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McDonald CL, Alcalde GT, Jones TC, Laude RAP, Yap SA, Bhamla S. Wax "Tails" Enable Planthopper Nymphs to Self-Right Midair and Land on Their Feet. Integr Comp Biol 2024; 64:619-631. [PMID: 38982316 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icae104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The striking appearance of wax 'tails'-posterior wax projections on planthopper nymphs-has captivated entomologists and naturalists alike. Despite their intriguing presence, the functional roles of these formations remain largely unexplored. This study leverages high-speed imaging to uncover the biomechanical implications of wax structures in the aerial dynamics of planthopper nymphs (Ricania sp.). We quantitatively demonstrate that removing wax tails significantly increases body rotations during jumps. Specifically, nymphs without wax undergo continuous rotations, averaging 4.2 ± 1.8 per jump, in contrast to wax-intact nymphs, who do not complete a full rotation, averaging only 0.7 ± 0.2 per jump. This along with significant reductions in angular and translational velocity from takeoff to landing suggest that aerodynamic drag forces on wax structures effectively counteract rotation. These stark differences in body rotation correlate with landing success: Nymphs with wax intact achieve a near perfect landing rate of 98.5%, while those without wax manage only a 35.5% success rate. Jump trajectory analysis reveals that wax-intact jumps transition from parabolic to asymmetric shapes at higher takeoff velocities and show a significantly greater reduction in velocity from takeoff to landing compared to wax-removed jumps, demonstrating how wax structures help nymphs achieve more stable and controlled descents. Our findings confirm the aerodynamic self-righting functionality of wax tails in stabilizing planthopper nymph landings, advancing our understanding of the complex relationship between wax morphology and aerial maneuverability, with broader implications for wingless insect aerial adaptations and bioinspired robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L McDonald
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Gerwin T Alcalde
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna 4031, Philippines
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Southern Mindanao, Bai Matabay Plang Avenue Poblacion, Kabacan Cotabato 9407, Philippines
| | - Thomas C Jones
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Ruby Ana P Laude
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna 4031, Philippines
| | - Sheryl A Yap
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna 4031, Philippines
| | - Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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2
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Treidel LA, Deem KD, Salcedo MK, Dickinson MH, Bruce HS, Darveau CA, Dickerson BH, Ellers O, Glass JR, Gordon CM, Harrison JF, Hedrick TL, Johnson MG, Lebenzon JE, Marden JH, Niitepõld K, Sane SP, Sponberg S, Talal S, Williams CM, Wold ES. Insect Flight: State of the Field and Future Directions. Integr Comp Biol 2024; 64:icae106. [PMID: 38982327 PMCID: PMC11406162 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icae106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolution of flight in an early winged insect ancestral lineage is recognized as a key adaptation explaining the unparalleled success and diversification of insects. Subsequent transitions and modifications to flight machinery, including secondary reductions and losses, also play a central role in shaping the impacts of insects on broadscale geographic and ecological processes and patterns in the present and future. Given the importance of insect flight, there has been a centuries-long history of research and debate on the evolutionary origins and biological mechanisms of flight. Here, we revisit this history from an interdisciplinary perspective, discussing recent discoveries regarding the developmental origins, physiology, biomechanics, and neurobiology and sensory control of flight in a diverse set of insect models. We also identify major outstanding questions yet to be addressed and provide recommendations for overcoming current methodological challenges faced when studying insect flight, which will allow the field to continue to move forward in new and exciting directions. By integrating mechanistic work into ecological and evolutionary contexts, we hope that this synthesis promotes and stimulates new interdisciplinary research efforts necessary to close the many existing gaps about the causes and consequences of insect flight evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Treidel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Lincoln NE, 68588, USA
| | - Kevin D Deem
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester NY, 14627, USA
| | - Mary K Salcedo
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853, USA
| | - Michael H Dickinson
- Department of Bioengineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91125, USA
| | | | - Charles-A Darveau
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa Ontario, K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Bradley H Dickerson
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Olaf Ellers
- Biology Department, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME 04011, USA
| | - Jordan R Glass
- Department of Zoology & Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82070, USA
| | - Caleb M Gordon
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8109, USA
| | - Jon F Harrison
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
| | - Tyson L Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Meredith G Johnson
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
| | - Jacqueline E Lebenzon
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA, 94720, USA
| | - James H Marden
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16803, USA
| | | | - Sanjay P Sane
- National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore 560065 India
| | - Simon Sponberg
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Stav Talal
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
| | - Caroline M Williams
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA, 94720, USA
| | - Ethan S Wold
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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3
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Asano T. Multicopper oxidase-2 mediated cuticle formation: Its contribution to evolution and success of insects as terrestrial organisms. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 168:104111. [PMID: 38508343 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2024.104111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
The insect cuticle is a non-cellular matrix composed of polysaccharide chitins and proteins. The cuticle covers most of the body surface, including the trachea, foregut, and hindgut, and it is the body structure that separates the intraluminal environment from the external environment. The cuticle is essential to sustain their lives, both as a physical barrier to maintain homeostasis and as an exoskeleton that mechanically supports body shape and movement. Previously, we proposed a theory about the possibility that the cuticle-forming system contributes to the "evolution and success of insects." The main points of our theory are that 1) insects evolved an insect-specific system of cuticle formation and 2) the presence of this system may have provided insects with a competitive advantage in the early land ecosystems. The key to this theory is that insects utilize molecular oxygen abundant in the atmosphere, which differs from closely related crustaceans that form their cuticles with calcium ions. With newly obtained knowledge, this review revisits the significance of the insect-specific system for insects to adapt to terrestrial environments and also discusses the long-standing question in entomology as to why, despite their great success in terrestrial environments, they poorly adapt to marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsunaki Asano
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan, Minami-osawa 1-1, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan.
