Serotonin(1A) receptors in mood disorders: a combined genetic and genomic approach

Stimulation of 5-HT receptors in anterodorsal BNST guides fear to predictable and unpredictable threat

Through pharmacological manipulation of the serotonergic (5-Hydroxytryptamin, 5-HT) system, combined with behavioral analysis, we tested the hypothesis that fear responses to predictable and unpredictable threat are regulated through stimulation of 5-HT receptors (5-HT-R) in the anterodorsal section of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (adBNST). Local adBNST application of 5-HT1A-R antagonist WAY100635 and 5-HT1B-R antagonist NAS-181 before fear retrieval enhanced freezing, 24 h after predictable fear conditioning. In contrast, increased fear responses to unpredictable threat were blocked by 5-HT1A-R agonist Buspirone (given before conditioning or retrieval) and 5-HT1B-R agonist CP-94253 (applied before training). Prolonged fear responses were also blocked by local application of the 5-HT2A-R antagonist R-96544 before fear retrieval, and conversely, local application of the 5-HT2A-R agonist NBOH-2C-CN hydrochloride before fear retrieval enhanced freezing 24 h after predictable conditioning, indicating augmented fear responses. Activation of inhibitory 5-HT1A- or 5-HT1B-Rs and the blockade of the excitatory 5-HT2A-R before unpredictable fear conditioning significantly reduced freezing during retrieval. The results from this study suggest that modulation of inhibitory 5-HT1A/1B-R and/or excitatory 5-HT2A-R activity in the adBNST may represent potential targets for the development of new treatment strategies in anxiety disorders. In addition, this study supports the validity and reliability of the mouse model of modulated fear to predictable and unpredictable threats to study mechanisms of fear and anxiety in combination with pharmacological manipulations.

Differential distribution of serotonin receptor subtypes in BNST(ALG) neurons: modulation by unpredictable shock stress

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) plays a critical role in regulating the behavioral response to stress. Stressors that activate the BNST also activate serotonergic (5-HT) systems. Hence, maladaptive changes of 5-HT receptor expression may contribute to stress-induced anxiety disorders. The BNST contains three neuronal types, Type I-III neurons. However, little is known about 5-HT receptor subtypes mRNA expression in these neurons, or whether it can be modulated by stress. Whole-cell patch clamp recording from Type I-III neurons was used in conjunction with single cell reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to characterize 5-HT receptor mRNA expression, and examine the effects of stress on this expression. We report that Type I neurons expressed mRNA transcripts predominantly for 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(7) receptors. Type II neurons expressed transcripts for every 5-HT receptor except the 5-HT(2C) receptor. Type II neurons were divided into three sub-populations: Type IIA in which transcripts for 5-HT(3) and 5-HT(7) receptors predominate, Type IIB that mainly express 5-HT(1B) and 5-HT(4) receptor transcripts, and Type IIC in which transcripts for 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptors predominate. Type III neurons were also subdivided into two sub-populations; one that predominantly expressed transcripts for 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(1B) and 5-HT(2A) receptors, and another that mainly expressed transcripts for 5-HT(2C) receptor. Unpredictable shock stress (USS) caused a long-lasting increase in anxiety-like behavior, and a concomitant decrease in 5-HT(1A) transcript expression in Type I-III neurons, as well as an up-regulation of a transcriptional repressor of 5-HT(1A) gene expression, deformed epidermal autoregulatory factor 1 (Deaf-1). Significantly USS decreased 5-HT(1A) protein level, and increased the level of Deaf-1. USS also increased 5-HT(1B) transcript expression in Type III neurons, as well as 5-HT(7) expression in Type I and II neurons. These data suggest that cell type-specific disruption of 5-HT receptor expression in BNST(ALG) neurons may contribute to stress-induced anxiety disorders.

