1
|
Zhai YJ, Feng Y, Ma X, Ma F. Defensins: defenders of human reproductive health. Hum Reprod Update 2022; 29:126-154. [PMID: 36130055 PMCID: PMC9825273 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmac032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reproductive tract infection is an important factor leading to male and female infertility. Among female infertility factors, microbial and viral infections are the main factors affecting female reproductive health and causing tubal infertility, ectopic tubal pregnancy and premature delivery. Among male infertility factors, 13-15% of male infertility is related to infection. Defensins are cationic antibacterial and antiviral peptides, classified into α-defensins, β-defensins and θ-defensins. Humans only have α-defensins and β-defensins. Apart from their direct antimicrobial functions, defensins have an immunomodulatory function and are involved in many physiological processes. Studies have shown that defensins are widely distributed in the female reproductive tract (FRT) and male reproductive tract (MRT), playing a dual role of host defence and fertility protection. However, to our knowledge, the distribution, regulation and function of defensins in the reproductive tract and their relation to reproduction have not been reviewed. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE This review summarizes the expression, distribution and regulation of defensins in the reproductive tracts to reveal the updated research on the dual role of defensins in host defence and the protection of fertility. SEARCH METHODS A systematic search was conducted in PubMed using the related keywords through April 2022. Related data from original researches and reviews were integrated to comprehensively review the current findings and understanding of defensins in the human reproductive system. Meanwhile, female and male transcriptome data in the GEO database were screened to analyze defensins in the human reproductive tracts. OUTCOMES Two transcriptome databases from the GEO database (GSE7307 and GSE150852) combined with existing researches reveal the expression levels and role of the defensins in the reproductive tracts. In the FRT, a high expression level of α-defensin is found, and the expression levels of defensins in the vulva and vagina are higher than those in other organs. The expression of defensins in the endometrium varies with menstrual cycle stages and with microbial invasion. Defensins also participate in the local immune response to regulate the risk of spontaneous preterm birth. In the MRT, a high expression level of β-defensins is also found. It is mainly highly expressed in the epididymal caput and corpus, indicating that defensins play an important role in sperm maturation. The expression of defensins in the MRT varies with androgen levels, age and the status of microbial invasion. They protect the male reproductive system from bacterial infections by neutralizing lipopolysaccharide and downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, animal and clinical studies have shown that defensins play an important role in sperm maturation, motility and fertilization. WIDER IMPLICATIONS As a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide without drug resistance, defensin has great potential for developing new natural antimicrobial treatments for reproductive tract infections. However, increasing evidence has shown that defensins can not only inhibit microbial invasion but can also promote the invasion and adhesion of some microorganisms in certain biological environments, such as human immunodeficiency virus. Therefore, the safety of defensins as reproductive tract anti-infective drugs needs more in-depth research. In addition, the modulatory role of defensins in fertility requires more in-depth research since the current conclusions are based on small-size samples. At present, scientists have made many attempts at the clinical transformation of defensins. However, defensins have problems such as poor stability, low bioavailability and difficulties in their synthesis. Therefore, the production of safe, effective and low-cost drugs remains a challenge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xue Ma
- Correspondence address. Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China. E-mail: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7781-821X (F.M.); Department of Pediatric Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China. E-mail: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7650-6214 (X.M.)