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4
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McDonald CL, Alcalde GT, Jones TC, Laude RAP, Yap SA, Bhamla MS. Wax "tails" enable planthopper nymphs to self-right midair and land on their feet. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.15.589523. [PMID: 38659822 PMCID: PMC11042284 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.15.589523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
The striking appearance of wax 'tails' - posterior wax projections on planthopper nymphs - has captivated entomologists and naturalists alike. Despite their intriguing presence, the functional roles of these structures remain largely unexplored. This study leverages high-speed imaging to uncover the biomechanical implications of these wax formations in the aerial dynamics of planthopper nymphs (Ricania sp.). We quantitatively demonstrate that removing wax tails significantly increases body rotations during jumps. Specifically, nymphs without wax projections undergo continuous rotations, averaging 4.3 ± 1.9 per jump, in contrast to wax-intact nymphs, who narrowly complete a full rotation, averaging only 0.7 ± 0.2 per jump. This suggests that wax structures effectively counteract rotation through aerodynamic drag forces. These stark differences in body rotation correlate with landing success: nymphs with wax intact achieve a near perfect landing rate of 98.5%, while those without wax manage only a 35.5% success rate. Jump trajectory analysis reveals transitions from parabolic to Tartaglia shapes at higher take-off velocities for wax-intact nymphs, illustrating how wax structures assist nymphs in achieving stable, controlled descents. Our findings confirm the aerodynamic self-righting functionality of wax tails in stabilizing planthopper landings, advancing our understanding of the complex interplay between wax morphology and aerial maneuverability, with broader implications for the evolution of flight in wingless insects and bioinspired robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L. McDonald
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Gerwin T. Alcalde
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology, and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, 4031, Philippines
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan Cotabato, Philippines
| | - Thomas C. Jones
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Ruby Ana P. Laude
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology, and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, 4031, Philippines
| | - Sheryl A. Yap
- Institute of Weed Science, Entomology, and Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, 4031, Philippines
| | - M. Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
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5
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Zhao X, Liu JX, Charles-Dominique T, Campos-Arceiz A, Dong B, Yan L, O'Hanlon JC, Zeng Y, Chen Z. Petal-shaped femoral lobes facilitate gliding in orchid mantises. Curr Biol 2024; 34:183-189.e4. [PMID: 38035884 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
To glide in forest canopies, arboreal vertebrates evolved various skin-derived aerodynamic structures, such as patagial membranes or webbing, but no comparable structure has been reported from wingless arboreal arthropods.1,2,3 Orchid mantises (Hymenopus coronatus) have been traditionally considered a textbook example of flower mimicry for ∼200 years due to their highly expanded, petal-shaped femoral lobes. However, the empirical evidence substantiating the petal-mimicry function of the femoral lobes has not been entirely conclusive.4,5,6 Observational and experimental evidence suggests that these lobes do not contribute to flower mimicry for luring pollinators6,7 and likely serve other functions.7,8 After observing their aerial escape initiated with active jumping, we hypothesized that orchid mantises can glide and that their femoral lobes are used for gliding. Through behavioral investigations and morphological analyses, we show that orchid mantis nymphs are excellent gliders, exhibiting the shallowest gliding trajectories observed in terrestrial invertebrates.9,10,11,12,13 The lobe extensions on their femoral segments are cambered airfoils, which increase the mantis projected area by ∼36% and play a vital role in the aerodynamic underpinning of the observed gliding. Despite a 165-fold increase in body mass throughout ontogeny, older female mantis nymphs maintained a persistent gliding capability. We further showed a notable 40%-56% reduction in wing loading attributed to the positive size allometry of these lobes, indicating a clear promotion of gliding throughout ontogeny. This is the first documentation of gliding-adapted "leg wings" in a wingless arthropod. The evolution of such structures is potentially common among arboreal arthropods and demands a systematic re-examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 666303, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jing-Xin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Tristan Charles-Dominique
- CNRS UMR5120, UMR AMAP, University Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier 34980, France; CNRS UMR7618, Sorbonne University, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 4 Place Jussieu, Paris 75005, France
| | - Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz
- Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 666303, China; Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 666303, China
| | - Bing Dong
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Dyers Brae, St Andrews KY16 9TH, UK
| | - Lin Yan
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3114, USA
| | | | - Yu Zeng
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
| | - Zhanqi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan 666303, China.
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6
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Ortega-Jimenez VM, Jusufi A, Brown CE, Zeng Y, Kumar S, Siddall R, Kim B, Challita EJ, Pavlik Z, Priess M, Umhofer T, Koh JS, Socha JJ, Dudley R, Bhamla MS. Air-to-land transitions: from wingless animals and plant seeds to shuttlecocks and bio-inspired robots. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:051001. [PMID: 37552773 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acdb1c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023]
Abstract
Recent observations of wingless animals, including jumping nematodes, springtails, insects, and wingless vertebrates like geckos, snakes, and salamanders, have shown that their adaptations and body morphing are essential for rapid self-righting and controlled landing. These skills can reduce the risk of physical damage during collision, minimize recoil during landing, and allow for a quick escape response to minimize predation risk. The size, mass distribution, and speed of an animal determine its self-righting method, with larger animals depending on the conservation of angular momentum and smaller animals primarily using aerodynamic forces. Many animals falling through the air, from nematodes to salamanders, adopt a skydiving posture while descending. Similarly, plant seeds such as dandelions and samaras are able to turn upright in mid-air using aerodynamic forces and produce high decelerations. These aerial capabilities allow for a wide dispersal range, low-impact collisions, and effective landing and settling. Recently, small robots that can right themselves for controlled landings have been designed based on principles of aerial maneuvering in animals. Further research into the effects of unsteady flows on self-righting and landing in small arthropods, particularly those exhibiting explosive catapulting, could reveal how morphological features, flow dynamics, and physical mechanisms contribute to effective mid-air control. More broadly, studying apterygote (wingless insects) landing could also provide insight into the origin of insect flight. These research efforts have the potential to lead to the bio-inspired design of aerial micro-vehicles, sports projectiles, parachutes, and impulsive robots that can land upright in unsteady flow conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Ortega-Jimenez
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, United States of America
| | - Ardian Jusufi
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- University of Zurich, Institutes for Neuroinformatics and Palaeontology, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
- Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Christian E Brown
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, United States of America
| | - Yu Zeng
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, United States of America
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States of America
| | - Sunny Kumar
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, United States of America
| | - Robert Siddall
- Aerial Robotics Lab, Imperial College of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Baekgyeom Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Elio J Challita
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, United States of America
| | - Zoe Pavlik
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, United States of America
| | - Meredith Priess
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, United States of America
| | - Thomas Umhofer
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469, United States of America
| | - Je-Sung Koh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Gyeonggi-do 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Science Center 110, Tampa, FL 33620, United States of America
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, United States of America
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7
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Abstract
The evolution of wings and flight was key for the rise of insects. A new study finds that lateral extensions on the abdominal segments of primitive insect nymphs are the serial homologues of wings and probably helped control gliding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Ross
- Department of Natural Sciences, National Museum of Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1JF, UK.
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8
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Abdominal serial homologues of wings in Paleozoic insects. Curr Biol 2022; 32:3414-3422.e1. [PMID: 35772407 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The Late Paleozoic acquisition of wings in insects represents one of the key steps in arthropod evolution. While the origin of wings has been a contentious matter for nearly two centuries, recent evolutionary developmental studies suggest either the participation of both tergal and pleural tissues in the formation of wings1 or wings originated from exites of the most proximal leg podite incorporated into the insect body wall.2 The so-called "dual hypothesis" for wing origins finds support from studies of embryology, evo-devo, and genomics, although the degree of the presumed contribution from tergal and pleural tissues differ.3-6 Ohde et al.,7 confirmed a major role for tergal tissue in the formation of the cricket wing and suggested that "wings evolved from the pre-existing lateral terga of a wingless insect ancestor." Additional work has focused on identifying partial serially homologous structures of wings on the prothorax8,9 and abdominal segments.10 Thus, several studies have suggested that the prothoracic horns in scarab beetles,9 gin traps of tenebrionid and scarab beetle pupae,11,12 or abdominal tracheal gills of mayfly larvae1,13 evolved from serial homologues of wings. Here, we present critical information from abdominal lateral outgrowths (flaps) of Paleozoic palaeodictyopteran larvae, which show comparable structure to thoracic wings, consisting of cordate lateral outgrowths antero-basally hinged by muscle attachments. These flaps therefore most likely represent wing serial homologues. The presence of these paired outgrowths on abdominal segments I-IX in early diverging Pterygota likely corresponds to crustacean epipods14,15 and resembles a hypothesized ancestral body plan of a "protopterygote" model.
