1
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Shook EN, Barlow GT, Garcia-Rosales D, Gibbons CJ, Montague TG. Dynamic skin behaviors in cephalopods. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2024; 86:102876. [PMID: 38652980 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2024.102876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
The coleoid cephalopods (cuttlefish, octopus, and squid) are a group of soft-bodied mollusks that exhibit a wealth of complex behaviors, including dynamic camouflage, object mimicry, skin-based visual communication, and dynamic body patterns during sleep. Many of these behaviors are visually driven and engage the animals' color changing skin, a pixelated display that is directly controlled by neurons projecting from the brain. Thus, cephalopod skin provides a direct readout of neural activity in the brain. During camouflage, cephalopods recreate on their skin an approximation of what they see, providing a window into perceptual processes in the brain. Additionally, cephalopods communicate their internal state during social encounters using innate skin patterns, and create waves of pigmentation on their skin during periods of arousal. Thus, by leveraging the visual displays of cephalopods, we can gain insight into how the external world is represented in the brain and how this representation is transformed into a recapitulation of the world on the skin. Here, we describe the rich skin behaviors of the coleoid cephalopods, what is known about cephalopod neuroanatomy, and how advancements in gene editing, machine learning, optical imaging, and electrophysiological tools may provide an opportunity to explore the neural bases of these fascinating behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica N Shook
- The Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - George Thomas Barlow
- The Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Daniella Garcia-Rosales
- The Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Connor J Gibbons
- The Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Tessa G Montague
- The Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.
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2
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Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
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3
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Singh S, Watts S, Kaur I, Rodriguez I, Ayala J, Rodriguez D, Martin E, Kariyat R. Sex and stress modulate pupal defense response in tobacco hornworm. Curr Zool 2023; 69:592-599. [PMID: 37637322 PMCID: PMC10449424 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In insects, larval and adult defenses against predators have been well studied. However, pupal (also known as resting stage) defenses have been overlooked and not examined thoroughly. Although some pupa possess antipredator strategies such as hairs, spines, cryptic coloration, and exudation of chemicals, few studies have tested these responses and the factors affecting them. Here, we investigated the behavioral responses in tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta that pupates in soil by introducing an external stimulus using vibrations from an electric toothbrush to mimic predation. We observed that M. sexta made violent wriggling (twitching), followed by pulsating movements in response to the vibrational stimulus. Detailed examination showed that these twitches and pulsating events occurred more frequently and for longer periods of time in male pupa and were dependent on the magnitude of the stress (high and low frequency). However, when we estimated the angular force exerted by pupa using radian and angular momentum of twitches, it was found to be independent of pupal sex. A follow-up experiment on possible cascading effects of stress exposure on eclosion success revealed that low- and high-frequency stress exposure didn't cause any of the common defects in eclosed adults. Our study clearly demonstrates that the so-called defenseless pupal stage uses a wide range of measurable defense behaviors that can actively defend against predators and should be examined further-linking observed behavior with underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukhman Singh
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sakshi Watts
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Ishveen Kaur
- School of Earth Environmental and Marine Sciences, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Isabella Rodriguez
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Jessica Ayala
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Dariela Rodriguez
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Elian Martin
- Department of Biology, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA
| | - Rupesh Kariyat
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
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4
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Hernández-Palma TL, Rueda-Solano LA, Valkonen JK, Rojas B. Predator response to the coloured eyespots and defensive posture of Colombian four-eyed frogs. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:1040-1049. [PMID: 37341128 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Deimatic displays, where sudden changes in prey appearance elicit aversive predator reactions, have been suggested to occur in many taxa. These (often only putative) displays frequently involve different components that may also serve antipredator functions via other mechanisms (e.g., mimicry, warning signalling, body inflation). The Colombian four-eyed frog, Pleurodema brachyops, has been suggested to gain protection against predation through putative deimatic displays where they inflate and elevate the posterior part of their body revealing eye-like colour markings. We exposed stationary artificial frogs to wild predators to test whether the two components (eyespot/colour markings, defensive posture) of their putative deimatic display, and their combination, provide protection from predation without the sudden change in appearance. We did not detect any obvious additive effect of defensive posture and eyespots/colour markings on predation risk, but found a marginally significant trend for model frogs in the resting posture to be less attacked when displaying eyespots/colour markings than when they were not, suggesting that the presence of colour markings/eyespots may provide some protection on its own. Additionally, we found that models in a resting posture were overall more frequently attacked on the head than models in a defensive posture, indicating that a defensive posture alone could help redirect predator attacks to non-vital parts of the body. The trends found in our study suggest that the different components of P. brachyops' coloration may serve different functions during a deimatic display, but further research is needed to elucidate the role of each component when accompanied by sudden prey movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana L Hernández-Palma
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Ecología Aplicada (GIBEA), Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Magdalena, Santa Marta, Colombia
| | - Luis Alberto Rueda-Solano
- Grupo de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Ecología Aplicada (GIBEA), Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Magdalena, Santa Marta, Colombia
- Fundación Atelopus, Santa Marta, Colombia
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Janne Valkonen Research and Consulting, Vesanka, Finland
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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5
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Kikuchi DW, Allen WL, Arbuckle K, Aubier TG, Briolat ES, Burdfield-Steel ER, Cheney KL, Daňková K, Elias M, Hämäläinen L, Herberstein ME, Hossie TJ, Joron M, Kunte K, Leavell BC, Lindstedt C, Lorioux-Chevalier U, McClure M, McLellan CF, Medina I, Nawge V, Páez E, Pal A, Pekár S, Penacchio O, Raška J, Reader T, Rojas B, Rönkä KH, Rößler DC, Rowe C, Rowland HM, Roy A, Schaal KA, Sherratt TN, Skelhorn J, Smart HR, Stankowich T, Stefan AM, Summers K, Taylor CH, Thorogood R, Umbers K, Winters AE, Yeager J, Exnerová A. The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:975-991. [PMID: 37363877 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | | | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Thomas G Aubier
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, UMR 5174, CNRS/IRD, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Emily R Burdfield-Steel
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Klára Daňková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Liisa Hämäläinen
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas J Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mathieu Joron
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Brian C Leavell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ugo Lorioux-Chevalier
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Melanie McClure
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | | | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Viraj Nawge
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Erika Páez
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Arka Pal
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Olivier Penacchio
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
- Computer Vision Center, Computer Science Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tom Reader
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Katja H Rönkä
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Daniela C Rößler
- Zukunftskolleg, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Candy Rowe
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Arlety Roy
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Kaitlin A Schaal
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - John Skelhorn
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah R Smart
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ted Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California, USA
| | - Amanda M Stefan
