Inter-relationship between diet, lifestyle habits, gut microflora, and the equol-producer phenotype: baseline findings from a placebo-controlled intervention trial

Factors driving the inter-individual variability in the metabolism and bioavailability of (poly)phenolic metabolites: A systematic review of human studies

This systematic review provides an overview of the available evidence on the inter-individual variability (IIV) in the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of phenolic metabolites and its determinants. Human studies were included investigating the metabolism and bioavailability of (poly)phenols and reporting IIV. One hundred fifty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Inter-individual differences were mainly related to gut microbiota composition and activity but also to genetic polymorphisms, age, sex, ethnicity, BMI, (patho)physiological status, and physical activity, depending on the (poly)phenol sub-class considered. Most of the IIV has been poorly characterised. Two major types of IIV were observed. One resulted in metabolite gradients that can be further classified into high and low excretors, as seen for all flavonoids, phenolic acids, prenylflavonoids, alkylresorcinols, and hydroxytyrosol. The other type of IIV is based on clusters of individuals defined by qualitative differences (producers vs. non-producers), as for ellagitannins (urolithins), isoflavones (equol and O-DMA), resveratrol (lunularin), and preliminarily for avenanthramides (dihydro-avenanthramides), or by quali-quantitative metabotypes characterized by different proportions of specific metabolites, as for flavan-3-ols, flavanones, and even isoflavones. Future works are needed to shed light on current open issues limiting our understanding of this phenomenon that likely conditions the health effects of dietary (poly)phenols.

(Poly)phenol-related gut metabotypes and human health: an update

Dietary (poly)phenols have received great interest due to their potential role in the prevention and management of non-communicable diseases. In recent years, a high inter-individual variability in the biological response to (poly)phenols has been demonstrated, which could be related to the high variability in (poly)phenol gut microbial metabolism existing within individuals. An interplay between (poly)phenols and the gut microbiota exists, with (poly)phenols being metabolised by the gut microbiota and their metabolites modulating gut microbiota diversity and composition. A number of (poly)phenol metabolising phenotypes or metabotypes have been proposed, however, potential metabotypes for most (poly)phenols have not been investigated, and the relationship between metabotypes and human health remains ambiguous. This review presents updated knowledge on the reciprocal interaction between (poly)phenols and the gut microbiome, associated gut metabotypes, and subsequent impact on human health.

Ramen Consumption and Gut Microbiota Diversity in Japanese Women: Cross-Sectional Data from the NEXIS Cohort Study

A cross-sectional study involving 224 healthy Japanese adult females explored the relationship between ramen intake, gut microbiota diversity, and blood biochemistry. Using a stepwise regression model, ramen intake was inversely associated with gut microbiome alpha diversity after adjusting for related factors, including diets, Age, BMI, and stool habits (β = -0.018; r = -0.15 for Shannon index). The intake group of ramen was inversely associated with dietary nutrients and dietary fiber compared with the no-intake group of ramen. Sugar intake, Dorea as a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing gut microbiota, and γ-glutamyl transferase as a liver function marker were directly associated with ramen intake after adjustment for related factors including diets, gut microbiota, and blood chemistry using a stepwise logistic regression model, whereas Dorea is inconsistently less abundant in the ramen group. In conclusion, the increased ramen was associated with decreased gut bacterial diversity accompanying a perturbation of Dorea through the dietary nutrients, gut microbiota, and blood chemistry, while the methodological limitations existed in a cross-sectional study. People with frequent ramen eating habits need to take measures to consume various nutrients to maintain and improve their health, and dietary management can be applied to the dietary feature in ramen consumption.

Advances in the Metabolic Mechanism and Functional Characteristics of Equol

Equol is the most potent soy isoflavone metabolite and is produced by specific intestinal microorganisms of mammals. It has promising application possibilities for preventing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and prostate cancer due to its high antioxidant activity and hormone-like activity. Thus, it is of great significance to systematically study the efficient preparation method of equol and its functional activity. This paper elaborates on the metabolic mechanism of equol in humans; focuses on the biological characteristics, synthesis methods, and the currently isolated equol-producing bacteria; and looks forward to its future development and application direction, aiming to provide guidance for the application and promotion of equol in the field of food and health products.