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9
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Bilinski T, Bylak A, Kukuła K, Zadrag-Tecza R. Senescence as a trade-off between successful land colonisation and longevity: critical review and analysis of a hypothesis. PeerJ 2021; 9:e12286. [PMID: 34760360 PMCID: PMC8570163 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most common terrestrial animal clades exhibit senescence, suggesting strong adaptive value of this trait. However, there is little support for senescence correlated with specific adaptations. Nevertheless, insects, mammals, and birds, which are the most common terrestrial animal clades that show symptoms of senescence, evolved from clades that predominantly did not show symptoms of senescence. Thus, we aimed to examine senescence in the context of the ecology and life histories of the main clades of animals, including humans, and to formulate hypotheses to explain the causes and origin of senescence in the major clades of terrestrial animals. METHODOLOGY We reviewed literature from 1950 to 2020 concerning life expectancy, the existence of senescence, and the adaptive characteristics of the major groups of animals. We then proposed a relationship between senescence and environmental factors, considering the biology of these groups of animals. We constructed a model showing the phylogenetic relationships between animal clades in the context of the major stages of evolution, distinguishing between senescent and biologically 'immortal' clades of animals. Finally, we synthesised current data on senescence with the most important concepts and theories explaining the origin and mechanisms of senescence. Although this categorisation into different senescent phenotypes may be simplistic, we used this to propose a framework for understanding senescence. RESULTS We found that terrestrial mammals, insects, and birds show senescence, even though they likely evolved from non-senescent ancestors. Moreover, secondarily aquatic animals show lower rate of senescence than their terrestrial counterparts. Based on the possible life histories of these groups and the analysis of the most important factors affecting the transition from a non-senescent to senescent phenotype, we conclude that aging has evolved, not as a direct effect, but as a correlated response of selection on developmental strategies, and that this occurred separately within each clade. Adoption of specific life history strategies could thus have far-reaching effects in terms of senescence and lifespan. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis strongly suggests that senescence may have emerged as a side effect of the evolution of adaptive features that allowed the colonisation of land. Senescence in mammals may be a compromise between land colonisation and longevity. This hypothesis, is supported by palaeobiological and ecological evidence. We hope that the development of new research methodologies and the availability of more data could be used to test this hypothesis and shed greater light on the evolution of senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Bilinski
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology and Agriculture, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Aneta Bylak
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection; Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Land Management and Environmental Protection, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kukuła
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection; Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Land Management and Environmental Protection, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Renata Zadrag-Tecza
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland
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10
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Matsubara S, Sugiura S. Effects of host plant growth form on dropping behaviour in leaf beetles. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Many leaf-eating insects drop from their host plants to escape predators. However, they must return to the leaves of the host plant after dropping, which represents a cost associated with this behaviour. In woody plants, the positioning of leaves is generally higher than that of herbaceous plants, which suggests that dropping from woody plants might be costlier for leaf-eating insects than dropping from herbaceous plants. Therefore, we predicted that dropping behaviour would be observed less frequently in insects that feed on woody plant leaves than in those that feed on herbaceous plant leaves. To test this prediction, we investigated dropping behaviour experimentally in larvae (23 species) and adults (112 species) of leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on their host plants (86 species of 44 families) in field conditions. Larvae on woody plants exhibited dropping behaviour less frequently than those on herbaceous plants. However, this pattern was not detected in adults. Thus, host plant growth form might affect the evolution of dropping behaviour in leaf beetle larvae, but not in winged adults, perhaps owing to their higher mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Matsubara
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Japan
| | - Shinji Sugiura
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Japan
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11
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Ribak G. Insect-inspired jumping robots: challenges and solutions to jump stability. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 42:32-38. [PMID: 32920181 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Some insects can jump to heights that are several times their body length. At smaller scales, jumping mechanisms are constrained by issues relating to scaling of power generation, which insects have resolved over the course of their evolution. These solutions have inspired the design of small jumping robots. However, the insect' solution for the power constraint came at a price of instability and limited control over jump performance and these drawbacks were inherited by the jumping robots inspired by them. This review focuses on the jumping mechanisms of insects and robots, the challenges it imposes on control and stability and possible solutions. Although jump stability might not be a critical problem for insects, it poses substantial challenges for engineers of small jumping robots, who hope to develop autonomous devices with improved mobility over rough terrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gal Ribak
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 6997801, Israel; Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Israel National Centre for Biodiversity Studies, Tel Aviv, 6997801, Israel.
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12
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Stark AY, Yanoviak SP. Adhesion and Running Speed of a Tropical Arboreal Ant (Cephalotes atratus) on Rough, Narrow, and Inclined Substrates. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:829-839. [PMID: 32533841 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Arboreal ants must navigate variably sized and inclined linear structures across a range of substrate roughness when foraging tens of meters above the ground. To achieve this, arboreal ants use specialized adhesive pads and claws to maintain effective attachment to canopy substrates. Here, we explored the effect of substrate structure, including small and large-scale substrate roughness, substrate diameter, and substrate orientation (inclination), on adhesion and running speed of workers of one common, intermediately-sized, arboreal ant species. Normal (orthogonal) and shear (parallel) adhesive performance varied on sandpaper and natural leaf substrates, particularly at small size scales, but running speed on these substrates remained relatively constant. Running speed also varied minimally when running up and down inclined substrates, except when the substrate was positioned completely vertical. On vertical surfaces, ants ran significantly faster down than up. Ant running speed was slower on relatively narrow substrates. The results of this study show that variation in the physical properties of tree surfaces differentially affects arboreal ant adhesive and locomotor performance. Specifically, locomotor performance was much more robust to surface roughness than was adhesive performance. The results provide a basis for understanding how performance correlates of functional morphology contribute to determining local ant distributions and foraging decisions in the tropical rainforest canopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Y Stark
- Department of Biology, Villanova University, 800 E. Lancaster Ave, Villanova, PA 19085, USA
| | - Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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Wipfler B, Letsch H, Frandsen PB, Kapli P, Mayer C, Bartel D, Buckley TR, Donath A, Edgerly-Rooks JS, Fujita M, Liu S, Machida R, Mashimo Y, Misof B, Niehuis O, Peters RS, Petersen M, Podsiadlowski L, Schütte K, Shimizu S, Uchifune T, Wilbrandt J, Yan E, Zhou X, Simon S. Evolutionary history of Polyneoptera and its implications for our understanding of early winged insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:3024-3029. [PMID: 30642969 PMCID: PMC6386694 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1817794116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyneoptera represents one of the major lineages of winged insects, comprising around 40,000 extant species in 10 traditional orders, including grasshoppers, roaches, and stoneflies. Many important aspects of polyneopteran evolution, such as their phylogenetic relationships, changes in their external appearance, their habitat preferences, and social behavior, are unresolved and are a major enigma in entomology. These ambiguities also have direct consequences for our understanding of the evolution of winged insects in general; for example, with respect to the ancestral habitats of adults and juveniles. We addressed these issues with a large-scale phylogenomic analysis and used the reconstructed phylogenetic relationships to trace the evolution of 112 characters associated with the external appearance and the lifestyle of winged insects. Our inferences suggest that the last common ancestors of Polyneoptera and of the winged insects were terrestrial throughout their lives, implying that wings did not evolve in an aquatic environment. The appearance of the first polyneopteran insect was mainly characterized by ancestral traits such as long segmented abdominal appendages and biting mouthparts held below the head capsule. This ancestor lived in association with the ground, which led to various specializations including hardened forewings and unique tarsal attachment structures. However, within Polyneoptera, several groups switched separately to a life on plants. In contrast to a previous hypothesis, we found that social behavior was not part of the polyneopteran ground plan. In other traits, such as the biting mouthparts, Polyneoptera shows a high degree of evolutionary conservatism unique among the major lineages of winged insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Wipfler
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany;