| | - Fang Ma
- Correspondence address. Center for Translational Medicine, Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China. E-mail: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7781-821X (F.M.); Department of Pediatric Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China. E-mail: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7650-6214 (X.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Amin O, Powers J, Bricker KM, Chahroudi A. Understanding Viral and Immune Interplay During Vertical Transmission of HIV: Implications for Cure. Front Immunol 2021; 12:757400. [PMID: 34745130 PMCID: PMC8566974 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.757400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the significant progress that has been made to eliminate vertical HIV infection, more than 150,000 children were infected with HIV in 2019, emphasizing the continued need for sustainable HIV treatment strategies and ideally a cure for children. Mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT) remains the most important route of pediatric HIV acquisition and, in absence of prevention measures, transmission rates range from 15% to 45% via three distinct routes: in utero, intrapartum, and in the postnatal period through breastfeeding. The exact mechanisms and biological basis of these different routes of transmission are not yet fully understood. Some infants escape infection despite significant virus exposure, while others do not, suggesting possible maternal or fetal immune protective factors including the presence of HIV-specific antibodies. Here we summarize the unique aspects of HIV MTCT including the immunopathogenesis of the different routes of transmission, and how transmission in the antenatal or postnatal periods may affect early life immune responses and HIV persistence. A more refined understanding of the complex interaction between viral, maternal, and fetal/infant factors may enhance the pursuit of strategies to achieve an HIV cure for pediatric populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omayma Amin
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jenna Powers
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Katherine M Bricker
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Center for Childhood Infections and Vaccines of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Bharucha JP, Sun L, Lu W, Gartner S, Garzino-Demo A. Human Beta-Defensin 2 and 3 Inhibit HIV-1 Replication in Macrophages. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:535352. [PMID: 34277460 PMCID: PMC8281893 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.535352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Human beta-defensins (hBDs) are broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptides, secreted by epithelial cells of the skin and mucosae, and astrocytes, which we and others have shown to inhibit HIV-1 in primary CD4+ T cells. Although loss of CD4+ T cells contributes to mucosal immune dysfunction, macrophages are a major source of persistence and spread of HIV and also contribute to the development of various HIV-associated complications. We hypothesized that, besides T cells, hBDs could protect macrophages from HIV. Our data in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) in vitro show that hBD2 and hBD3 inhibit HIV replication in a dose-dependent manner. We determined that hBD2 neither alters surface expression of HIV receptors nor induces expression of anti-HIV cytokines or beta-chemokines in MDM. Studies using a G-protein signaling antagonist in a single-cycle reporter virus system showed that hBD2 suppresses HIV at an early post-entry stage via G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated signaling. We find that MDM express the shared chemokine-hBD receptors CCR2 and CCR6, albeit at variable levels among donors. However, cell surface expression analyses show that neither of these receptors is necessary for hBD2-mediated HIV inhibition, suggesting that hBD2 can signal via additional receptor(s). Our data also illustrate that hBD2 treatment was associated with increased expression of APOBEC3A and 3G antiretroviral restriction factors in MDM. These findings suggest that hBD2 inhibits HIV in MDM via more than one CCR thus adding to the potential of using β-defensins in preventive and therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer P Bharucha
- Division of Virology, Pathogenesis, and Cancer, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lingling Sun
- Division of Virology, Pathogenesis, and Cancer, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Wuyuan Lu
- Division of Virology, Pathogenesis, and Cancer, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Suzanne Gartner
- Division of Virology, Pathogenesis, and Cancer, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Alfredo Garzino-Demo
- Division of Virology, Pathogenesis, and Cancer, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mehlotra RK. Human Genetic Variation and HIV/AIDS in Papua New Guinea: Time to Connect the Dots. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2019; 15:431-440. [PMID: 30218255 DOI: 10.1007/s11904-018-0417-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Human genetic polymorphisms known to influence HIV acquisition and disease progression occur in Papua New Guinea (PNG). However, no genetic association study has been reported so far. In this article, we review research findings, with a view to stimulate genotype-to-phenotype research. RECENT FINDINGS PNG, a country in Oceania, has a high prevalence of HIV and many sexually transmitted infections. While limited data is available from this country regarding the distribution of human genetic polymorphisms known to influence clinical outcomes of HIV/AIDS, genetic association studies are lacking. Our studies, in the past decade, have revealed that polymorphisms in chemokine receptor-ligand (CCR2-CCR5, CXCL12), innate immune (Toll-like receptor, β-defensin), and antiretroviral drug-metabolism enzyme (CYP2B6, UGT2B7) genes are prevalent in PNG. Although our results need to be validated in further studies, it is urgent to pursue large-scale, comprehensive genetic association studies that include these as well as additional genetic polymorphisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev K Mehlotra