Short-Term Soy Bread Intervention Leads to a Dose-Response Increase in Urinary Isoflavone Metabolites and Satiety in Chronic Pancreatitis

Patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP) are particularly vulnerable to nutrient malabsorption and undernutrition caused by the underlying pathology of their disease. Dietary intervention trials involving soy isoflavones in patients with CP are limited and isoflavone metabolites have not yet been reported. We hypothesized soy bread containing plant-based protein, dietary fiber, and isoflavones would be well-tolerated and restore gut functional capacity which would lead to isoflavone metabolites profiles like those of healthy populations. Participants (n = 9) received 1 week of soy bread in a dose-escalation design (1 to 3 slices/day) or a 4-week maximally tolerated dose (n = 1). Dietary adherence, satiety, and palatability were measured. Isoflavone metabolites from 24 h urine collections were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography. A maximum dose of three slices (99 mg of isoflavones) of soy bread per day was achieved. Short-term exposure to soy bread showed a significant dose-response increase (p = 0.007) of total isoflavones and their metabolites in urine. With increasing slices of soy bread, dietary animal protein intake (p = 0.009) and perceived thirst (p < 0.001) significantly decreased with prolonged satiety (p < 0.001). In this study, adherence to short-term intervention with soy bread in CP patients was excellent. Soy isoflavones were reliably delivered. These findings provide the foundation for evaluating a well-characterized soy bread in supporting healthy nutrition and gut function in CP.

Understanding the bacterial compositional network associations between oral and gut microbiome within healthy Koreans

Oral microbial ecosystem could influence intestinal diseases, but there have been insufficient studies demonstrating the association of microbial composition between the oral cavity and the intestinal system. Thus, we aimed to investigate the compositional network within the oral microbiome related to gut enterotype from saliva and stool samples collected from 112 healthy Korean subjects. Here, we performed bacterial 16S amplicon sequencing from clinical samples. Then, we determined oral microbiome type related to individual's gut enterotype for healthy Korean. The co-occurrence analysis was performed to interactivity prediction of microbiome within saliva samples. As a result, it could be classified into two Korean oral microbiome types (KO) and four oral-gut-associated microbiome types (KOGA) according to distribution and significant differences of oral microflora. The co-occurrence analysis showed various bacterial compositional networks linked around Streptococcus and Haemophilus within healthy subjects. The present study was first approach in healthy Koreans to identify the oral microbiome types related to the gut microbiome and investigate their characteristics. Hence, we suggest that our results could be potential healthy control data for identifying differences in microbial composition between healthy people and oral disease patients and studying microbial association with the gut microbial environment (oral-gut microbiome axis).

Soy isoflavone-specific biotransformation product S-equol in the colon: physiological functions, transformation mechanisms, and metabolic regulatory pathways

Epidemiological data suggest that regular intake of soy isoflavones may reduce the incidence of estrogen-dependent and aging-associated disorders. Equol is a metabolite of soy isoflavone (SI) produced by specific gut microbiota and has many beneficial effects on human health due to its higher biological activity compared to SI. However, only 1/3 to 1/2 of humans are able to produce equol in the body, which means that not many people can fully benefit from SI. This review summarizes the recent advances in equol research, focusing on the chemical properties, physiological functions, conversion mechanisms in vitro and vivo, and metabolic regulatory pathways affecting S-equol production. Advanced experimental designs and possible techniques in future research plan are also fully discussed. Furthermore, this review provides a fundamental basis for researchers in the field to understand individual differences in S-equol production, the efficiency of metabolic conversion of S-equol, and fermentation production of S-equol in vitro.