- Center of Taxonomy and Evolutionary Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Harald Letsch
- Department für Botanik und Biodiversitätsforschung, Universität Wien, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Paul B Frandsen
- Department of Plant and Wildlife Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84604
- Data Science Lab, Office of the Chief Information Officer, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20002
| | - Paschalia Kapli
- The Exelixis Lab, Scientific Computing Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies, 69118 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Christoph Mayer
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Daniela Bartel
- Department of Integrative Zoology, Universität Wien, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas R Buckley
- New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Alexander Donath
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Janice S Edgerly-Rooks
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053
| | - Mari Fujita
- Sugadaira Research Station, Mountain Science Center, University of Tsukuba, Sugadaira Kogen, Ueda, Nagano 386-2204, Japan
| | - Shanlin Liu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
- Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, 1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Ryuichiro Machida
- Sugadaira Research Station, Mountain Science Center, University of Tsukuba, Sugadaira Kogen, Ueda, Nagano 386-2204, Japan
| | - Yuta Mashimo
- Sugadaira Research Station, Mountain Science Center, University of Tsukuba, Sugadaira Kogen, Ueda, Nagano 386-2204, Japan
| | - Bernhard Misof
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Oliver Niehuis
- Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, Institute of Biology I (Zoology), Albert Ludwig University, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ralph S Peters
- Center of Taxonomy and Evolutionary Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Malte Petersen
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Lars Podsiadlowski
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Kai Schütte
- Tierökologie und Naturschutz, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Shota Shimizu
- Sugadaira Research Station, Mountain Science Center, University of Tsukuba, Sugadaira Kogen, Ueda, Nagano 386-2204, Japan
| | - Toshiki Uchifune
- Sugadaira Research Station, Mountain Science Center, University of Tsukuba, Sugadaira Kogen, Ueda, Nagano 386-2204, Japan
- Yokosuka City Museum, Fukadadai, Kanagawa 238-0016, Japan
| | - Jeanne Wilbrandt
- Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, 53113 Bonn, Germany
| | - Evgeny Yan
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany
- Borissiak Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 123 Moscow, Russia
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Sabrina Simon
- Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Badger MA, Wang H, Dudley R. Avoiding topsy-turvy: how Anna's hummingbirds ( Calypte anna) fly through upward gusts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 222:222/3/jeb176263. [PMID: 30718291 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.176263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Flying organisms frequently confront the challenge of maintaining stability when moving within highly dynamic airflows near the Earth's surface. Either aerodynamic or inertial forces generated by appendages and other structures, such as the tail, may be used to offset aerial perturbations, but these responses have not been well characterized. To better understand how hummingbirds modify wing and tail motions in response to individual gusts, we filmed Anna's hummingbirds as they negotiated an upward jet of fast-moving air. Birds exhibited large variation in wing elevation, tail pitch and tail fan angles among transits as they repeatedly negotiated the same gust, and often exhibited a dramatic decrease in body angle (29±6 deg) post-transit. After extracting three-dimensional kinematic features, we identified a spectrum of control strategies for gust transit, with one extreme involving continuous flapping, no tail fanning and little disruption to body posture (23±3 deg downward pitch), and the other extreme characterized by dorsal wing pausing, tail fanning and greater downward body pitch (38±4 deg). The use of a deflectable tail on a glider model transiting the same gust resulted in enhanced stability and can easily be implemented in the design of aerial robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc A Badger
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Hao Wang
- College of Astronautics, Nanjing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 29 Yudao St., 210016 Nanjing, China
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Stark AY, Yanoviak SP. Adhesion and running speed of a tropical arboreal ant ( Cephalotes atratus) on wet substrates. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:181540. [PMID: 30564427 PMCID: PMC6281928 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the tropical forest canopy, wingless worker ants must cling to and run along diverse vegetative surfaces with little protection from sun, wind and rain. Ants rely in part on their tiny adhesive tarsal pads to maintain sufficient contact with substrates to prevent falls under these varied conditions. Here, we examined the effects of substrate wettability and surface water on the tarsal pad adhesive performance of a common tropical arboreal ant. Ant adhesion was consistently higher on an intermediately wetting substrate (static water contact angle ca 90°) when resisting both perpendicular (normal) force and parallel (shear) force. Normal adhesion was maintained on intermediately wetting and hydrophobic substrates following the addition of rain-mimicking water droplets, whereas shear adhesion declined on all substrate types tested after wetting. Ant running speed was slower on wet substrates. On wood substrates, normal and shear adhesion declined with increasing wetness from dry, to misted, to water-soaked. These differences probably contributed to lower ant running speed on wet wood. The results of this study provide the first quantitative assessment of tropical arboreal ant adhesive performance under substrate conditions that are commonly encountered in the rainforest canopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Y. Stark
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Stephen P. Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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16
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Humphreys RK, Ruxton GD. Dropping to escape: a review of an under-appreciated antipredator defence. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2018; 94:575-589. [PMID: 30298642 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dropping is a common antipredator defence that enables rapid escape from a perceived threat. However, despite its immediate effectiveness in predator-prey encounters (and against other dangers such as a parasitoid or an aggressive conspecific), it remains an under-appreciated defence strategy in the scientific literature. Dropping has been recorded in a wide range of taxa, from primates to lizards, but has been studied most commonly in insects. Insects have been found to utilise dropping in response to both biotic and abiotic stimuli, sometimes dependent on mechanical or chemical cues. Whatever the trigger for dropping, the decision to drop by prey will present a range of inter-related costs and benefits to the individual and so there will be subtle complexities in the trade-offs surrounding this defensive behaviour. In predatory encounters, dropping by prey will also impose varying costs and benefits on the predator - or predators - involved in the system. There may be important trade-offs involved in the decision made by predators regarding whether to pursue prey or not, but the predator perspective on dropping has been less explored at present. Beyond its function as an escape tactic, dropping has also been suggested to be an important precursor to flight in insects and further study could greatly improve understanding of its evolutionary importance. Dropping in insects could also prove of significant practical importance if an improved understanding can be applied to integrated pest-management strategies. Currently the non-consumptive effects of predators on their prey are under-appreciated in biological control and it may be that the dropping behaviour of many pest species could be exploited via management practices to improve crop protection. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of the current literature on dropping and to raise awareness of this fascinating and widespread behaviour. It also seeks to offer some novel hypotheses and highlight key avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalind K Humphreys
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Dyer's Brae House, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TH, U.K
| | - Graeme D Ruxton
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Dyer's Brae House, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TH, U.K
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17
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Dudley R, Pass G. Wings and powered flight: Core novelties in insect evolution. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:319-321. [PMID: 29936299 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - Günther Pass
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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Yanoviak SP, Dudley R. Jumping and the aerial behavior of aquatic mayfly larvae (Myobaetis ellenae, Baetidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:370-374. [PMID: 28684306 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2017.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Mayfly larvae generally are aquatic, but some madicolous taxa (i.e., living in thin water films) crawl over rocks within streams and waterfalls. When startled, these larvae can break the water film, jump, and enter an aerial phase of locomotion. Because mayfly larvae have been suggested as potential exemplars for the origin of insect wings as tracheal gills, and furthermore represent the most basal extant lineage of pterygotes, we analyzed jumping behavior and free-fall trajectories for one such species of mayfly (Myobaetis ellenae, Baetidae) in Costa Rica. Jumping was commonplace in this taxon, but was undirected and was characterized by body spinning at high angular velocities. No aerodynamic role for the tracheal gills was evident. By contrast, jumping by a sympatric species of bristletail (Meinertellus sp., Archaeognatha) consistently resulted in head-first and stable body postures during aerial translation. Although capable of intermittently jumping into the air, the mayfly larvae could neither control nor target their aerial behavior. By contrast, a stable body posture during jumps in adult bristletails, together with the demonstrated capacity for directed aerial descent in arboreal representatives of this order, support ancestrally terrestrial origins for insect flight within the behavioral context of either jumping or falling from heights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama.