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Biomedical Research Building, #409A, 2109 Adelbert Rd., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jeon H, Le MT, Ahn B, Cho HS, Le VCQ, Yum J, Hong K, Kim JH, Song H, Park C. Copy number variation of PR-39 cathelicidin, and identification of PR-35, a natural variant of PR-39 with reduced mammalian cytotoxicity. Gene 2019; 692:88-93. [PMID: 30641213 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.12.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Proline-arginine-rich (PR)-39 is neutrophil antimicrobial peptide that has potent antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and some enveloped viruses as a part of the innate immune system. We analyzed the nucleotide sequence variations of PR-39 exon 4, which is the mature peptide region responsible for antimicrobial activity, from 48 pigs of six breeds using sequence-based typing. The analysis identified four alleles including allele PR-35 with a 12-bp deletion near the N-terminus. Interestingly, 16.7% of individuals showed the presence of three alleles per individual, but only in the Berkshire and Duroc breeds. We further analyzed the genetic diversity of PR-39 for the entire genomic region of the gene from PR-39 exon 1 to the 3' untranslated region for different alleles by PCR amplification and cloning. The antimicrobial activity of chemically synthesized PR-35 was similar to that of PR-39, but the level of mammalian cell cytotoxicity was lower than the wild type. Better knowledge of the genetic diversity of PR-39 among different individuals and breeds may contribute to improved immune defense of pigs. PR-35, as a natural antimicrobial peptide variant, could be an interesting candidate for the development of peptide antibiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyoim Jeon
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Minh Thong Le
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Byeongyong Ahn
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Sun Cho
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Van Chanh Quy Le
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Joori Yum
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwonho Hong
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hoi Kim
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyuk Song
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Chankyu Park
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abujaber R, Shea PR, McLaren PJ, Lakhi S, Gilmour J, Allen S, Fellay J, Hollox EJ. No Evidence for Association of β-Defensin Genomic Copy Number with HIV Susceptibility, HIV Load during Clinical Latency, or Progression to AIDS. Ann Hum Genet 2017; 81:27-34. [PMID: 28084001 DOI: 10.1111/ahg.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Common single-nucleotide variation in the host accounts for 25% of the variability in the plasma levels of HIV during the clinical latency stage (viral load set point). However, the role of rare variants and copy number variants remains relatively unexplored. Previous work has suggested copy number variation of a cluster of β-defensin genes affects HIV load in treatment-naïve sub-Saharan Africans and rate of response to antiretroviral treatment. Here we analyse a total of 1827 individuals from two cohorts of HIV-infected individuals from Europe and sub-Saharan Africa to investigate the role of β-defensin copy number variation on HIV load at set point. We find no evidence for association of copy number with viral load. We also compare distribution of β-defensin copy number between European cases and controls and find no differences, arguing against a role of β-defensin copy number in HIV acquisition. Taken together, our data argue against an effect of copy number variation of the β-defensin region in the spontaneous control of HIV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Razan Abujaber
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Patrick R Shea
- Institute for Genomic Medicine, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Paul J McLaren
- National HIV and Retrovirology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Shabir Lakhi
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), New York, New York, USA.,Zambia-Emory HIV Research Project, Lusaka and Copperbelt, Zambia
| | - Jill Gilmour
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), New York, New York, USA.,IAVI Human Immunology Laboratory, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Allen
- International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), New York, New York, USA.,School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Edward J Hollox
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | -
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Incani F, Cossu C, Meloni A, Faà V, Serra ML, Dettori F, Meloni A, Rosatelli MC. β-defensin CNV is not associated with susceptibility to Candida albicans infections in Sardinian APS I patients. J Oral Pathol Med 2016; 46:393-397. [PMID: 27682444 DOI: 10.1111/jop.12506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to investigate whether a variation in the genomic copy number (CNV) of the β-defensin cluster could be associated with the pre-disposition to chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) in Sardinian APECED patients. SUBJECTS AND METHODS The β-defensin copy number variation was determined by MLPA analysis in 18 Sardinian APECED patients with CMC and in 21 Sardinian controls. Statistical analyses were performed with one-way ANOVA test. RESULTS No statistically significant results were observed between the patients and controls groups. CONCLUSIONS According to the results we have obtained, it appears that either β-defensin genomic CNV is not a modifier locus for CMC susceptibility in APECED patients, or any effect is too small for it to be detected using such sample size. An extensive study on APECED patients from different geographical areas might reveal the real implication of the β-defensin CNV in the susceptibility to Candida albicans infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Incani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Carla Cossu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Alessandra Meloni