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle Summers
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Rose Thorogood
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kate Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Science Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anne E Winters
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Justin Yeager
- Grupo de Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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6
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Exnerová A, Kang C, Rowland HM, Kikuchi DW. Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:961-966. [PMID: 37449469 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
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7
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Caro T. An evolutionary route to warning coloration. Nature 2023; 618:34-35. [PMID: 37095407 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-023-01356-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
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8
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Loeffler-Henry K, Kang C, Sherratt TN. Evolutionary transitions from camouflage to aposematism: Hidden signals play a pivotal role. Science 2023; 379:1136-1140. [PMID: 36927015 DOI: 10.1126/science.ade5156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
The initial evolution of warning signals in unprofitable prey, termed aposematism, is often seen as a paradox because any new conspicuous mutant would be easier to detect than its cryptic conspecifics and not readily recognized by naïve predators as defended. One possibility is that permanent aposematism first evolved through species using hidden warning signals, which are only exposed to would-be predators on encounter. Here, we present a large-scale analysis of evolutionary transitions in amphibian antipredation coloration and demonstrate that the evolutionary transition from camouflage to aposematism is rarely direct but tends to involve an intermediary stage, namely cryptic species that facultatively reveal conspicuous coloration. Accounting for this intermediate step can resolve the paradox and thereby advance our understanding of the evolution of aposematism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Thomas N Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
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9
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Barnett JB, Yeager J, McEwen BL, Kinley I, Anderson HM, Guevara J. Size-dependent colouration balances conspicuous aposematism and camouflage. J Evol Biol 2022. [PMID: 36514842 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Colour is an important component of many different defensive strategies, but signal efficacy and detectability will also depend on the size of the coloured structures, and how pattern size interacts with the background. Consequently, size-dependent changes in colouration are common among many different species as juveniles and adults frequently use colour for different purposes in different environmental contexts. A widespread strategy in many species is switching from crypsis to conspicuous aposematic signalling as increasing body size can reduce the efficacy of camouflage, while other antipredator defences may strengthen. Curiously, despite being chemically defended, the gold-striped frog (Lithodytes lineatus, Leptodactylidae) appears to do the opposite, with bright yellow stripes found in smaller individuals, whereas larger frogs exhibit dull brown stripes. Here, we investigated whether size-dependent differences in colour support distinct defensive strategies. We first used visual modelling of potential predators to assess how colour contrast varied among frogs of different sizes. We found that contrast peaked in mid-sized individuals while the largest individuals had the least contrasting patterns. We then used two detection experiments with human participants to evaluate how colour and body size affected overall detectability. These experiments revealed that larger body sizes were easier to detect, but that the colours of smaller frogs were more detectable than those of larger frogs. Taken together our data support the hypothesis that the primary defensive strategy changes from conspicuous aposematism to camouflage with increasing size, implying size-dependent differences in the efficacy of defensive colouration. We discuss our data in relation to theories of size-dependent aposematism and evaluate the evidence for and against a possible size-dependent mimicry complex with sympatric poison frogs (Dendrobatidae).
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Affiliation(s)
- James B Barnett
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Justin Yeager
- Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud (BIOMAS), Direccion General de Investigacion, Universidad de las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Brendan L McEwen
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Isaac Kinley
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Hannah M Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Jennifer Guevara
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Ontario, Hamilton, Canada.,Grupo de Investigación Ecosistemas Tropicales y Cambio Global, Facultad Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam, Tena, Ecuador
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10
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Background matching explains repeatable individual variation in the defence strategies of a stick insect. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Anderson CM, McKinnon JS. Phenotypic correlates of pelvic spine coloration in the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus): implications for function and evolution. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03256-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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Roberts SM, Stuart‐Fox D, Medina I. The evolution of conspicuousness in frogs: When to signal toxicity? J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1455-1464. [PMID: 36129907 PMCID: PMC9825868 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Many organisms use conspicuous colour patterns to advertise their toxicity or unpalatability, a strategy known as aposematism. Despite the recognized benefits of this anti-predator tactic, not all chemically defended species exhibit warning coloration. Here, we use a comparative approach to investigate which factors predict the evolution of conspicuousness in frogs, a group in which conspicuous coloration and toxicity have evolved multiple times. We extracted colour information from dorsal and ventral photos of 594 frog species for which chemical defence information was available. Our results show that chemically defended and diurnal species have higher internal chromatic contrast, both ventrally and dorsally, than chemically undefended and/or nocturnal species. Among species that are chemically defended, conspicuous coloration is more likely to occur if species are diurnal. Our results also suggest that the evolution of conspicuous colour is more likely to occur in chemically defended prey with smaller body size. We discuss potential explanations for this association and suggest that prey profitability (related to body size) could be an important force driving the macroevolution of warning signals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Devi Stuart‐Fox
- School of BioSciencesUniversity of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
| | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciencesUniversity of MelbourneParkvilleVictoriaAustralia
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13
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Bota JL, Schöner MG, Schöner CR, Eberhard MJB. Rustling ants: Vibrational communication performed by two Camponotus species in Borneo. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2022; 70:101172. [PMID: 35810530 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2022.101172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between ants and plants are classic examples of cooperation between individuals of different species. Usually, plants provide shelter or food for ants and in turn are defended against herbivores by their insect allies. To coordinate attacks, ants use multi-modal alarm signals consisting of vibrational and chemical components. This can also be observed in Borneo, where two Camponotus species inhabit the ocreas (diverging, tubular leaf sheaths) of the rattan palm Korthalsia robusta. When ants are disturbed, they beat or scratch mandibles and abdomens on the plant surface resulting in loud rustling sounds. To describe the characteristics of these signals, we recorded them with a Laser-Doppler-vibrometer in the field. Analyses of temporal patterns and dominant frequency revealed that the signals of the two species differ fundamentally. To assess transmission characteristics of the rattan palm, we conducted experiments under controlled lab-conditions. We show that the ocrea is an adequate structure for converting airborne sound into substrate vibrations, acting as a mediator between these two modalities. We hypothesize that the ants' vibratory signal has multiple functions, with the substrate-borne component used as an alarm signal for conspecifics, and the airborne component acting as vibro-acoustic aposematism against predators or herbivores to protect the host plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien L Bota
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer-Str. 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael G Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer-Str. 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany; Sensory and Cognitive Ecology, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Caroline R Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer-Str. 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Monika J B Eberhard
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer-Str. 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany.