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
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Alexander DE. A century and a half of research on the evolution of insect flight. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:322-327. [PMID: 29169955 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2017.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The gill and paranotal lobe theories of insect wing evolution were both proposed in the 1870s. For most of the 20th century, the paranotal lobe theory was more widely accepted, probably due to the fundamentally terrestrial tracheal respiratory system; in the 1970s, some researchers advocated for an elaborated gill ("pleural appendage") theory. Lacking transition fossils, neither theory could be definitively rejected. Winged insects are abundant in the fossil record from the mid-Carboniferous, but insect fossils are vanishingly rare earlier, and all earlier fossils are from primitively wingless insects. The enigmatic, isolated mandibles of Rhyniognatha (early Devonian) hint that pterygotes may have been present much earlier, but the question remains open. In the late 20th century, researchers used models to study the interaction of body and protowing size on solar warming and gliding abilities, and stability and glide effectiveness of many tiny adjustable winglets versus a single, large pair of immobile winglets. Living stoneflies inspired the surface-skimming theory, which provides a mechanism to bridge between aquatic gills and flapping wings. The serendipitously discovered phenomenon of directed aerial descent suggests a likely route to the early origin of insect flight. It provides a biomechanically feasible sequence from guided falls to fully-powered flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Alexander
- University of Kansas, Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, 1200 Sunnyside Avenue, Rm. 2041 Lawrence, KS 66045-7534, USA.
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Rojas JC, Kolomiets MV, Bernal JS. Nonsensical choices? Fall armyworm moths choose seemingly best or worst hosts for their larvae, but neonate larvae make their own choices. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197628. [PMID: 29795622 PMCID: PMC5967860 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Selecting optimal host plants is critical for herbivorous insects, such as fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), an important maize pest in the Americas and Africa. Fall armyworm larvae are presumed to have limited mobility, hence female moths are presumed to be largely responsible for selecting hosts. We addressed host selection by fall armyworm moths and neonate and older (3rd-instar) larvae, as mediated by resistance and herbivory in maize plants. Thus, we compared discrimination among three maize cultivars with varying degrees of resistance to fall armyworm, and between plants subjected or not to two types of herbivory. The cultivars were: (i) susceptible, and deficient in jasmonic acid (JA) production and green leaf volatiles (GLV) emissions (inbred line B73-lox10); (ii) modestly resistant (B73), and; (iii) highly resistant (Mp708). The herbivory types were: (i) ongoing (= fall armyworm larvae present), and; (ii) future (= fall armyworm eggs present). In choice tests, moths laid more eggs on the highly resistant cultivar, and least on the susceptible cultivar, though on those cultivars larvae performed poorest and best, respectively. In the context of herbivory, moths laid more eggs: (i) on plants subject to versus free of future herbivory, regardless of whether plants were deficient or not in JA and GLV production; (ii) on plants subject versus free of ongoing herbivory, and; (iii) on plants not deficient in compared to deficient in JA and GLV production. Neonate larvae dispersed aerially from host plants (i.e. ballooned), and most larvae colonized the modestly resistant cultivar, and fewest the highly resistant cultivar, suggesting quasi-directional, directed aerial descent. Finally, dispersing older larvae did not discriminate among the three maize cultivars, nor between maize plants and (plastic) model maize plants, suggesting random, visually-oriented dispersal. Our results were used to assemble a model of host selection by fall armyworm moths and larvae, including recommendations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio C. Rojas
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
| | - Michael V. Kolomiets
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
| | - Julio S. Bernal
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Guillermo-Ferreira R, Appel E, Urban P, Bispo PC, Gorb SN. The unusual tracheal system within the wing membrane of a dragonfly. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2016.0960. [PMID: 28515332 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Some consider that the first winged insects had living tissue inside the wing membrane, resembling larval gills or developing wing pads. However, throughout the developmental process of the wing membrane of modern insects, cells and tracheoles in the lumen between dorsal and ventral cuticle disappear and both cuticles become fused. This process results in the rather thin rigid stable structure of the membrane. The herewith described remarkable case of the dragonfly Zenithoptera lanei shows that in some highly specialized wings, the membrane can still be supplemented by tracheae. Such a characteristic of the wing membrane presumably represents a strong specialization for the synthesis of melanin-filled nanolayers of the cuticle, nanospheres inside the wing membrane and complex arrangement of wax crystals on the membrane surface, all responsible for unique structural coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Esther Appel
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Paulina Urban
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Pitágoras C Bispo
- Department of Biological Sciences, São Paulo State University, Assis, Brazil
| | - Stanislav N Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute, Kiel University, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24098 Kiel, Germany
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MERESMAN Y, BEN-ARI M, INBAR M. Turning in mid-air allows aphids that flee the plant to avoid reaching the risky ground. Integr Zool 2017; 12:409-420. [DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan MERESMAN
- Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology; University of Haifa; Haifa Israel
| | - Matan BEN-ARI
- Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology; University of Haifa; Haifa Israel
| | - Moshe INBAR
- Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology; University of Haifa; Haifa Israel
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Zeng Y, Lam K, Chen Y, Gong M, Xu Z, Dudley R. Biomechanics of aerial righting in wingless nymphal stick insects. Interface Focus 2017; 7:20160075. [PMID: 28163868 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2016.0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous wingless arthropods as well as diverse vertebrates are capable of mid-air righting. We studied the biomechanics of the aerial righting reflex in first-instar nymphs of the stick insect Extatosoma tiaratum. After being released upside-down, insects reoriented dorsoventrally and stabilized body posture via active modulation of limb positions and associated aerodynamic torques. We identified specific reflexes for bilaterally asymmetric leg displacements which elicit body rotation and subsequently stabilize mid-air posture. Coordinated appendicular movements thus improve torsional manoeuvrability in the absence of wings, as may have characterized the initial origins of controlled aerial behaviour in arthropods. Design of small aerial or multimodal robotic vehicles may similarly benefit from use of such strategies for flight control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zeng
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Physics, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Kenrick Lam
- Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , Berkeley, CA 94720 , USA
| | - Yuexiang Chen
- Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , Berkeley, CA 94720 , USA
| | - Mengsha Gong
- Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , Berkeley, CA 94720 , USA
| | - Zheyuan Xu
- Department of Integrative Biology , University of California , Berkeley, CA 94720 , USA
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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Roderick WRT, Cutkosky MR, Lentink D. Touchdown to take-off: at the interface of flight and surface locomotion. Interface Focus 2017; 7:20160094. [PMID: 28163884 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2016.0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Small aerial robots are limited to short mission times because aerodynamic and energy conversion efficiency diminish with scale. One way to extend mission times is to perch, as biological flyers do. Beyond perching, small robot flyers benefit from manoeuvring on surfaces for a diverse set of tasks, including exploration, inspection and collection of samples. These opportunities have prompted an interest in bimodal aerial and surface locomotion on both engineered and natural surfaces. To accomplish such novel robot behaviours, recent efforts have included advancing our understanding of the aerodynamics of surface approach and take-off, the contact dynamics of perching and attachment and making surface locomotion more efficient and robust. While current aerial robots show promise, flying animals, including insects, bats and birds, far surpass them in versatility, reliability and robustness. The maximal size of both perching animals and robots is limited by scaling laws for both adhesion and claw-based surface attachment. Biomechanists can use the current variety of specialized robots as inspiration for probing unknown aspects of bimodal animal locomotion. Similarly, the pitch-up landing manoeuvres and surface attachment techniques of animals can offer an evolutionary design guide for developing robots that perch on more diverse and complex surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark R Cutkosky