Early parental deprivation in the marmoset monkey produces long-term changes in hippocampal expression of genes involved in synaptic plasticity and implicated in mood disorder

In mood disorder, early stressors including parental separation are vulnerability factors, and hippocampal involvement is prominent. In common marmoset monkeys, daily parental deprivation during infancy produces a prodepressive state of increased basal activity and reactivity in stress systems and mild anhedonia that persists at least to adolescence. Here we examined the expression of eight genes, each implicated in neural plasticity and in the pathophysiology of mood disorder, in the hippocampus of these same adolescent marmosets, relative to their normally reared sibling controls. We also measured hippocampal volume. Early deprivation led to decreases in hippocampal growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) mRNA, serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT(1A)R) mRNA and binding ([3H]WAY100635), and to increased vesicular GABA transporter mRNA. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), synaptophysin, vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGluT1), microtubule-associated protein-2, and spinophilin transcripts were unchanged. There were some correlations with in vivo biochemical and behavioral indices, including VGluT1 mRNA with reward-seeking behavior, and serotonin 1A receptor mRNA with CSF cortisol. Early deprivation did not affect hippocampal volume. We conclude that early deprivation in a nonhuman primate, in the absence of subsequent stressors, has a long-term effect on the hippocampal expression of genes implicated in synaptic function and plasticity. The reductions in GAP-43 and serotonin 1A receptor expressions are comparable with findings in mood disorder, supporting the possibility that the latter reflect an early developmental contribution to disease vulnerability. Equally, the negative results suggest that other features of mood disorder, such as decreased hippocampal volume and BDNF expression, are related to different aspects of the pathophysiological process.

Functional correlates for 5-HT(1A) receptors in maternally deprived rats displaying anxiety and depression-like behaviors

Maternal separation is known to induce long-term changes in neuroendocrine and emotional responsiveness to stress in a large variety of models. We examined an animal model of early deprivation in Sprague-Dawley rats consisting of separating litters from their mothers and littermates 3 h daily during postnatal days 2 to 15. In adulthood, maternally deprived rats in comparison with non-deprived controls exhibited an increase in anxiety and depression-related behaviors in the open-field and forced swim tests. Because serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT(1A) receptors seem to play an important role in the pathophysiology of major depression and in the mechanism of action of antidepressants, we investigated if 5-HT(1A) receptor function is altered in deprived rats. Although the hypothermic response to the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT was increased in adult deprived rats compared to non-deprived control group, no differences between groups were found in the effect of the systemic 8-OH-DPAT administration on serotoninergic cell firing in dorsal raphe nucleus and in the 5-HT release at the ventral hippocampus levels. These results suggest that 5-HT(1A) receptors are not substantially affected in adult Sprague-Dawley rats that were subjected to a maternal deprivation 3 h daily during the neonatal period.

Lack of serotonin1B receptor expression leads to age-related motor dysfunction, early onset of brain molecular aging and reduced longevity

Normal aging of the brain differs from pathological conditions and is associated with increased risk for psychiatric and neurological disorders. In addition to its role in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders, altered serotonin (5-HT) signaling is considered a contributing factor to aging; however, no causative role has been identified in aging. We hypothesized that a deregulation of the 5-HT system would reveal its contribution to age-related processes and investigated behavioral and molecular changes throughout adult life in mice lacking the regulatory presynaptic 5-HT(1B) receptor (5-HT(1B)R), a candidate gene for 5-HT-mediated age-related functions. We show that the lack of 5-HT(1B)R (Htr1b(KO) mice) induced an early age-related motor decline and resulted in decreased longevity. Analysis of life-long transcriptome changes revealed an early and global shift of the gene expression signature of aging in the brain of Htr1b(KO) mice. Moreover, molecular changes reached an apparent maximum effect at 18-months in Htr1b(KO) mice, corresponding to the onset of early death in that group. A comparative analysis with our previous characterization of aging in the human brain revealed a phylogenetic conservation of age-effect from mice to humans, and confirmed the early onset of molecular aging in Htr1b(KO) mice. Potential mechanisms appear independent of known central mechanisms (Bdnf, inflammation), but may include interactions with previously identified age-related systems (IGF-1, sirtuins). In summary, our findings suggest that the onset of age-related events can be influenced by altered 5-HT function, thus identifying 5-HT as a modulator of brain aging, and suggesting age-related consequences to chronic manipulation of 5-HT.