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14
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Mourmourakis F, De Bona S, Umbers KDL. Increasing intensity of deimatic behaviour in response to repeated simulated attacks: a case study on the mountain katydid (Acripeza reticulata). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03226-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
How and when deimatic behaviours are performed can change during encounters between predators and prey. Some predators attack repeatedly, investigating and manipulating prey, and in response, an individual’s deimatic behaviour may intensify or may diminish in favour of escaping. The presence of a resource can further force a trade-off between displaying and escaping. Here, we examined the intensity of the katydid’s deimatic behaviour, a visual display, the propensity of their escape response under repeated simulated attacks, and how these responses change in the presence of foraging resources. We found that display intensity increased with repeated simulated attacks and that females displayed at a greater intensity than males. The presence of their preferred food plant had no significant effect on display intensity, but reduced escape probability in both sexes. Some katydids were predictable in their display intensity and at the population level we found that strong display intensity is moderately repeatable. Overall, our results suggest that 1) display intensity increases with repeated attacks and might indicate a cost in performing at maximum intensity upon first attack, 2) deploying a deimatic display while feeding can reduce the need to flee a rich foraging patch and 3) some individuals are consistent in their display intensities. Future experiments that aim to determine causal mechanisms such as limitations to perception of predators, sensitisation to stimuli and physiological constraints to display intensity will provide necessary insight into how deimatic displays function.
Significance statement
Though often regarded as success or failure, interactions between predators and prey during the attack phase of a predation event are complex, especially when predators make repeated investigative attacks in quick succession. Our study shows that in mountain katydids, intensity of deimatic behaviour increases with repeated attacks, perhaps indicating that prey sensitise or that maximal displays during initial attacks carry high costs such as conspicuousness. The intensity of the display does not change with the introduction of a valuable food resource, but the probability of fleeing decreased, suggesting that displaying may reduce the opportunity costs of leaving a patch. We also show that individuals vary in the repeatability of their display, suggesting that deimatic display may be highly adaptable, nuanced and targeted.
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15
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Robledo-Ospina LE, Rao D. Dangerous visions: a review of visual antipredator strategies in spiders. Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10156-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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16
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OUP accepted manuscript. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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17
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Postema EG. The effectiveness of eyespots and masquerade in protecting artificial prey across ontogenetic and seasonal shifts. Curr Zool 2021; 68:451-458. [PMID: 36090146 PMCID: PMC9450170 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoab082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
When constraints on antipredator coloration shift over the course of development, it can be advantageous for animals to adopt different color strategies for each life stage. Many caterpillars in the genus Papilio exhibit unique ontogenetic color sequences: for example, early instars that masquerade as bird feces, with later instars possessing eyespots. I hypothesize that larvae abandon feces masquerade in favor of eyespots due to ontogenetic changes in signaler size. This ontogenetic pattern also occurs within broader seasonal shifts in background color and predator activity. I conducted predation experiments with artificial prey to determine how potential signaling constraints (specifically size and season) shape predation risk, and consequently the expression of ontogenetic color change in Papilio larvae. Seasonally, both predation and background greenness declined significantly from July to September, though there was little evidence that these patterns impacted the effectiveness of either color strategy. Caterpillar size and color strongly affected the attack rate of avian predators: attacks increased with prey size regardless of color, and eyespotted prey were attacked more than masquerading prey overall. These results may reflect a key size-mediated tradeoff between conspicuousness and intimidation in eyespotted prey, and raise questions about how interwoven aspects of behavior and signal environment might maintain the prevalence of large, eyespotted larvae in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth G Postema
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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18
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Kuga T, Seki M, Kasuya E, Satake A. An Evolutionary Game Model of Sex-Dependent Antipredator Signaling. Am Nat 2021; 198:489-505. [PMID: 34559613 DOI: 10.1086/715745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractVarious prey animals behave conspicuously to approaching predators. The conspicuous behavior is considered to be an antipredator signal, and the frequency of signaling individuals in a population differs between males and females in many species. We theoretically assessed the evolution of the inter- and intrasexual dimorphism in antipredator signaling by developing an evolutionary game model. We particularly focused on the Chinese grasshopper, Acrida cinerea, in which only a proportion of males and no females escape conspicuously. In our model, the antipredator signal was assumed to be costly and affect the probabilities of predation of both the signaling individual (individual effect) and the signaling or nonsignaling conspecifics around it (collective effect). The model indicates that (1) a positive individual effect is essential for the evolution of antipredator signaling; (2) sexual dimorphism in fecundity cost for signaling individuals or natural predation probability can produce intersexual dimorphism in the signaling where all individuals of one sex and no individuals of the other sex emit signal; and (3) a positive collective effect can explain the intrasexual dimorphism where only some individuals of one sex signal. This study provides the first model of intrasexual dimorphism in antipredator signaling and brings new testable predictions.