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Stanford University , Stanford, CA , USA
| | - David Lentink
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Stanford University , Stanford, CA , USA
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25
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Schiffner I, Perez T, Srinivasan MV. Strategies for Pre-Emptive Mid-Air Collision Avoidance in Budgerigars. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162435. [PMID: 27680488 PMCID: PMC5040264 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We have investigated how birds avoid mid-air collisions during head-on encounters. Trajectories of birds flying towards each other in a tunnel were recorded using high speed video cameras. Analysis and modelling of the data suggest two simple strategies for collision avoidance: (a) each bird veers to its right and (b) each bird changes its altitude relative to the other bird according to a preset preference. Both strategies suggest simple rules by which collisions can be avoided in head-on encounters by two agents, be they animals or machines. The findings are potentially applicable to the design of guidance algorithms for automated collision avoidance on aircraft.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Schiffner
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Tristan Perez
- Elec. Eng. and Comp. Sc., Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Mandyam V Srinivasan
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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Yanoviak SP, Munk Y, Dudley R. Arachnid aloft: directed aerial descent in neotropical canopy spiders. J R Soc Interface 2016; 12:0534. [PMID: 26289654 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2015.0534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The behaviour of directed aerial descent has been described for numerous taxa of wingless hexapods as they fall from the tropical rainforest canopy, but is not known in other terrestrial arthropods. Here, we describe similar controlled aerial behaviours for large arboreal spiders in the genus Selenops (Selenopidae). We dropped 59 such spiders from either canopy platforms or tree crowns in Panama and Peru; the majority (93%) directed their aerial trajectories towards and then landed upon nearby tree trunks. Following initial dorsoventral righting when necessary, falling spiders oriented themselves and then translated head-first towards targets; directional changes were correlated with bilaterally asymmetric motions of the anterolaterally extended forelegs. Aerial performance (i.e. the glide index) decreased with increasing body mass and wing loading, but not with projected surface area of the spider. Along with the occurrence of directed aerial descent in ants, jumping bristletails, and other wingless hexapods, this discovery of targeted gliding in selenopid spiders further indicates strong selective pressures against uncontrolled falls into the understory for arboreal taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 139 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Yonatan Munk
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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27
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Böhm A, Pass G. The ocelli of Archaeognatha (Hexapoda): Functional morphology, pigment migration and chemical nature of the reflective tapetum. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:3039-3048. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.141275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The ocelli of Archaeognatha, or jumping bristletails, differ from typical insect ocelli in shape and field of view. While the shape of the lateral ocelli is highly variable among species, most Machiloidea have sole shaped lateral ocelli beneath the compound eyes and a median ocellus that is oriented downward. This study investigated morphological and physiological aspects of the ocelli of Machilis hrabei and Lepismachilis spp.
The light reflecting ocellar tapetum in Machilis hrabei is made up by xanthine nanocrystals, as demonstrated by confocal Raman spectroscopy. Pigment granules in the photoreceptor cells move behind the tapetum in the dark adapted state. Such a vertical pigment migration in combination with a tapetum has not been described for any insect ocellus so far. The pigment migration has a dynamic range of around 4 log units and is maximally sensitive to green light. Adaptation from darkness to bright light lasts over an hour, which is slow compared to the radial pupil mechanism in some dragonflies and locusts.
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Abstract
Animals that glide produce aerodynamic forces that enable transit through the air in both arboreal and aquatic environments. The relative ease of gliding compared with flapping flight has led to a large diversity of taxa that have evolved some degree of flight capability. Glide paths are curved, reflecting the changing forces on the animal as it progresses through its aerial trajectory. These changing forces can be under control of the glider, which uses specific aspects of anatomy to modulate lift, drag, and rotational moments on the body. However, gliders share no single anatomical or behavioral feature, and some species are unspecialized for gliding, producing aerodynamic forces using posture and orientation alone. Animals use gliding in a broad range of ecological roles, suggesting that multiple performance metrics are relevant for consideration, but we are only beginning to understand how gliders produce and control their flight from takeoff to landing. In this review, we focus on the physical aspects of how glide trajectories are produced, and additionally discuss the range of morphologies and postures that are used to control aerial movements across the broad diversity of animal gliders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J. Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Farid Jafari
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Yonatan Munk
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Greg Byrnes
- Department of Biology, Siena College, Loudonville, NY 12211, USA
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Abstract
Here we review recent contributions to the study of insect flight, in particular those brought about by advances in experimental techniques. We focus particularly on the following areas: wing flexibility and deformation, the physiology and biophysics of asynchronous insect flight muscle, the aerodynamics of flight, and stability and maneuverability. This recent research reveals the importance of wing flexibility to insect flight, provides a detailed model of how asynchronous flight muscle functions and how it may have evolved, synthesizes many recent studies of insect flight aerodynamics into a broad-reaching summary of unsteady flight aerodynamics, and highlights new insights into the sources of flight stability in insects. The focus on experimental techniques and recently developed apparatus shows how these advancements have occurred and point the way towards future experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyson L. Hedrick
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Stacey A. Combes
- Harvard University, Concord Field Station, 100 Old Causeway Road, Bedford, MA 01730, USA
| | - Laura A. Miller
- Departments of Mathematics and Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Berthé R, Lehmann FO. Body appendages fine-tune posture and moments in freely manoeuvring fruit flies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:3295-307. [PMID: 26347566 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.122408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The precise control of body posture by turning moments is key to elevated locomotor performance in flying animals. Although elevated moments for body stabilization are typically produced by wing aerodynamics, animals also steer using drag on body appendages, shifting their centre of body mass, and changing moments of inertia caused by active alterations in body shape. To estimate the instantaneous contribution of each of these components for posture control in an insect, we three-dimensionally reconstructed body posture and movements of body appendages in freely manoeuvring fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) by high-speed video and experimentally scored drag coefficients of legs and body trunk at low Reynolds number. The results show that the sum of leg- and abdomen-induced yaw moments dominates wing-induced moments during 17% of total flight time but is, on average, 7.2-times (roll, 3.4-times) smaller during manoeuvring. Our data reject a previous hypothesis on synergistic moment support, indicating that drag on body appendages and mass-shift inhibit rather than support turning moments produced by the wings. Numerical modelling further shows that hind leg extension alters the moments of inertia around the three main body axes of the animal by not more than 6% during manoeuvring, which is significantly less than previously reported for other insects. In sum, yaw, pitch and roll steering by body appendages probably fine-tune turning behaviour and body posture, without providing a significant advantage for posture stability and moment support. Motion control of appendages might thus be part of the insect's trimming reflexes, which reduce imbalances in moment generation caused by unilateral wing damage and abnormal asymmetries of the flight apparatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Berthé
