/- 9.1 kg) and completed three trials to exhaustion at their CP under differing prior exercise conditions: 1) a control trial (CON); 2) a trial preceded by three 60-s efforts at 110% CP (severe); and 3) a trial preceded by three 73-s efforts at 90% CP (heavy). All trials followed a 5-min baseline at 50 W.

RESULTS

Time to exhaustion was significantly lengthened after prior heavy exercise (1071 +/- 18 s) when compared with CON (973 +/- 16 s, F = 9.53, P = 0.006). However, there was no effect on TTE after prior severe exercise (967 +/- 16 s). Oxygen deficit was significantly reduced from that in CON (3.8 +/- 0.2 L) after prior heavy (3.2 +/- 0.3 L) and prior severe exercise (3.1 +/- 0.3 L, F = 10.95, P = 0.001). Concurrently, there was a significant reduction in the magnitude of the VO2 slow component (SC) in the trials with prior exercise (197 +/- 34 and 126 +/- 19 mL x min(-1) after heavy and severe exercise, respectively) when compared with CON (223 +/- 31 mL x min(-1), F = 9.62, P = 0.006).

CONCLUSION

Prior heavy exercise does appear to improve the time to exhaustion at CP by approximately 10% and is associated with a reduction in the VO2 SC. However, the reduction in the SC, with no change in performance after prior severe exercise, suggests that a reduced SC may not necessarily lead to improved TTE.

Effects of prior warm-up regime on severe-intensity cycling performance

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of three different warm-up regimes on cycling work output during a 7-min performance trial.

METHODS

After habituation to the experimental methods, 12 well-trained cyclists completed a series of 7-min performance trials, involving 2 min of constant-work rate exercise at approximately 90% VO2max and a further 5 min during which subjects attempted to maximize power output. This trial was performed without prior intervention and 10 min after bouts of moderate, heavy, or sprint exercise in a random order. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured breath by breath during all performance trials.

RESULTS

At the onset of the performance trial, baseline blood [lactate] was significantly elevated after heavy and sprint but not moderate exercise (mean +/- SD: control, 1.0 +/- 0.3 mM; moderate, 1.0 +/- 0.2 mM; heavy, 3.0 +/- 1.1 mM; sprint, 5.9 +/- 1.5 mM). All three interventions significantly increased the amplitude of the primary VO2 response (control, 2.59 +/- 0.28 L x min(-1); moderate, 2.69 +/- 0.27 L x min(-1); heavy, 2.78 +/- 0.26 L x min(-1); sprint, 2.78 +/- 0.30 L x min(-1)). Mean power output was significantly increased by prior moderate and heavy exercise but not significantly reduced after sprint exercise (control, 330 +/- 42 W; moderate, 338 +/- 39 W; heavy, 339 +/- 42 W; sprint, 324 +/- 45 W).

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that priming exercise performed in the moderate- and heavy-intensity domains can improve severe-intensity cycling performance by ~2-3%, the latter condition doing so despite a mild lactacidosis being present at exercise onset.