Localization of the mouse 5-hydroxytryptamine(1A) receptor in lipid microdomains depends on its palmitoylation and is involved in receptor-mediated signaling

In the present study, we have used wild-type and palmitoylation-deficient mouse 5-hydroxytryptamine(1A) receptor (5-HT1A) receptors fused to the yellow fluorescent protein- and the cyan fluorescent protein (CFP)-tagged alpha(i3) subunit of heterotrimeric G-protein to study spatiotemporal distribution of the 5-HT1A-mediated signaling in living cells. We also addressed the question on the molecular mechanisms by which receptor palmitoylation may regulate communication between receptors and G(i)-proteins. Our data demonstrate that activation of the 5-HT1A receptor caused a partial release of Galpha(i) protein into the cytoplasm and that this translocation is accompanied by a significant increase of the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. In contrast, acylation-deficient 5-HT1A mutants failed to reproduce both Galpha(i3)-CFP relocation and changes in [Ca(2+)](i) upon agonist stimulation. By using gradient centrifugation and copatching assays, we also demonstrate that a significant fraction of the 5-HT1A receptor resides in membrane rafts, whereas the yield of the palmitoylation-deficient receptor in these membrane microdomains is reduced considerably. Our results suggest that receptor palmitoylation serves as a targeting signal responsible for the retention of the 5-HT1A receptor in membrane rafts. More importantly, the raft localization of the 5-HT1A receptor seems to be involved in receptor-mediated signaling.

Mutant mouse models of depression: Candidate genes and current mouse lines

Depression is a multifactorial and multigenetic disease. At present, three main theories try to conceptualize its molecular and biochemical mechanisms, namely the monoamine-, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal- (HPA-) system- and the neurotrophin-hypotheses. One way to explore, validate or falsify these hypotheses is to alter the expression of genes that are involved in these systems and study their respective role in animal behavior and neuroendocrinological parameters. Following an introduction in which we briefly describe each hypothesis, we review here the different mouse lines generated to study the respective molecular pathways. Among the many mutant lines generated, only a few can be regarded as genetic depression models or as models of predisposition for a depressive syndrome after stress exposure. However, this is likely to reflect the human situation where depressive syndromes are complex, can vary to a great extent with respect to their symptomatology, and may be influenced by a variety of environmental factors. Mice with mutations of candidate genes showing depression-like features on behavioral or neurochemical levels may help to define a complex molecular framework underlying depressive syndromes. Because it is conceivable that manipulation of one single genetic function may be necessary but not sufficient to cause complex behavioral alterations, strategies for improving genetic modeling of depression-like syndromes in animals possibly require a simultaneous targeted dysregulation of several genes involved in the pathogenesis of depression. This approach would correspond to the new concept of 'endophenotypes' in human depression research trying to identify behavioral traits which are thought to be encoded by a limited set of genes.

Altered emotional behaviors and the expression of 5-HT1A and M1 muscarinic receptors in ?-opioid receptor knockout mice

Anxiety and depression alterations have been reported in micro-opioid receptor knockout mice after exon 2 disruption. However, emotional behaviors, such as novelty and emergence responses have not been reported in micro-opioid receptor knockout mice due to the disruptions of exon 2 and 3. Here, we report that mu-opioid receptor knockout mice, with deletion of exon 2 and 3, display significant emotional behavior changes; they showed less anxiety in the elevated plus maze and emergence tests, reduced response to novel stimuli in the novelty test, and less depressive-like behavior in the forced-swim test. Analysis of the compensatory mechanism in mu-opioid receptor knockout mice revealed that the M1 mRNA levels were reduced in the cortex, caudate putamen, nucleus accumbens, and hippocampus, and that M1 receptor levels were reduced in the nucleus accumbens, CA1, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, versus the wild-type. However, 5-HT1A receptor levels were significantly elevated in the cerebral cortex and in the hypothalamus of mu-opioid receptor knockout mice versus the wild-type. These aberrant emotional behavioral phenotypes are possibly related to M1 and 5-HT1A receptor alterations in the micro-opioid receptor knockout mice. Overall, our study suggests that micro-opioid receptor may play a role in the modification of emotional responses to novelty, anxiety, and depression.