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Cagliari, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Valeria Faà
- Istituto di Ricerca Genetica e Biomedica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Cagliari, c/o Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Serra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Federico Dettori
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Antonella Meloni
- Clinica pediatrica II, Ospedale Pediatrico Microcitemico 'Antonio Cao', Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Rosatelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Sanità Pubblica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mehlotra RK, Zimmerman PA, Weinberg A. Defensin gene variation and HIV/AIDS: a comprehensive perspective needed. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 99:687-92. [PMID: 26957215 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.6ru1215-560r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Both α- and β-defensins have anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity. These defensins achieve human immunodeficiency virus inhibition through a variety of mechanisms, including direct binding with virions, binding to and modulation of host cell-surface receptors with disruption of intracellular signaling, and functioning as chemokines or cytokines to augment and alter adaptive immune responses. Polymorphisms in the defensin genes have been associated with susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus infection and disease progression. However, the roles that these defensins and their genetic polymorphisms have in influencing human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome outcomes are not straightforward and, at times, appear contradictory. Differences in populations, study designs, and techniques for genotyping defensin gene polymorphisms may have contributed to this lack of clarity. In addition, a comprehensive approach, where both subfamilies of defensins and their all-inclusive genetic polymorphism profiles are analyzed, is lacking. Such an approach may reveal whether the human immunodeficiency virus inhibitory activities of α- and β-defensins are based on parallel or divergent mechanisms and may provide further insights into how the genetic predisposition for susceptibility or resistance to human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is orchestrated between these molecules.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev K Mehlotra
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Peter A Zimmerman
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Aaron Weinberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Machado LR, Ottolini B. An evolutionary history of defensins: a role for copy number variation in maximizing host innate and adaptive immune responses. Front Immunol 2015; 6:115. [PMID: 25852686 PMCID: PMC4364288 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensins represent an evolutionary ancient family of antimicrobial peptides that play diverse roles in human health and disease. Defensins are cationic cysteine-containing multifunctional peptides predominantly expressed by epithelial cells or neutrophils. Defensins play a key role in host innate immune responses to infection and, in addition to their classically described role as antimicrobial peptides, have also been implicated in immune modulation, fertility, development, and wound healing. Aberrant expression of defensins is important in a number of inflammatory diseases as well as modulating host immune responses to bacteria, unicellular pathogens, and viruses. In parallel with their role in immunity, in other species, defensins have evolved alternative functions, including the control of coat color in dogs. Defensin genes reside in complex genomic regions that are prone to structural variations and some defensin family members exhibit copy number variation (CNV). Structural variations have mediated, and continue to influence, the diversification and expression of defensin family members. This review highlights the work currently being done to better understand the genomic architecture of the β-defensin locus. It evaluates current evidence linking defensin CNV to autoimmune disease (i.e., Crohn’s disease and psoriasis) as well as the contribution CNV has in influencing immune responses to HIV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lee R Machado
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, School of Health, University of Northampton , Northampton , UK
| | - Barbara Ottolini
- Department of Cancer Studies, University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Copy number variation of the antimicrobial-gene, defensin beta 4, is associated with susceptibility to cervical cancer. J Hum Genet 2013; 58:250-3. [PMID: 23466823 DOI: 10.1038/jhg.2013.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate association between copy number variation of the defensin beta 4 gene (DEFB4) and susceptibility to cervical cancer in a population at high risk of persistent oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. The study subjects comprised 204 women with cervical cancer, a population having a high risk of persistent oncogenic HPV infection (cervical cancer group), and 200 healthy women from the general population (control group). Copy number variation of DEFB4 in each test sample was determined by relative quantitation using the comparative CT ((ΔΔ)CT) method. Differences between the two groups were evaluated. The median DEFB4 copy number in the cervical cancer group was four and in the control group was five (P=2.77e-4, t-test). The odds ratio of cervical cancer in individuals with four DEFB4 copies or less was higher (odds ratio 2.02; 95% confidence interval odds ratio 1.36-3.02), compared with that in individuals with five or more copies (odds ratio 0.49; 95% confidence interval odds ratio 0.33-0.74). We found copy number variation of DEFB4 was a host genetic factor conferring susceptibility to cervical cancer. A lower DEFB4 copy number was associated with susceptibility to cervical cancer.