The Impact of Plant Phytochemicals on the Gut Microbiota of Humans for a Balanced Life

The gastrointestinal tract of humans is a complex microbial ecosystem known as gut microbiota. The microbiota is involved in several critical physiological processes such as digestion, absorption, and related physiological functions and plays a crucial role in determining the host’s health. The habitual consumption of specific dietary components can impact beyond their nutritional benefits, altering gut microbiota diversity and function and could manipulate health. Phytochemicals are non-nutrient biologically active plant components that can modify the composition of gut microflora through selective stimulation of proliferation or inhibition of certain microbial communities in the intestine. Plants secrete these components, and they accumulate in the cell wall and cell sap compartments (body) for their development and survival. These compounds have low bioavailability and long time-retention in the intestine due to their poor absorption, resulting in beneficial impacts on gut microbiota population. Feeding diets containing phytochemicals to humans and animals may offer a path to improve the gut microbiome resulting in improved performance and/or health and wellbeing. This review discusses the effects of phytochemicals on the modulation of the gut microbiota environment and the resultant benefits to humans; however, the effect of phytochemicals on the gut microbiota of animals is also covered, in brief.

Characterization and Identification of a New Daidzein Reductase Involved in (S)-Equol Biosynthesis in Clostridium sp. ZJ6

(S)-equol (EQ) is an isoflavone with high estrogen-like activity in the human body, and is only produced by some gut bacteria in vivo. It plays an important role in maintaining individual health, however, the dearth of resources associated with (S)-EQ-producing bacteria has seriously restricted the production and application of (S)-EQ. We report here a new functional gene KEC48-07020 (K-07020) that was identified from a chick (S)-EQ-producing bacterium (Clostridium sp. ZJ6, ZJ6). We found that recombinant protein of K-07020 possessed similar function to daidzein reductase (DZNR), which can convert daidzein (DZN) into R/S-dihydrodaidzein (R/S-DHD). Interestingly, K-07020 can reversely convert (R/S)-DHD (DHD oxidase) into DZN even without cofactors under aerobic conditions. Additionally, high concentrations of (S)-EQ can directly promote DHD oxidase but inhibit DZNR activity. Molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the amino acid > Arg75 was the active site of DHD oxidase. Subsequently, an engineered E. coli strain based on K-07020 was constructed and showed higher yield of (S)-EQ than the engineered bacteria from our previous work. Metagenomics analysis and PCR detection surprisingly revealed that K-07020 and related bacteria may be prevalent in the gut of humans and animals. Overall, a new DZNR from ZJ6 was found and identified in this study, and its bidirectional enzyme activities and wide distribution in the gut of humans and animals provide alternative strategies for revealing the individual regulatory mechanisms of (S)-EQ-producing bacteria.

Association of equol producing status with aortic calcification in middle-aged Japanese men: The ERA JUMP study

BACKGROUND

Equol, an isoflavone (ISF)-derived metabolite by the gut microbiome in certain individuals termed as equol-producers, might be the key anti-atherogenic component of ISFs. Our objective was to determine the association between equol-producing status and aortic atherosclerosis assessed as aortic calcification (AC).

METHODS

This population-based study of 302 Japanese men aged 40-49, free of cardiovascular disease, examined serum levels of equol and ISFs, AC in the entire aorta by electron-beam computed tomography with Agatston method, and cardiovascular risk factors. We defined equol-producers as individuals with serum levels of equol ≥20 nM and prevalent AC as an AC score ≥ 10. We analyzed the association between equol-producing status and AC using Tobit and logistic regressions. We performed age-stratified analyses since age was a significant effect-modifier.

RESULTS

The 60th to 90th percentile AC scores were 4 to 243 in equol-producers and 15 to 444 in non-producers, respectively. Overall, equol-producers (41% of the sample) had lower AC scores (-209, [95% confidence interval (CI): -455, 36]) and odds of AC (odds ratio (OR): 0.7 [95% CI: 0.4, 1.3]), although not statistically significant, compared to non-producers after controlling for cardiovascular risk factors. Among men aged 46-49, equol-producers had significantly lower AC scores (-428 [95% CI: -827, -29]). Furthermore, there were null associations between serum levels of ISFs and both AC score and the odds of AC.