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Winters AE, Lommi J, Kirvesoja J, Nokelainen O, Mappes J. Multimodal Aposematic Defenses Through the Predation Sequence. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.657740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic organisms warn predators of their unprofitability using a combination of defenses, including visual warning signals, startling sounds, noxious odors, or aversive tastes. Using multiple lines of defense can help prey avoid predators by stimulating multiple senses and/or by acting at different stages of predation. We tested the efficacy of three lines of defense (color, smell, taste) during the predation sequence of aposematic wood tiger moths (Arctia plantaginis) using blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) predators. Moths with two hindwing phenotypes (genotypes: WW/Wy = white, yy = yellow) were manipulated to have defense fluid with aversive smell (methoxypyrazines), body tissues with aversive taste (pyrrolizidine alkaloids) or both. In early predation stages, moth color and smell had additive effects on bird approach latency and dropping the prey, with the strongest effect for moths of the white morph with defense fluids. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration was detrimental in early attack stages, suggesting a trade-off between pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration and investment in other defenses. In addition, pyrrolizidine alkaloid taste alone did not deter bird predators. Birds could only effectively discriminate toxic moths from non-toxic moths when neck fluids containing methoxypyrazines were present, at which point they abandoned attack at the consumption stage. As a result, moths of the white morph with an aversive methoxypyrazine smell and moths in the treatment with both chemical defenses had the greatest chance of survival. We suggest that methoxypyrazines act as context setting signals for warning colors and as attention alerting or “go-slow” signals for distasteful toxins, thereby mediating the relationship between warning signal and toxicity. Furthermore, we found that moths that were heterozygous for hindwing coloration had more effective defense fluids compared to other genotypes in terms of delaying approach and reducing the latency to drop the moth, suggesting a genetic link between coloration and defense that could help to explain the color polymorphism. Conclusively, these results indicate that color, smell, and taste constitute a multimodal warning signal that impedes predator attack and improves prey survival. This work highlights the importance of understanding the separate roles of color, smell and taste through the predation sequence and also within-species variation in chemical defenses.
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20
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Tan EJ, Elgar MA. Motion: enhancing signals and concealing cues. Biol Open 2021; 10:271863. [PMID: 34414408 PMCID: PMC8411570 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal colour patterns remain a lively focus of evolutionary and behavioural ecology, despite the considerable conceptual and technical developments over the last four decades. Nevertheless, our current understanding of the function and efficacy of animal colour patterns remains largely shaped by a focus on stationary animals, typically in a static background. Yet, this rarely reflects the natural world: most animals are mobile in their search for food and mates, and their surrounding environment is usually dynamic. Thus, visual signalling involves not only animal colour patterns, but also the patterns of animal motion and behaviour, often in the context of a potentially dynamic background. While motion can reveal information about the signaller by attracting attention or revealing signaller attributes, motion can also be a means of concealing cues, by reducing the likelihood of detection (motion camouflage, motion masquerade and flicker-fusion effect) or the likelihood of capture following detection (motion dazzle and confusion effect). The interaction between the colour patterns of the animal and its local environment is further affected by the behaviour of the individual. Our review details how motion is intricately linked to signalling and suggests some avenues for future research. This Review has an associated Future Leader to Watch interview with the first author. Summary: While motion can reveal information about the signaller, motion can also be a means of concealing cues by reducing the likelihood of detection or the likelihood of capture following detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice J Tan
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, Singapore 138527, Singapore
| | - Mark A Elgar
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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21
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Bank S, Cumming RT, Li Y, Henze K, Le Tirant S, Bradler S. A tree of leaves: Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the leaf insects (Phasmatodea: Phylliidae). Commun Biol 2021; 4:932. [PMID: 34341467 PMCID: PMC8329230 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02436-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The insect order Phasmatodea is known for large slender insects masquerading as twigs or bark. In contrast to these so-called stick insects, the subordinated clade of leaf insects (Phylliidae) are dorso-ventrally flattened and therefore resemble leaves in a unique way. Here we show that the origin of extant leaf insects lies in the Australasian/Pacific region with subsequent dispersal westwards to mainland Asia and colonisation of most Southeast Asian landmasses. We further hypothesise that the clade originated in the Early Eocene after the emergence of angiosperm-dominated rainforests. The genus Phyllium to which most of the ~100 described species pertain is recovered as paraphyletic and its three non-nominate subgenera are recovered as distinct, monophyletic groups and are consequently elevated to genus rank. This first phylogeny covering all major phylliid groups provides the basis for future studies on their taxonomy and a framework to unveil more of their cryptic and underestimated diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bank
- Department for Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Royce T Cumming
- Montréal Insectarium, Montréal, QC, Canada.
- Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA.