Collapse
|
11
|
Boonpeng H, Yusoff K. The utility of copy number variation (CNV) in studies of hypertension-related left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH): rationale, potential and challenges. Mol Cytogenet 2013; 6:8. [PMID: 23448375 PMCID: PMC3599593 DOI: 10.1186/1755-8166-6-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ultimate goal of human genetics is to understand the role of genome variation in elucidating human traits and diseases. Besides single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), copy number variation (CNV), defined as gains or losses of a DNA segment larger than 1 kb, has recently emerged as an important tool in understanding heritable source of human genomic differences. It has been shown to contribute to genetic susceptibility of various common and complex diseases. Despite a handful of publications, its role in cardiovascular diseases remains largely unknown. Here, we deliberate on the currently available technologies for CNV detection. The possible utility and the potential roles of CNV in exploring the mechanisms of cardiac remodeling in hypertension will also be addressed. Finally, we discuss the challenges for investigations of CNV in cardiovascular diseases and its possible implications in diagnosis of hypertension-related left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hoh Boonpeng
- Institute of Medical Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sungai Buloh Campus, Jalan Hospital, Sungai, Buloh, 47000, Malaysia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Mehlotra RK, Dazard JE, John B, Zimmerman PA, Weinberg A, Jurevic RJ. Copy Number Variation within Human β-Defensin Gene Cluster Influences Progression to AIDS in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 3. [PMID: 23543857 DOI: 10.4172/2155-6113.1000184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
STUDY BACKGROUND DEFB4/103A encoding β-defensin 2 and 3, respectively, inhibit CXCR4-tropic (X4) viruses in vitro. We determined whether DEFB4/103A Copy Number Variation (CNV) influences time-to-X4 and time-to-AIDS outcomes. METHODS We utilized samples from a previously published Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), which provides longitudinal account of viral tropism in relation to the full spectrum of rates of disease progression. Using traditional models for time-to-event analysis, we investigated association between DEFB4/103A CNV and the two outcomes, and interaction between DEFB4/103A CNV and disease progression groups, Fast and Slow. RESULTS Time-to-X4 and time-to-AIDS were weakly correlated. There was a stronger relationship between these two outcomes for the fast progressors. DEFB4/103A CNV was associated with time-to-AIDS, but not time-to-X4. The association between higher DEFB4/103A CNV and time-to-AIDS was more pronounced for the slow progressors. CONCLUSION DEFB4/103A CNV was associated with time-to-AIDS in a disease progression group-specific manner in the MACS cohort. Our findings may contribute to enhancing current understanding of how genetic predisposition influences AIDS progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev K Mehlotra
- Center for Global Health and Diseases, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ellington SR, King CC, Kourtis AP. Host factors that influence mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: genetics, coinfections, behavior and nutrition. Future Virol 2011; 6:1451-1469. [PMID: 29348780 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.11.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) is the most important mode of HIV-1 acquisition among infants and children and it can occur in utero, intrapartum and postnatally through breastfeeding. Great progress has been made in preventing MTCT through use of antiretroviral regimens during gestation, labor/delivery and breastfeeding. The mechanisms of MTCT, however, are multifactorial and remain incompletely understood. This review focuses on select host factors affecting MTCT, in particular genetic factors, coexisting infections, behavioral factors and nutrition. Whereas much emphasis has been placed on decreasing maternal HIV-1 viral load, an important determinant of MTCT, through use of antiretroviral agents, complementary focus on overall maternal health is often neglected. By addressing coinfections in mothers and infants, improving the mother's nutritional status and modifying risky behaviors and practices, not only is maternal and child health improved, but a direct benefit in reducing MTCT can be derived. The study of genetic variations in susceptibility to HIV-1 infection is rapidly evolving, and the future is likely to bring revolutionary changes in HIV-1 prevention by enhancing natural resistance to infection and by individually tailoring pharmacologic regimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sascha R Ellington
- Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention & Health Promotion, CDC, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, MS K34, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Caroline C King
- Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention & Health Promotion, CDC, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, MS K34, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| | - Athena P Kourtis
- Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention & Health Promotion, CDC, 4770 Buford Highway, NE, MS K34, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kolar SS, McDermott AM. Role of host-defence peptides in eye diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:2201-13. [PMID: 21584809 PMCID: PMC3637883 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0713-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The eye and its associated tissues including the lacrimal system and lids have evolved several defence mechanisms to prevent microbial invasion. Included among this armory are several host-defence peptides. These multifunctional molecules are being studied not only for their endogenous antimicrobial properties but also for their potential therapeutic effects. Here the current knowledge of host-defence peptide expression in the eye will be summarised. The role of these peptides in eye disease will be discussed with the primary focus being on infectious keratitis, inflammatory conditions including dry eye and wound healing. Finally the potential of using host-defence peptides and their mimetics/derivatives for the treatment and prevention of eye diseases is addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satya S. Kolar
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Road, 505 J Davis Armistead Bldg, Houston, TX 77204-2020 USA
| | - Alison M. McDermott
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, 4901 Calhoun Road, 505 J Davis Armistead Bldg, Houston, TX 77204-2020 USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
In order to develop novel solutions to avian disease problems, including novel vaccines and/or vaccine adjuvants, and the identification of disease resistance genes which can feed into conventional breeding programmes, it is necessary to gain a more thorough understanding of the avian immune response and how pathogens can subvert that response. Birds occupy the same habitats as mammals, have similar ranges of longevity and body mass, and face similar pathogen challenges, yet birds have a different repertoire of organs, cells, molecules and genes of the immune system compared to mammals. This review summarises the current state of knowledge of the chicken's immune response, highlighting differences in the bird compared to mammals, and discusses how the availability of the chicken genome sequence and the associated postgenomics technologies are contributing to theses studies and also to the development of novel intervention strategies againts avian and zoonotic disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pete Kaiser
- The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Herold BC, Mesquita PM, Madan RP, Keller MJ. Female genital tract secretions and semen impact the development of microbicides for the prevention of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010; 65:325-33. [PMID: 21143689 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmacologic strategies for the prevention of HIV include vaccines, post-exposure prophylaxis with antiretroviral therapy, and topical microbicides. Vaginal microbicides have the potential to augment innate defenses in the genital tract but may also disrupt endogenous protection and increase HIV acquisition risk, as observed in clinical trials of nonoxynol-9. The initially disappointing results of microbicide clinical trials stimulated the development of more sensitive and comprehensive pre-clinical safety studies, which include dual-chamber culture systems to model the epithelial barrier and post-coital studies to evaluate the effects of semen and sexual intercourse on microbicide efficacy. This review discusses the key factors that contribute to a healthy female genital tract environment, the impact of semen on mucosal defense, and how our understanding of these mediators informs the development of effective vaginal microbicides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Betsy C Herold
- Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10467, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Underwood MA, Bevins CL. Defensin-barbed innate immunity: clinical associations in the pediatric population. Pediatrics 2010; 125:1237-47. [PMID: 20478936 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2009-3289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensins and related antimicrobial peptides serve a central role in innate immunity in all species of plants and animals. In humans, defensins are widely expressed, including in neutrophils, skin, and mucosal epithelia. Most defensins are potent antibiotics, and some have chemotactic and toxin-neutralizing activities. Results of recent studies on the homeostatic and disease-fighting activities of human defensins point to a key relevance in several pediatric disorders. Inherited variation in defensin gene expression may contribute to susceptibility to several diseases, including psoriasis and Crohn disease. We review here the recent discoveries in innate immunity that shed light on the potential roles of defensins, and other antimicrobial molecules, in the pathophysiology of common pediatric diseases such as atopic dermatitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, cystic fibrosis, and otitis media.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Underwood