CONCLUSION

In middle-aged Japanese men, equol-producers had a non-significantly lower burden of aortic atherosclerosis than non-producers whereas ISFs had a null association. Studies with larger sample sizes in both sexes are warranted.

Maximizing the Estrogenic Potential of Soy Isoflavones through the Gut Microbiome: Implication for Cardiometabolic Health in Postmenopausal Women

Soy isoflavones have been suggested as an alternative treatment for managing postmenopausal symptoms and promoting long-term health due to their structural similarity to mammalian estrogen and ability to bind to estrogen receptors. Among all soy isoflavones and their metabolites, (S)-equol is known for having the strongest estrogenic activity. Equol is a metabolite of the soy isoflavone daidzein produced through intestinal bacterial metabolism. However, more than half of the human population is not able to produce equol due to the lack of equol-producing bacteria in their gastrointestinal tract. The interpersonal variations in the gut microbiome complicate the interpretation of data collected from humans. Furthermore, because rodents are efficient equol-producers, translatability between rodent models and humans is challenging. Herein, we first summarized the current knowledge of the microbial conversion of daidzein to equol, its relation to health, and proposed the need for developing model systems by which equol production can be manipulated while controlling other known confounding factors. Determining the necessity of equol-producing capacity within a gut microbial community when consuming soy as a functional ingredient, and identifying strategies to maximize equol production by modulating the gut microbiome, may provide future therapeutic approaches to improve the health of postmenopausal women.

Main drivers of (poly)phenol effects on human health: metabolite production and/or gut microbiota-associated metabotypes?

Despite the high human interindividual variability in response to (poly)phenol consumption, the cause-and-effect relationship between some dietary (poly)phenols (flavanols and olive oil phenolics) and health effects (endothelial function and prevention of LDL oxidation, respectively) has been well established. Most of the variables affecting this interindividual variability have been identified (food matrix, gut microbiota, single-nucleotide-polymorphisms, etc.). However, the final drivers for the health effects of (poly)phenol consumption have not been fully identified. At least partially, these drivers could be (i) the (poly)phenols ingested that exert their effect in the gastrointestinal tract, (ii) the bioavailable metabolites that exert their effects systemically and/or (iii) the gut microbial ecology associated with (poly)phenol metabolism (i.e., gut microbiota-associated metabotypes). However, statistical associations between health effects and the occurrence of circulating and/or excreted metabolites, as well as cross-sectional studies that correlate gut microbial ecologies and health, do not prove a causal role unequivocally. We provide a critical overview and perspective on the possible main drivers of the effects of (poly)phenols on human health and suggest possible actions to identify the putative actors responsible for the effects.

Effects of an equol-containing supplement on advanced glycation end products, visceral fat and climacteric symptoms in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Equol, an isoflavone derivative whose chemical structure is similar to estrogen, is considered a potentially effective agent for relieving climacteric symptoms, for the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases, and for aging care in postmenopausal women. We investigated the effect of an equol-containing supplement on metabolism and aging and climacteric symptoms with respect to internally produced equol in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

A single-center, randomized controlled trial (registration number: UMIN000030975) on 57 postmenopausal Japanese women (mean age: 56±5.37 years) was conducted. Twenty-seven women received the equol supplement, while the remaining received control. Metabolic and aging-related biomarkers were compared before and after the 3-month intervention. Climacteric symptoms were assessed every month using a validated self-administered questionnaire in Japanese postmenopausal women.

RESULTS

Three months post-intervention, the treatment group showed significant improvement in climacteric symptoms compared to the control group (81% vs. 53%, respectively, p = 0.045). We did not observe any beneficial effect on metabolic and aging-related biomarkers in the intervention group. However, in certain populations, significant improvement in skin autofluorescence, which is a measurement of AGE skin products, and visceral fat area was observed, especially among equol producers.

CONCLUSION

Women receiving equol supplementation showed improved climacteric symptoms. This study offered a new hypothesis that there may be a synergy between supplemented equol and endogenously produced equol to improve skin aging and visceral fat in certain populations.