- Department of Animal Physiology, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Fritz-Olaf Lehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, University of Rostock, 18059 Rostock, Germany
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31
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Evangelista D, Cam S, Huynh T, Krivitskiy I, Dudley R. Ontogeny of aerial righting and wing flapping in juvenile birds. Biol Lett 2015; 10:rsbl.2014.0497. [PMID: 25165451 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of aerial righting in juvenile chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) were studied from hatching to 14 days-post-hatching (dph). Asymmetric movements of the wings were used from 1 to 8 dph to effect progressively more successful righting behaviour via body roll. Following 8 dph, wing motions transitioned to bilaterally symmetric flapping that yielded aerial righting via nose-down pitch, along with substantial increases in vertical force production during descent. Ontogenetically, the use of such wing motions to effect aerial righting precedes both symmetric flapping and a previously documented behaviour in chukar (i.e. wing-assisted incline running) hypothesized to be relevant to incipient flight evolution in birds. These findings highlight the importance of asymmetric wing activation and controlled aerial manoeuvres during bird development and are potentially relevant to understanding the origins of avian flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Evangelista
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Sharlene Cam
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Tony Huynh
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Igor Krivitskiy
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama
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32
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Munk Y, Yanoviak SP, Koehl MAR, Dudley R. The descent of ant: field-measured performance of gliding ants. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 218:1393-401. [PMID: 25788722 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.106914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Gliding ants avoid predatory attacks and potentially mortal consequences of dislodgement from rainforest canopy substrates by directing their aerial descent towards nearby tree trunks. The ecologically relevant measure of performance for gliding ants is the ratio of net horizontal to vertical distance traveled over the course of a gliding trajectory, or glide index. To study variation in glide index, we measured three-dimensional trajectories of Cephalotes atratus ants gliding in natural rainforest habitats. We determined that righting phase duration, glide angle, and path directness all significantly influence variation in glide index. Unsuccessful landing attempts result in the ant bouncing off its target and being forced to make a second landing attempt. Our results indicate that ants are not passive gliders and that they exert active control over the aerodynamic forces they experience during their descent, despite their apparent lack of specialized control surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonatan Munk
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - M A R Koehl
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, PO Box 2072, Balboa, Republic of Panama
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33
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Haug JT, Haug C, Garwood RJ. Evolution of insect wings and development - new details from Palaeozoic nymphs. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 91:53-69. [PMID: 25400084 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The nymphal stages of Palaeozoic insects differ significantly in morphology from those of their modern counterparts. Morphological details for some previously reported species have recently been called into question. Palaeozoic insect nymphs are important, however - their study could provide key insights into the evolution of wings, and complete metamorphosis. Here we review past work on these topics and juvenile insects in the fossil record, and then present both novel and previously described nymphs, documented using new imaging methods. Our results demonstrate that some Carboniferous nymphs - those of Palaeodictyopteroidea - possessed movable wing pads and appear to have been able to perform simple flapping flight. It remains unclear whether this feature is ancestral for Pterygota or an autapomorphy of Palaeodictyopteroidea. Further characters of nymphal development which were probably in the ground pattern of Pterygota can be reconstructed. Wing development was very gradual (archimetaboly). Wing pads did not protrude from the tergum postero-laterally as in most modern nymphs, but laterally, and had well-developed venation. The modern orientation of wing pads and the delay of wing development into later developmental stages (condensation) appears to have evolved several times independently within Pterygota: in Ephemeroptera, Odonatoptera, Eumetabola, and probably several times within Polyneoptera. Selective pressure appears to have favoured a more pronounced metamorphosis between the last nymphal and adult stage, ultimately reducing exploitation competition between the two. We caution, however, that the results presented herein remain preliminary, and the reconstructed evolutionary scenario contains gaps and uncertainties. Additional comparative data need to be collected. The present study is thus seen as a starting point for this enterprise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim T Haug
- Functional Morphology, Department of Biology II, GeoBio-Center, LMU Munich, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Carolin Haug
- Functional Morphology, Department of Biology II, GeoBio-Center, LMU Munich, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Russell J Garwood
- The Manchester X-Ray Imaging Facility, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M139PL, U.K.,School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M139PL, U.K
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34
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Meresman Y, Ribak G, Weihs D, Inbar M. The stimuli evoking the aerial-righting-posture of falling pea aphids. J Exp Biol 2014; 217:3504-11. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.107490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Some wingless insects possess aerial righting reflexes, suggesting that adaptation for controlling body orientation while falling through air could have preceded flight. When threatened by a predator, wingless pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) may drop off their host plant and assume a stereotypic posture that rotates them in midair to land on their feet. The sensory information triggering aphids to assume this posture has so far been unknown. We subjected aphids to a series of tests, isolating the sensory cues experienced during free-fall. Falling aphids assumed the righting posture and landed upright irrespective of whether the experiments were carried out in the light or in complete darkness. Detachment of the tarsi from the substrate triggered the aphids to assume the posture rapidly, but only for a brief period. Rotation (mainly roll and yaw) of the body in air, in the light, caused aphids to assume the posture and remain in it throughout rotation. In contrast, aphids rotated in the dark did not respond. Acceleration associated with falling or airflow over the body per se did not trigger the posture. However, sensing motion relative to air heightened the aphids’ responsiveness to rotation in the light. These results suggest that the righting posture of aphids is triggered by a tarsal reflex, but once airborne, vision and a sense of motion relative to air can augment the response. Hence, aerial righting in a wingless insect could have emerged as a basic tarsal response and developed further to include secondary sensory cues typical of falling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gal Ribak
- Technion, Israel Institute of Technology; Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Daniel Weihs
- Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Israel
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35
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Abstract
AbstractAnimal migration is often defined in terms appropriate only to the ‘to-and-fro’ movements of large, charismatic (and often vertebrate) species. However, like other important biological processes, the definition should apply over as broad a taxonomic range as possible in order to be intellectually satisfying. Here we illustrate the process of migration in insects and other terrestrial arthropods (e.g. arachnids, myriapods, and non-insect hexapods) but provide a different perspective by excluding the ‘typical’ mode of migration in insects, i.e. flapping flight. Instead, we review non-volant migratory movements, including: aerial migration by wingless species, pedestrian and waterborne migration, and phoresy. This reveals some fascinating and sometimes bizarre morphological and behavioural adaptations to facilitate movement. We also outline some innovative modelling approaches exploring the interactions between atmospheric transport processes and biological factors affecting the ‘dispersal kernels’ of wingless arthropods
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36