- UC Davis School of Medicine, 2516 Stockton Blvd, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Rodríguez-García M, Climent N, Oliva H, Casanova V, Franco R, Leon A, Gatell JM, García F, Gallart T. Increased alpha-defensins 1-3 production by dendritic cells in HIV-infected individuals is associated with slower disease progression. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9436. [PMID: 20195543 PMCID: PMC2828484 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2009] [Accepted: 01/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Defensins are natural endogenous antimicrobial peptides with potent anti-HIV activity and immuno-modulatory effects. We recently demonstrated that immature dendritic cells (DC) produce α-defensins1-3 and that α-defensins1-3 modulate DC generation and maturation. Since DC-HIV interaction plays a critical role during the first steps of HIV infection, we investigated the possible impact of α-defensins1-3 production by DC on disease progression. Methodology/Principal Findings Monocyte-derived DC (MDDC) were analyzed comparatively in healthy controls (HC) and HIV-infected patients, including untreated “elite” and “viremic” controllers, untreated viremic non-controllers and antiretroviral-treated patients. We found that production of α-defensins1-3 was significantly increased in MDDC from HIV-infected patients versus HC, and this increase was mainly due to that observed in controllers, while in non-controllers the increase was not statistically significant (controllers vs. HC, p<0.005; controllers vs. non-controllers p<0.05). Secreted α-defensins1-3 by immature MDDC positively correlated with CD4 T cell counts in controllers, but not in non-controllers. Moreover, independently of their clinical classification, HIV-infected patients with higher α-defensins1-3 secretion by immature MDDC showed slower disease progression, measured as no decrease in the number of CD4+ T-cells below 350 cell/mm3, lower increase of plasma viral load and no initiation of treatment over time. Plasma alpha-defensins1-3 levels lacked any relationship with immunologic and virologic parameters. Conclusions/Significance High production of α-defensins1-3 by immature DCs appears as a host protective factor against progression of HIV-1infection, suggesting potential diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive implications. This protective effect may arise from the activity of α-defensins1-3 to damage the virions prior and/or after their internalization by immature DC, and hence favoring a more efficient viral processing and presentation to HIV-specific CD4+ T cells, without or with a minor rate of transmission of infectious HIV-1 virions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Rodríguez-García
- Services of Immunology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Climent
- Services of Immunology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Harold Oliva
- Services of Immunology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Víctor Casanova
- Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona School of Medicine, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Franco
- Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, University of Barcelona School of Medicine, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Barcelona, Spain
- Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Agathe Leon
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
- Infectious Diseases and AIDS Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José M. Gatell
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
- Infectious Diseases and AIDS Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Felipe García
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
- Infectious Diseases and AIDS Unit, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Teresa Gallart
- Services of Immunology, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS)-AIDS Research Group, and Catalonian Center for HIV Vaccines (HIVACAT), Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Doss M, White MR, Tecle T, Hartshorn KL. Human defensins and LL-37 in mucosal immunity. J Leukoc Biol 2010; 87:79-92. [PMID: 19808939 PMCID: PMC7167086 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0609382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2009] [Revised: 09/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Defensins are widespread in nature and have activity against a broad range of pathogens. Defensins have direct antimicrobial effects and also modulate innate and adaptive immune responses. We consider the role of human defensins and the cathelicidin LL-37 in defense of respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts and the oral cavity, skin, and eye. Human beta-defensins (hBDs) and human defensins 5 and 6 (HD5 and -6) are involved most obviously in mucosal responses, as they are produced principally by epithelial cells. Human alpha-defensins 1-4 (or HNPs 1-4) are produced principally by neutrophils recruited to the mucosa. Understanding the biology of defensins and LL-37 is the beginning to clarify the pathophysiology of mucosal inflammatory and infectious diseases (e.g., Crohn's disease, atopic dermatitis, lung or urinary infections). Challenges for these studies are the redundancy of innate defense mechanisms and the presence and interactions of many innate defense proteins in mucosal secretions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mona Doss
- Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mitchell R. White
- Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Tesfaldet Tecle
- Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kevan L. Hartshorn
- Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Rivas-Santiago B, Serrano CJ, Enciso-Moreno JA. Susceptibility to infectious diseases based on antimicrobial peptide production. Infect Immun 2009; 77:4690-5. [PMID: 19703980 PMCID: PMC2772553 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01515-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last few years, the great impact of antimicrobial peptides on infectious disease susceptibility and natural resistance has been reported. In some cases, susceptibility to diseases is related to antimicrobial peptide polymorphisms and gene copy numbers, but for the vast majority of infectious diseases, these phenomena need to be elucidated. This review is focused on the current knowledge about susceptibility and resistance conferred by genetic variations in antimicrobial peptide expression in infectious diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Rivas-Santiago
- Unidad de Investigación Médica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Zacatecas City, Mexico
| | - Carmen J. Serrano
- Unidad de Investigación Médica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Zacatecas City, Mexico
| | - J. Antonio Enciso-Moreno
- Unidad de Investigación Médica Zacatecas, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Zacatecas City, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Orozco LD, Cokus SJ, Ghazalpour A, Ingram-Drake L, Wang S, van Nas A, Che N, Araujo JA, Pellegrini M, Lusis AJ. Copy number variation influences gene expression and metabolic traits in mice. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:4118-29. [PMID: 19648292 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Copy number variants (CNVs) are genomic segments which are duplicated or deleted among different individuals. CNVs have been implicated in both Mendelian and complex traits, including immune and behavioral disorders, but the study of the mechanisms by which CNVs influence gene expression and clinical phenotypes in humans is complicated by the limited access to tissues and by population heterogeneity. We now report studies of the effect of 19 CNVs on gene expression and metabolic traits in a mouse intercross between strains C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ. We found that 83% of genes predicted to occur within CNVs were differentially expressed. The expression of most CNV genes was correlated with copy number, but we also observed evidence that gene expression was altered in genes flanking CNVs, suggesting that CNVs may contain regulatory elements for these genes. Several CNVs mapped to hotspots, genomic regions influencing expression of tens or hundreds of genes. Several metabolic traits including cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose and body weight mapped to three CNVs in the genome, in mouse chromosomes 1, 4 and 17. Predicted CNV genes, such as Itlna, Defcr-1, Trim12 and Trim34 were highly correlated with these traits. Our results suggest that CNVs have a significant impact on gene expression and that CNVs may be playing a role in the mechanisms underlying metabolic traits in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luz D Orozco
- Department of Human Genetics, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Gökçümen O, Lee C. Copy number variants (CNVs) in primate species using array-based comparative genomic hybridization. Methods 2009; 49:18-25. [PMID: 19545629 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2009.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2009] [Revised: 06/13/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
A substantial amount of genomic variation is now known to exist in humans and other primate species. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are thought to represent the vast majority of genomic differences among individuals in a given primate species and comprise about 0.1% of the genomes of two humans. However, recent studies have now shown that structural variation msay account for as much as 0.7% of the genomic differences in humans, of which copy number variants (CNVs) are the largest component. CNVs are segments of DNA that can range in size from hundreds of bases to millions of base pairs in length and have different number of copies between individuals. Recent technological advancements in array technologies led to genome-wide identification of CNVs and consequently revealed thousands of variable loci in humans, comprising as much as 12% of the human genome [A.J. Iafrate, L. Feuk, M.N. Rivera, M.L. Listewnik, P.K. Donahoe, Y. Qi, S.W. Scherer, C. Lee, Nat. Genet. 36 (2004) 949-951, [3]]. CNVs in humans have already been associated with susceptibility to certain complex diseases, dietary adaptation, and several neurological conditions. In addition, recent studies have shown that CNVs can be successfully implemented in population genetics research, providing important insights into human genetic variation. Nevertheless, the important role of CNVs in primate evolution and genetic diversity is still largely unknown. This article aims to outline the strengths and weaknesses of current comparative genomic hybridization array technologies that have been employed to detect CNV variation and the applications of these techniques to primate genetic research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omer Gökçümen
- Cytogenetics Research Laboratory, Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 221 Longwood Avenue, EBRC 404, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|