Nutrition in Menopausal Women: A Narrative Review

Among the various aspects of health promotion and lifestyle adaptation to the postmenopausal period, nutritional habits are essential because they concern all women, can be modified, and impact both longevity and quality of life. In this narrative review, we discuss the current evidence on the association between dietary patterns and clinical endpoints in postmenopausal women, such as body composition, bone mass, and risk markers for cardiovascular disease. Current evidence suggests that low-fat, plant-based diets are associated with beneficial effects on body composition, but further studies are needed to confirm these results in postmenopausal women. The Mediterranean diet pattern along with other healthy habits may help the primary prevention of bone, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases in the postmenopausal period. It consists on the use of healthy foods that have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and is associated with a small but significant decrease in blood pressure, reduction of fat mass, and improvement in cholesterol levels. These effects remain to be evaluated over a longer period of time, with the assessment of hard outcomes such as bone fractures, diabetes, and coronary ischemia.

Equol-producing status affects exercise training-induced improvement in arterial compliance in postmenopausal women

Central arterial compliance decreases drastically after menopause. Regular intake of soy isoflavone and aerobic exercise increase arterial compliance. The equol is a metabolite of isoflavone daidzein by gut microbiome. We determined whether the equol-producing status affects aerobic exercise-induced improvement in carotid arterial compliance. Forty-three postmenopausal women were assigned to two intervention groups: 1) exercise and isoflavone (Ex+Iso, n = 27 females) or 2) isoflavone interventions (Iso; n = 16 females). Participants of the Ex+Iso intervention group completed an 8-wk aerobic exercise training, and all participants were administered with oral isoflavone supplements during the interventions. The equol-producing status (equol producers or nonproducers) was determined from urine equol concentrations after a soy challenge. In the Ex+Iso intervention group, carotid arterial compliance increased in the equol producers (0.084 ± 0.030→0.117 ± 0.035 mm²/mmHg), but not in the nonproducers (0.089 ± 0.028→0.097 ± 0.026 mm²/mmHg) after the intervention (interaction effect; P < 0.05). The magnitude of increases in carotid arterial compliance was significantly greater in the equol producers than in the non-equol producers (P < 0.05). In the isoflavone intervention group, there were no changes in any parameters after the intervention irrespective of the equol status. These results suggest that equol-producing status is obligatory to aerobic exercise training-induced improvements in central arterial compliance in postmenopausal women.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Isoflavone intake and aerobic exercise increase central artery compliance. Equol, a metabolite of isoflavone daidzein by gut microbiome, has beneficial effects on vascular function. We demonstrated for the first time that the interaction of aerobic exercise and equol production status plays an essential role in improvements in central artery compliance in postmenopausal women. More specifically, the equol-producing status was obligatory to exercise training-induced improvements in central arterial compliance in postmenopausal women.

Probiotics in Medicine: A Long Debate

During the last years probiotics gained the attention of clinicians for their use in the prevention and treatment of multiple diseases. Probiotics main mechanisms of action include enhanced mucosal barrier function, direct antagonism with pathogens, inhibition of bacterial adherence and invasion capacity in the intestinal epithelium, boosting of the immune system and regulation of the central nervous system. It is accepted that there is a mutual communication between the gut microbiota and the liver, the so-called “microbiota-gut-liver axis” as well as a reciprocal communication between the intestinal microbiota and the central nervous system through the “microbiota-gut-brain axis.” Moreover, recently the “gut-lung axis” in bacterial and viral infections is considerably discussed for bacterial and viral infections, as the intestinal microbiota amplifies the alveolar macrophage activity having a protective role in the host defense against pneumonia. The importance of the normal human intestinal microbiota is recognized in the preservation of health. Disease states such as, infections, autoimmune conditions, allergy and other may occur when the intestinal balance is disturbed. Probiotics seem to be a promising approach to prevent and even reduce the symptoms of such clinical states as an adjuvant therapy by preserving the balance of the normal intestinal microbiota and improving the immune system. The present review states globally all different disorders in which probiotics can be given. To date, Stronger data in favor of their clinical use are provided in the prevention of gastrointestinal disorders, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, allergy and respiratory infections. We hereby discuss the role of probiotics in the reduction of the respiratory infection symptoms and we focus on the possibility to use them as an adjuvant to the therapeutic approach of the pandemic COVID-19. Nevertheless, it is accepted by the scientific community that more clinical studies should be undertaken in large samples of diseased populations so that the assessment of their therapeutic potential provide us with strong evidence for their efficacy and safety in clinical use.