- The Graduate Center, City University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Yunchang Li
- Department for Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Integrative Cancer Center & Cancer Clinical Research Center, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, P.R. China
| | - Katharina Henze
- Department for Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Sven Bradler
- Department for Animal Evolution and Biodiversity, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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22
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Loeffler-Henry K, Kang C, Sherratt TN. The anti-predation benefit of flash displays is related to the distance at which the prey initiates its escape. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210866. [PMID: 34315261 PMCID: PMC8316788 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Flash behaviour is widespread in the animal kingdom and describes the exposure of a hidden conspicuous signal as an animal flees from predators. Recent studies have demonstrated that the signal can enhance survivorship by leading pursuing predators into assuming the flasher is also conspicuous at rest. Naturally, this illusion will work best if potential predators are ignorant of the flasher's resting appearance, which could be achieved if the prey flees while the predator is relatively far away. To test this hypothesis, we compared the survival of flashing and non-flashing computer-generated prey with different flight initiation distances (FIDs) using humans as model predators. This experiment found that flash displays confer a survivorship advantage only to those prey with a long FID. A complementary phylogenetic analysis of Australian bird species supports these results: after controlling for body size, species with putative flashing signals had longer FIDs than those without. Species with putative flashing signals also tended to be larger, as demonstrated in other taxa. The anti-predation benefit of flash displays is therefore related to the nature of escape behaviour. Since birds with hidden signals tend to flee at a distance, the flash display here is unlikely to function by startling would-be predators.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Thomas N. Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6
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23
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White TE, Umbers KDL. Meta-analytic evidence for quantitative honesty in aposematic signals. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210679. [PMID: 33906408 PMCID: PMC8080005 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The combined use of noxious chemical defences and conspicuous warning colours is a ubiquitous anti-predator strategy. That such signals advertise the presence of defences is inherent to their function, but their predicted potential for quantitative honesty-the positive scaling of signal salience with the strength of protection-is the subject of enduring debate. Here, we systematically synthesized the available evidence to test this prediction using meta-analysis. We found evidence for a positive correlation between warning colour expression and the extent of chemical defences across taxa. Notably, this relationship held at all scales; among individuals, populations and species, though substantial between-study heterogeneity remains unexplained. Consideration of the design of signals revealed that all visual features, from colour to contrast, were equally informative of the extent of prey defence. Our results affirm a central prediction of honesty-based models of signal function and narrow the scope of possible mechanisms shaping the evolution of aposematism. They suggest diverse pathways to the encoding and exchange of information, while highlighting the need for deeper knowledge of the ecology of chemical defences to enrich our understanding of this widespread anti-predator adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2106, Australia
| | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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24
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Torres MDM, Viladrich LJ, Naretto S. Role of coloration in antipredator strategies of Pristidactylus achalensis (Squamata: Leiosauridae) related to sex and stages of predation. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The interaction between behavioural and phenotypic traits, such as coloration, plays a specific role at different stages of the predatory sequence. Cryptic coloration involves a match to the background that reduces the risk of detection, and it is usually optimized by immobility behaviour. In lizards, sexual dichromatism and within-individual changes of colour can influence the level of their crypsis and thus influence antipredator behaviour and the decision to flee. Here, we examined variation in coloration and antipredator behaviour between the sexes of the Achala copper lizard (Pristidactylus achalensis). We measured sexual dichromatism and crypsis in accordance with avian vision. We also exposed lizards to a raptor dummy to assess the colour change and behaviour at the detection and approach stages of the predatory event. Finally, we tested escape behaviour in the natural habitat. We found that males were more conspicuous than females. Additionally, individuals showed distinct behaviours at different stages of the predation simulation, but there were no differences between the sexes. However, in their natural habitat males initiated flight at greater distances than females, which might be related to their more conspicuous coloration. In summary, this study shows how differences in crypsis between the sexes affect escape behaviour during the approach stage of predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Milagro Torres
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Leonel Jeremías Viladrich
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Sergio Naretto
- Laboratorio de Biología del Comportamiento, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (IDEA), Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
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25
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Cox CL, Chung AK, Blackwell C, Davis MM, Gulsby M, Islam H, Miller N, Lambert C, Lewis O, Rector IV, Walsh M, Yamamoto AD, Davis Rabosky AR. Tactile stimuli induce deimatic antipredator displays in ringneck snakes. Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian L. Cox
- Department of Biological Sciences Florida International University Miami FL USA
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Albert K. Chung
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles CA USA
| | | | - Maura M. Davis
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Miranda Gulsby
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
- Department of Biology Kennesaw State University Kennesaw GA USA
| | - Hasib Islam
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Nathan Miller
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
- James Madison University Harrisonburg VA USA
| | - Carson Lambert
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Olivia Lewis
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Ian V. Rector
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Marleigh Walsh
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
| | - Alannah D. Yamamoto
- Mountain Lake Biological Station University of Virginia Charlottesville VA USA
- University of Maryland College Park MD USA
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Abstract
Although the rattling of rattlesnakes (Crotalus and Sistrurus) is widely accepted as being aposematic, the hypothesis that rattling deters approach from the snake's potentially dangerous adversaries has not been well tested. In a controlled study using rattling recorded from captive rattlesnakes (C. oreganus helleri) and a variety of comparison sounds or no-sound controls, domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) showed no hesitation to approach camouflaged speakers projecting the recorded rattles. The dogs were equally likely to approach speakers projecting rattling as they were to approach speakers playing control sounds, or speakers that were silent. Furthermore, the dogs spent no less time in front of the speakers projecting the rattles than they did in front of speakers projecting control sounds or no sound. The dogs' reactions may not be representative of other species with whom rattlesnakes come into contact, but the data suggest a need for some circumspection about the role of rattling in the rattlesnake's defensive repertoire. Our results also suggest that dogs may be vulnerable to envenomation because they fail to react to the sound of rattling with avoidance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michele M Mulholland
- California State University San Marcos.,Center for Behavioral Neuroscience at Georgia State University and Department of Comparative Medicine and Research at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
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27
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Low ML, Naranjo M, Yack JE. Survival Sounds in Insects: Diversity, Function, and Evolution. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.641740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect defense sounds have been reported for centuries. Yet, aside from the well-studied anti-bat sounds of tiger moths, little is understood about the occurrence, function, and evolution of these sounds. We define a defense sound as an acoustic signal (air- or solid-borne vibration) produced in response to attack or threat of attack by a predator or parasitoid and that promotes survival. Defense sounds have been described in 12 insect orders, across different developmental stages, and between sexes. The mechanisms of defensive sound production include stridulation, percussion, tymbalation, tremulation, and forced air. Signal characteristics vary between species, and we discuss how morphology, the intended receiver, and specific functions of the sounds could explain this variation. Sounds can be directed at predators or non-predators, and proposed functions include startle, aposematism, jamming, and alarm, although experimental evidence for these hypotheses remains scant for many insects. The evolutionary origins of defense sounds in insects have not been rigorously investigated using phylogenetic methodology, but in most cases it is hypothesized that they evolved from incidental sounds associated with non-signaling behaviors such as flight or ventilatory movements. Compared to our understanding of visual defenses in insects, sonic defenses are poorly understood. We recommend that future investigations focus on testing hypotheses explaining the functions and evolution of these survival sounds using predator-prey experiments and comparative phylogenetics.