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Rezende EL, Diniz-Filho JAF. Phylogenetic analyses: comparing species to infer adaptations and physiological mechanisms. Compr Physiol 2013; 2:639-74. [PMID: 23728983 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Comparisons among species have been a standard tool in animal physiology to understand how organisms function and adapt to their surrounding environment. During the last two decades, conceptual and methodological advances from different fields, including evolutionary biology and systematics, have revolutionized the way comparative analyses are performed, resulting in the advent of modern phylogenetic statistical methods. This development stems from the realization that conventional analytical methods assume that observations are statistically independent, which is not the case for comparative data because species often resemble each other due to shared ancestry. By taking evolutionary history explicitly into consideration, phylogenetic statistical methods can account for the confounding effects of shared ancestry in interspecific comparisons, improving the reliability of standard approaches such as regressions or correlations in comparative analyses. Importantly, these methods have also enabled researchers to address entirely new evolutionary questions, such as the historical sequence of events that resulted in current patterns of form and function, which can only be studied with a phylogenetic perspective. Here, we provide an overview of phylogenetic approaches and their importance for studying the evolution of physiological processes and mechanisms. We discuss the conceptual framework underlying these methods, and explain when and how phylogenetic information should be employed. We then outline the difficulties and limitations inherent to comparative approaches and discuss potential problems researchers may encounter when designing a comparative study. These issues are illustrated with examples from the literature in which the incorporation of phylogenetic information has been useful, or even crucial, for inferences on how species evolve and adapt to their surrounding environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico L Rezende
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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37
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Huang W, Liu H, Wang F, Wu J, Zhang HP. Experimetal study of a freely falling plate with an inhomogeneous mass distribution. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2013; 88:053008. [PMID: 24329352 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.88.053008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A homogeneous thin plate often flutters while falling through a fluid under gravity. The center of gravity of the plate moves back-and-forth horizontally and the plate tilting angle oscillates symmetrically from the horizontal. Here we show that such a scenario is qualitatively changed for a plate with noncoinciding centers of gravity and buoyancy due to an inhomogeneous mass distribution. Mismatch of the centers causes an external torque that breaks the symmetry of rotational motion, shifts the mean tilting position from the horizontal, and leads to a net horizontal plate displacement. In laboratory experiments with a Reynolds number around 1500, we found that the net horizontal displacement scales linearly with the separation between the centers up to a critical value, beyond which the plate falls vertically in an edge-on configuration with the heavier side downward. Experimental results are compared to predictions of a quasi-steady numerical model. Our work demonstrates that motion of freely moving objects in a fluid depends sensitively on external torques, which potentially can be used as an effective control method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Huang
- J. C. Wu Center for Aerodynamics and School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
| | - Hong Liu
- J. C. Wu Center for Aerodynamics and School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
| | - Fuxin Wang
- J. C. Wu Center for Aerodynamics and School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
| | - Junqi Wu
- J. C. Wu Center for Aerodynamics and School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
| | - H P Zhang
- Department of Physics and Astronomy and Institute of Natural Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
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38
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Ribak G, Gish M, Weihs D, Inbar M. Adaptive aerial righting during the escape dropping of wingless pea aphids. Curr Biol 2013; 23:R102-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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39
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Bekinschtein TA, Peeters M, Shalom D, Sigman M. Sea slugs, subliminal pictures, and vegetative state patients: boundaries of consciousness in classical conditioning. Front Psychol 2011; 2:337. [PMID: 22164148 PMCID: PMC3230906 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Classical (trace) conditioning is a specific variant of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus leads to the subsequent prediction of an emotionally charged or noxious stimulus after a temporal gap. When conditioning is concurrent with a distraction task, only participants who can report the relationship (the contingency) between stimuli explicitly show associative learning. This suggests that consciousness is a prerequisite for trace conditioning. We review and question three main controversies concerning this view. Firstly, virtually all animals, even invertebrate sea slugs, show this type of learning; secondly, unconsciously perceived stimuli may elicit trace conditioning; and thirdly, some vegetative state patients show trace learning. We discuss and analyze these seemingly contradictory arguments to find the theoretical boundaries of consciousness in classical conditioning. We conclude that trace conditioning remains one of the best measures to test conscious processing in the absence of explicit reports.
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40
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Jusufi A, Zeng Y, Full RJ, Dudley R. Aerial Righting Reflexes in Flightless Animals. Integr Comp Biol 2011; 51:937-43. [PMID: 21930662 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icr114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ardian Jusufi
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA.
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41
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Yanoviak SP, Munk Y, Dudley R. Evolution and Ecology of Directed Aerial Descent in Arboreal Ants. Integr Comp Biol 2011; 51:944-56. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icr006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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42
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Dudley R, Yanoviak SP. Animal aloft: the origins of aerial behavior and flight. Integr Comp Biol 2011; 51:926-36. [PMID: 21558180 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icr002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse taxa of animals exhibit remarkable aerial capacities, including jumping, mid-air righting, parachuting, gliding, landing, controlled maneuvers, and flapping flight. The origin of flapping wings in hexapods and in 3 separate lineages of vertebrates (pterosaurs, bats, and birds) greatly facilitated subsequent diversification of lineages, but both the paleobiological context and the possible selective pressures for the evolution of wings remain contentious. Larvae of various arboreal hemimetabolous insects, as well as many adult canopy ants, demonstrate the capacity for directed aerial descent in the absence of wings. Aerial control in the ancestrally wingless archaeognathans suggests that flight behavior preceded the origins of wings in hexapods. In evolutionary terms, the use of winglets and partial wings to effect aerial righting and maneuvers could select for enhanced appendicular motions, and ultimately lead to powered flight. Flight behaviors that involve neither flapping nor wings are likely to be much more widespread than is currently recognized. Further characterization of the sensory and biomechanical mechanisms used by these aerially capable taxa can potentially assist in reconstruction of ancestral winged morphologies and facilitate our understanding of the origins of flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Dudley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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43
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Yanoviak SP, Munk Y, Kaspari M, Dudley R. Aerial manoeuvrability in wingless gliding ants (Cephalotes atratus). Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:2199-204. [PMID: 20236974 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to the patagial membranes of gliding vertebrates, the aerodynamic surfaces used by falling wingless ants to direct their aerial descent are unknown. We conducted ablation experiments to assess the relative contributions of the hindlegs, midlegs and gaster to gliding success in workers of the Neotropical arboreal ant Cephalotes atratus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Removal of hindlegs significantly reduced the success rate of directed aerial descent as well as the glide index for successful flights. Removal of the gaster alone did not significantly alter performance relative to controls. Equilibrium glide angles during successful targeting to vertical columns were statistically equivalent between control ants and ants with either the gaster or the hindlegs removed. High-speed video recordings suggested possible use of bilaterally asymmetric motions of the hindlegs to effect body rotations about the vertical axis during targeting manoeuvre. Overall, the control of gliding flight was remarkably robust to dramatic anatomical perturbations, suggesting effective control mechanisms in the face of adverse initial conditions (e.g. falling upside down), variable targeting decisions and turbulent wind gusts during flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Yanoviak
- Department of Biology, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, AR 72204, USA.
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