Where to Look into the Puzzle of Polyphenols and Health? The Postbiotics and Gut Microbiota Associated with Human Metabotypes

The full consensus on the role of dietary polyphenols as human-health-promoting compounds remains elusive. The two-way interaction between polyphenols and gut microbiota (GM) (i.e., modulation of GM by polyphenols and their catabolism by the GM) is determinant in polyphenols' effects. The identification of human metabotypes associated with a differential gut microbial metabolism of polyphenols has opened new research scenarios to explain the inter-individual variability upon polyphenols consumption. The metabotypes unequivocally identified so far are those involved in the metabolism of isoflavones (equol and(or) O-desmethylangolesin producers versus non-producers) and ellagic acid (urolithin metabotypes, including producers of only urolithin-A (UM-A), producers of urolithin-A, isourolithin-A, and urolithin-B (UM-B), and non-producers (UM-0)). In addition, the microbial metabolites (phenolic-derived postbiotics) such as equol, urolithins, valerolactones, enterolactone, and enterodiol, and 8-prenylnaringenin, among others, can exert differential health effects. The knowledge is updated and position is taken here on i) the two-way interaction between GM and polyphenols, ii) the evidence between phenolic-derived postbiotics and health, iii) the role of metabotypes as biomarkers of GM and the clustering of individuals depending on their metabotypes (metabotyping) to explain polyphenols' effects, and iv) the gut microbial metabolism of catecholamines to illustrate the intersection between personalized nutrition and precision medicine.

Equol: A Bacterial Metabolite from The Daidzein Isoflavone and Its Presumed Beneficial Health Effects

Epidemiological data suggest that regular intake of isoflavones from soy reduces the incidence of estrogen-dependent and aging-associated disorders, such as menopause symptoms in women, osteoporosis, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Equol, produced from daidzein, is the isoflavone-derived metabolite with the greatest estrogenic and antioxidant activity. Consequently, equol has been endorsed as having many beneficial effects on human health. The conversion of daidzein into equol takes place in the intestine via the action of reductase enzymes belonging to incompletely characterized members of the gut microbiota. While all animal species analyzed so far produce equol, only between one third and one half of human subjects (depending on the community) are able to do so, ostensibly those that harbor equol-producing microbes. Conceivably, these subjects might be the only ones who can fully benefit from soy or isoflavone consumption. This review summarizes current knowledge on the microorganisms involved in, the genetic background to, and the biochemical pathways of, equol biosynthesis. It also outlines the results of recent clinical trials and meta-analyses on the effects of equol on different areas of human health and discusses briefly its presumptive mode of action.

Effects of Phytoestrogens on the Developing Brain, Gut Microbiota, and Risk for Neurobehavioral Disorders