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28
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Predation. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-82879-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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29
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Ferraro DP, Pereyra MO, Topa PE, Faivovich J. Evolution of macroglands and defensive mechanisms in Leiuperinae (Anura: Leptodactylidae). Zool J Linn Soc 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Anurans show a wide variety of anti-predator mechanisms, and the species of the Neotropical clade Leiuperinae display several of them. Most species of Edalorhina, Physalaemus and Pleurodema show eyespots, hidden bright colours, macroglands in a inguinal/lumbar position, defensive behaviours and/or chemical defence. We conducted a histological analysis of dorsal and lumbar skin and revised the colour patterns, defensive behaviours and glandular secretions to study the diversity and evolution of anti-predator mechanisms associated with macroglands. We describe 17 characters and optimize these in a phylogenetic hypothesis of Leiuperinae. In the most recent common ancestor of Edalorhina + Engystomops + Physalaemus + Pleurodema, a particular type of serous gland (the main component of macroglands) evolved in the lumbar skin, along with the absence of the Eberth–Katschenko layer. A defensive behaviour observed in leiuperines with macroglands includes four displays (‘crouching down’ behaviour, rear elevation, body inflation and eye protection), all present in the same ancestor. The two elements associated with aposematism (hidden bright colours and eyespots) evolved independently in several species. Our results provide phylogenetic evidence for the startle-first hypothesis, which suggests that behavioural displays arise as sudden movements in camouflaged individuals to avoid predatory attacks, before the origin of bright coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiana Paola Ferraro
- División Herpetología, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’ (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Martín Oscar Pereyra
- Laboratorio de Genética Evolutiva ‘Claudio J. Bidau’, Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS, CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Misiones (UNaM), Posadas, Misiones, Argentina
| | - Pascual Emilio Topa
- Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores (CONICET), La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Julián Faivovich
- División Herpetología, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’ (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Corey TB, Hebets EA. Testing the hypothesized antipredator defence function of stridulation in the spiny orb-weaving spider, Micrathena gracilis. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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31
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Kim Y, Hwang Y, Bae S, Sherratt TN, An J, Choi SW, Miller JC, Kang C. Prey with hidden colour defences benefit from their similarity to aposematic signals. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201894. [PMID: 32900312 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Some camouflaged animals hide colour signals and display them only transiently. These hidden colour signals are often conspicuous and are used as a secondary defence to warn or startle predators (deimatic displays) and/or to confuse them (flash displays). The hidden signals used in these displays frequently resemble typical aposematic signals, so it is possible that prey with hidden signals have evolved to employ colour patterns of a form that predators have previously learned to associate with unprofitability. Here, we tested this hypothesis by conducting two experiments that examined the effect of predator avoidance learning on the efficacy of deimatic and flash displays. We found that the survival benefits of both deimatic and flash displays were substantially higher against predators that had previously learned to associate the hidden colours with unprofitability than against naive predators. These findings help explain the phenological patterns we found in 1568 macro-lepidopteran species on three continents: species with hidden signals tend to occur later in the season than species without hidden signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongsu Kim
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Yerin Hwang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Sangryong Bae
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Thomas N Sherratt
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Jeongseop An
- National Institute of Ecology, Seocheon, Chungcheongnamdo 33657, South Korea
| | - Sei-Woong Choi
- Department of Environmental Education, Mokpo National University, Cheonggye, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
| | - Jeffrey C Miller
- Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Muan, Jeollanamdo 58554, South Korea
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Vidal-García M, O'Hanlon JC, Svenson GJ, Umbers KDL. The evolution of startle displays: a case study in praying mantises. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201016. [PMID: 32873210 PMCID: PMC7542774 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-predator defences are typically regarded as relatively static signals that conceal prey or advertise their unprofitability. However, startle displays are complex performances that deter or confuse predators and can include a spectacular array of movements, colours and sounds. Yet, we do not fully understand the mechanisms by which they function, their evolutionary correlates, or the conditions under which they are performed and evolve. Here, we present, to our knowledge, the first phylogenetically controlled comparative analyses of startle displays including behavioural data, using praying mantises as a model system. We included 58 species that provide a good representation of mantis diversity and estimated the strength of phylogenetic signal in the presence and complexity of displays. We also tested hypotheses on potential evolutionary correlates, including primary defences and body size. We found that startle displays and morphological traits were phylogenetically conserved, whereas behavioural traits were highly labile. Surprisingly, body size was not correlated with display presence or complexity in phylogenetically controlled analyses. Species-rich clades were more likely to exhibit displays, suggesting that startle displays were probably involved in lineage diversification. We suggest that to further elucidate the conditions under which startle displays evolve, future work should include quantitative descriptions of multiple display components, habitat type, and predator communities. Understanding the evolution of startle displays is critical to our overall understanding of the theory behind predator-prey dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Vidal-García
- Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - James C. O'Hanlon
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Gavin J. Svenson
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
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Emberts Z, Miller CW, Skojec C, Shepherd R, St. Mary CM. Leaf-footed bugs possess multiple hidden contrasting color signals, but only one is associated with increased body size. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:8571-8578. [PMID: 32884641 PMCID: PMC7452758 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Antipredatory displays that incorporate hidden contrasting coloration are found in a variety of different animals. These displays are seen in organisms that have drab coloration at rest, but when disturbed reveal conspicuous coloration. Examples include the bright abdomens of mountain katydids and the colorful underwings of hawk moths. Such hidden displays can function as secondary defenses, enabling evasion of a pursuant predator. To begin to understand why some species have these displays while others do not, we conducted phylogenetic comparative analyses to investigate factors associated with the evolution of hidden contrasting coloration in leaf-footed bugs. First, we investigated whether hidden contrasting coloration was associated with body size because these displays are considered to be more effective in larger organisms. We then investigated whether hidden contrasting coloration was associated with an alternative antipredatory defense, in this case rapid autotomy. We found that leaf-footed bugs with hidden contrasting coloration tended to autotomize more slowly, but this result was not statistically significant. We also found that the presence of a body size association was dependent upon the form of the hidden color display. Leaf-footed bugs that reveal red/orange coloration were the same size, on average, as species without a hidden color display. However, species that reveal white patches on a black background were significantly larger than species without a hidden color display. These results highlight the diversity of forms that hidden contrasting color signal can take, upon which selection may act differently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Emberts
- Department of BiologyUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
| | - Christine W. Miller
- Entomology & Nematology DepartmentUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
| | - Chelsea Skojec
- Entomology & Nematology DepartmentUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
| | - Rachel Shepherd
- Entomology & Nematology DepartmentUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFloridaUSA
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A Matador-like Predator Diversion Strategy Driven by Conspicuous Coloration in Guppies. Curr Biol 2020; 30:2844-2851.e8. [PMID: 32531279 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the adaptive function of conspicuous coloration has been a major focus of evolutionary biology for much of the last century. Although considerable progress has been made in explaining how conspicuous coloration can be used in functions as diverse as sexual and social signaling, startling predators, and advertising toxicity [1], there remain a multitude of species that display conspicuous coloration that cannot be explained by existing theory. Here we detail a new "matador-like" divertive antipredator strategy based on conspicuous coloration in Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Guppies encountering predatory fish rapidly enhance the conspicuousness of their eyes by blackening their irises. By pitting biomimetic robotic guppies against real predatory fish, we show this conspicuous eye coloration diverts attacks away from the guppies' center of mass to their head. To determine the function of this seemingly counterintuitive behavior, we developed a method for simulating escape probabilities when live prey interact with ballistic attacking predators, and find this diversion effect significantly benefits black-eyed guppies because they evade capture by rapidly pivoting away from the predator once it has committed to its attack. Remarkably, this antipredator strategy reverses the commonly observed negative scaling relationship between prey size and evasive ability, with larger fish benefiting most from diverting predators. Taken together, our results introduce a new antipredator divertive strategy that may be widely used by conspicuously colored prey that rely on agility to escape their predators.
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Heninger R, Watson CM, Cox CL. Relative fitness of decoy coloration is mediated by habitat type. ZOOLOGY 2020; 142:125820. [PMID: 32769003 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2020.125820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions can be important drivers of morphological evolution, and antipredator traits in particular. Further, ecological context can be an important factor shaping the evolution of these traits. However, the role of ecological factors such as habitat structure in altering predator-based selection is not well known for antipredator traits such as decoy coloration. We used a combination of a natural history collection survey and a clay model experiment in open- and closed-canopy habitats to study how ecological context alters the fitness benefit of either red or blue decoy coloration in skinks. We found that the development and ecology of red decoy coloration of mole skinks differed substantially from blue tail coloration of other sympatric skink species. Mole skinks do not reach the body size of sympatric species of skinks and retain decoy coloration throughout development. Both patterns of scarring in museum specimens and attacks on plasticine models suggest that red coloration serves as a decoy, attracting attacks to the autotomous tail. While predation rates were similar across habitats, models with red tails were attacked far less frequently in open habitats than models with blue tails, while attack rates were similar in closed habitats. Our results suggest that red decoy coloration in mole skinks could be an adaptation to relatively open-canopy habitats. Our study has important implications for understanding how habitat structure and predator-based selection can alter the evolutionary dynamics of decoy coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryann Heninger
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA.
| | - Charles M Watson
- Deparment of Biology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX, USA.
| | - Christian L Cox
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.