The neurobiology and control of anxious states

Fear is an adaptive component of the acute "stress" response to potentially-dangerous (external and internal) stimuli which threaten to perturb homeostasis. However, when disproportional in intensity, chronic and/or irreversible, or not associated with any genuine risk, it may be symptomatic of a debilitating anxious state: for example, social phobia, panic attacks or generalized anxiety disorder. In view of the importance of guaranteeing an appropriate emotional response to aversive events, it is not surprising that a diversity of mechanisms are involved in the induction and inhibition of anxious states. Apart from conventional neurotransmitters, such as monoamines, gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, many other modulators have been implicated, including: adenosine, cannabinoids, numerous neuropeptides, hormones, neurotrophins, cytokines and several cellular mediators. Accordingly, though benzodiazepines (which reinforce transmission at GABA(A) receptors), serotonin (5-HT)(1A) receptor agonists and 5-HT reuptake inhibitors are currently the principle drugs employed in the management of anxiety disorders, there is considerable scope for the development of alternative therapies. In addition to cellular, anatomical and neurochemical strategies, behavioral models are indispensable for the characterization of anxious states and their modulation. Amongst diverse paradigms, conflict procedures--in which subjects experience opposing impulses of desire and fear--are of especial conceptual and therapeutic pertinence. For example, in the Vogel Conflict Test (VCT), the ability of drugs to release punishment-suppressed drinking behavior is evaluated. In reviewing the neurobiology of anxious states, the present article focuses in particular upon: the multifarious and complex roles of individual modulators, often as a function of the specific receptor type and neuronal substrate involved in their actions; novel targets for the management of anxiety disorders; the influence of neurotransmitters and other agents upon performance in the VCT; data acquired from complementary pharmacological and genetic strategies and, finally, several open questions likely to orientate future experimental- and clinical-research. In view of the recent proliferation of mechanisms implicated in the pathogenesis, modulation and, potentially, treatment of anxiety disorders, this is an opportune moment to survey their functional and pathophysiological significance, and to assess their influence upon performance in the VCT and other models of potential anxiolytic properties.

Genetic animal models of anxiety

The focus of this review is on progress achieved in identifying specific genes conferring risk for anxiety disorders through the use of genetic animal models. We discuss gene-finding studies as well as those manipulating a candidate gene. Both human and animal studies thus far support the genetic complexity of anxiety. Clinical manifestations of these diseases are likely related to multiple genes. While different anxiety disorders and anxiety-related traits all appear to be genetically influenced, it has been difficult to ascertain genetic influences in common. Mouse studies have provisionally mapped several loci harboring genes that affect anxiety-related behavior. The growing array of mutant mice is providing valuable information about how genes and environment interact to affect anxious behavior via multiple neuropharmacological pathways. Classical genetic methods such as artificial selection of rodents for high or low anxiety are being employed. Expression array technologies have as yet not been employed, but can be expected to implicate novel candidates and neurobiological pathways.

The Vogel conflict test: procedural aspects, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate and monoamines

A multitude of mechanisms are involved in the control of emotion and in the response to stress. These incorporate mediators/targets as diverse as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), excitatory amino acids, monoamines, hormones, neurotrophins and various neuropeptides. Behavioural models are indispensable for characterization of the neuronal substrates underlying their implication in the etiology of anxiety, and of their potential therapeutic pertinence to its management. Of considerable significance in this regard are conflict paradigms in which the influence of drugs upon conditioned (trained) behaviours is examined. For example, the Vogel conflict test, which was introduced some 30 years ago, measures the ability of drugs to release the drinking behaviour of water-deprived rats exposed to a mild aversive stimulus ("punishment"). This model, of which numerous procedural variants are discussed herein, has been widely used in the evaluation of potential anxiolytic agents. In particular, it has been exploited in the characterization of drugs interacting with GABAergic, glutamatergic and monoaminergic networks, the actions of which in the Vogel conflict test are summarized in this article. More recently, the effects of drugs acting at neuropeptide receptors have been examined with this model. It is concluded that the Vogel conflict test is of considerable utility for rapid exploration of the actions of anxiolytic (and anxiogenic) drugs. Indeed, in view of its clinical relevance, broader exploitation of the Vogel conflict test in the identification of novel classes of anxiolytic agents, and in the determination of their mechanisms of action, would prove instructive.

Subtraction libraries for the molecular characterization of gene-environmental interactions in bipolar disorder

OBJECTIVES

We endeavoured to identify gene-environmental interactions related to bipolar disorder.

METHODS

We generated subtraction libraries from the frontal cortex of brains obtained postmortem from individuals with bipolar disorder and age- and sex-matched unaffected controls.

RESULTS

There are a number of RNA transcripts which are apparently up-regulated or down-regulated in the frontal cortex of individuals with bipolar disorder as compared with the controls. Many of these transcripts are involved in processes crucial to brain function. Several are also related to pathways involved in infections or the inflammatory response in environmental stimuli.

CONCLUSIONS

Bipolar disorder may involve a complex set of interactions between genes which affect brain function and infections which control the expression of these genes.