Many pregnant and nursing women consume high amounts of soy and other plant products that contain phytoestrogens, such as genistein (GEN) and daidzein. Infants may also be provided soy based formulas. With their ability to bind and activate estrogen receptors (ESR) in the brain, such compounds can disrupt normal brain programming and lead to later neurobehavioral disruptions. However, other studies suggest that maternal consumption of soy and soy based formulas containing such phytoestrogens might lead to beneficial behavioral effects. Select gut microbes might also convert daidzein and to a lesser extent genistein to even more potent forms, e.g., equol derivatives. Thus, infant exposure to phytoestrogens may result in contrasting effects dependent upon the gut flora. It is also becoming apparent that consumption or exposure to these xenoestrogens may lead to gut dysbiosis. Phytoestrogen-induced changes in gut bacteria might in turn affect the brain through various mechanisms. This review will consider the evidence to date in rodent and other animal models and human epidemiological data as to whether developmental exposure to phytoestrogens, in particular genistein and daidzein, adversely or beneficially impact offspring neurobehavioral programming. Consideration will be given to potential mechanisms by which such compounds might affect neurobehavioral responses. A better understanding of effects perinatal exposure to phytoestrogen can exert on brain programming will permit pregnant women and those seeking to become pregnant to make better-educated choices. If phytoestrogen-induced gut dysbiosis contributes to neurobehavioral disruptions, remediation strategies may be designed to prevent such gut microbiota alterations and thereby improve neurobehavioral outcomes.

Dietary intake of isoflavones is associated with a lower prevalence of subclinical cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women: cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Menopause has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. It has been shown that isoflavones protect vascular endothelial cells against induced oxidative stress injury. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the association between the dietary intake of isoflavones and the presence of subclinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

Ninety-six postmenopausal women [mean (SD) age 55.2 (4.9) years, body mass index (BMI) 27.2 (4.6) kg m^-2 ] completed the study protocol. Habitual physical activity was assessed using a digital pedometer, resting metabolic rate was measured by indirect calorimetry and dietary intake was assessed via a validated food frequency questionnaire. Subclinical CVD was defined as carotid artery intima-media thickness (C-IMT) >0.9 mm and/or the presence of one or more atherosclerotic plaques in any of the studied segments.

RESULTS

Mean (SD) C-IMT was 0.74 (0.2) mm, 25% of participants were found to have atherosclerotic plaques and the prevalence of subclinical CVD was 35%. Participants with subclinical CVD were more likely to consume less selenium, magnesium, folate and isoflavones, even after adjusting for total energy intake. A multivariate-adjusted regression model showed that a BMI >27 kg m^-2 was associated with 90% higher risk of having ≥1 plaque and/or C-IMT >0.9 mm (P = 0.017). Higher oestradiol levels (P = 0.004) and isoflavone intake (P = 0.021) were independently associated with a lower risk of having subclinical CVD.

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study, we observed that a higher isoflavone dietary intake was associated with a lower risk of subclinical CVD in postmenopausal women, independent of BMI and endogenous oestradiol levels.

Opposing effects of S-equol supplementation on metabolic and behavioral parameters in mice fed a high-fat diet

Phytoestrogens, such as daidzein and genistein, may be used to treat various hormone-dependent disorders. Daidzein can be metabolized by intestinal microbes to S-equol. However, not all individuals possess bacteria producing this metabolite, resulting in categorization of equol vs nonequol producers. Past human and rodent studies have suggested that supplementation of this compound might yield beneficial metabolic and behavioral effects. We hypothesized that administration of S-equol to diet-induced obese male and female mice would mitigate potential diet-induced metabolic and comorbid neurobehavioral disorders. To test this possibility, we placed 5-week-old C57 mice on a high-fat diet (HFD) to mimic the diet currently consumed by many Western adults. Animals were randomly assigned to S-equol supplementation (10 mg/kg body weight) or vehicle control group. After 4 weeks on HFD with or without S-equol supplementation, metabolic and behavioral phenotyping was performed. Although the initial hypothesis proposed that S-equol treatment would improve metabolic and neurobehavioral outcomes, this supplementation instead exacerbated aspects of HFD-induced metabolic disease, as indicated by suppressed physical activity in treated individuals, reduced energy expenditure in treated males, and serum chemistry changes (hyperglycemia in treated individuals; hyperinsulinemia and hypoleptinemia in treated males). Conversely, S-equol individuals exhibited less anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors, as evidenced by increased exploratory time in the elevated plus maze by treated males and increased time spent mobile in the tail suspension test for treated individuals. In summary, S-equol may be beneficial in mitigating depression and anxiety disorders in individuals, but for indeterminate reasons, supplementation may worsen facets of metabolic disorders in obese individuals.