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Song W, Lee SI, Jablonski PG. Evolution of switchable aposematism: insights from individual-based simulations. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8915. [PMID: 32309047 PMCID: PMC7153555 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Some defended prey animals can switch on their normally hidden aposematic signals. This switching may occur in reaction to predators’ approach (pre-attack signals) or attack (post-attack signals). Switchable aposematism has been relatively poorly studied, but we can expect that it might bring a variety of benefits to an aposmetic organism. First, the switching could startle the predators (deimatism). Second, it could facilitate aversive learning. Third, it could minimize exposure or energetic expense, as the signal can be switched off. These potential benefits might offset costs of developing, maintaining and utilizing the switchable traits. Here we focused on the third benefit of switchability, the cost-saving aspect, and developed an individual-based computer simulation of predators and prey. In 88,128 model runs, we observed evolution of permanent, pre-attack, or post-attack aposematic signals of varying strength. We found that, in general, the pre-attack switchable aposematism may require moderate predator learning speed, high basal detectability, and moderate to high signal cost. On the other hand, the post-attack signals may arise under slow predator learning, low basal detectability and high signal cost. When predator population turnover is fast, it may lead to evolution of post-attack aposematic signals that are not conforming to the above tendency. We also suggest that a high switching cost may exert different selection pressure on the pre-attack than the post-attack switchable strategies. To our knowledge, these are the first theoretical attempts to systematically explore the evolution of switchable aposematism relative to permanent aposematism in defended prey. Our simulation model is capable of addressing additional questions beyond the scope of this article, and we open the simulation software, program manual and source code for free public use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woncheol Song
- Laboratory of Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang-im Lee
- School of Undergraduate Studies, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Piotr G. Jablonski
- Laboratory of Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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37
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Murali G, Kodandaramaiah U. Size and unpredictable movement together affect the effectiveness of dynamic flash coloration. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Fight or flight trade-offs and the defensive behaviour of the mountain katydid, Acripeza reticulata. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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40
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Perez-Martinez CA, Riley JL, Whiting MJ. Uncovering the function of an enigmatic display: antipredator behaviour in the iconic Australian frillneck lizard. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
When faced with a predator, some animals engage in a deimatic display to startle the predator momentarily, resulting in a pause or retreat, thereby increasing their chance of escape. Frillneck lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) are characterised by a large, pronounced frill that extends from the base of the head to beyond the neck and, when displayed, can be up to six times the width of the head. We used behavioural assays with a model avian predator to demonstrate that their display conforms to deimatic display theory. First, juveniles and adults deployed the frill in encounters with a model predator. Second, the display revealed three colour patches (white and red–orange patches on the frill; yellow mouth palate) that facilitate a transition from a cryptic to a conspicuous state as perceived by a raptor visual system. Third, the display was performed with movements that amplified its effect. The frill area was larger in males than in females, which suggests that the frill might also be co-opted for male–male contests. If future research confirms a role of the frill in male agonistic interactions, frillneck lizards will be a rare case in which a structure has a dual function in a deimatic display and a sexually selected signal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia L Riley
- Ecology and Evolution Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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41
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Stidham TA. Evaluating hypotheses for the function of the ‘hissing’ stridulation of sun spiders (Arachnida Solifugae). ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2019.1691056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A. Stidham
- Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 142 Xi Zhi Men Wai Da Jie, Beijing 100044, China; CAS – Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing 100044, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China (E-mail: )
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Lindstedt C, Murphy L, Mappes J. Antipredator strategies of pupae: how to avoid predation in an immobile life stage? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20190069. [PMID: 31438812 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Antipredator strategies of the pupal stage in insects have received little attention in comparison to larval or adult stages. This is despite the fact that predation risk can be high during the pupal stage, making it a critical stage for subsequent fitness. The immobile pupae are not, however, defenceless; a wide range of antipredator strategies have evolved against invertebrate and vertebrate predators. The most common strategy seems to be 'avoiding encounters with predators' by actively hiding in vegetation and soil or via cryptic coloration and masquerade. Pupae have also evolved behavioural and secondary defences such as defensive toxins, physical defences or deimatic movements and sounds. Interestingly, warning coloration used to advertise unprofitability has evolved very rarely, even though the pupal stage often contains defensive toxins in chemically defended species. In some species, pupae gain protection from conspecifics or mimic chemical and auditory signals and thereby manipulate other species to protect them. Our literature survey highlights the importance of studying selection pressures across an individual's life stages to predict how ontogenetic variation in selective environments shapes individual fitness and population dynamics in insects. Finally, we also suggest interesting avenues for future research to pursue. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of complete metamorphosis'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Liam Murphy
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Cyriac VP, Kodandaramaiah U. Conspicuous colours reduce predation rates in fossorial uropeltid snakes. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7508. [PMID: 31428543 PMCID: PMC6698130 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Uropeltid snakes (Family Uropeltidae) are non-venomous, fossorial snakes that are found above ground occasionally, during which time they are exposed to predation. Many species are brightly coloured, mostly on the ventral surface, but these colours are expected to have no function below the ground. Observations have shown that the cephalic resemblance (resemblance to heads) of uropeltid tails may direct attacks of predators towards the hardened tails, thereby potentially increasing handling times for predators. Experiments have also shown that predators learn to avoid prey that are non-toxic and palatable but are difficult to capture, hard to process or require long handling time when such prey advertise their unprofitability through conspicuous colours. We here postulate that uropeltid snakes use their bright colours to signal long handling times associated with attack deflection to the tails, thereby securing reduced predation from predators that can learn to associate colour with handling time. Captive chicken experiments with dough models mimicking uropeltids indicate that attacks were more common on the tail than on the head. Field experiments with uropeltid clay models show that the conspicuous colours of these snakes decrease predation rates compared to cryptic models, but a novel conspicuous colour did not confer such a benefit. Overall, our experiments provide support for our hypothesis that the conspicuous colours of these snakes reduce predation, possibly because these colours advertise unprofitability due to long handling times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Philip Cyriac
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution and School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Ullasa Kodandaramaiah
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution and School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
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44
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Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences. Trends Ecol Evol 2019; 34:595-604. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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45
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Loeffler-Henry K, Kang C, Sherratt TN. Consistent Associations between Body Size and Hidden Contrasting Color Signals across a Range of Insect Taxa. Am Nat 2019; 194:28-37. [PMID: 31251647 DOI: 10.1086/703535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
While there have been a number of recent advances in our understanding of the evolution of animal color patterns, much of this work has focused on color patterns that are constantly displayed. However, some animals hide functional color signals and display them only transiently through behavioral displays. These displays are widely employed as a secondary defense following detection when fleeing (flash display) or when stationary (deimatic display). Yet if displays of hidden colors are so effective in deterring predation, why have not all species evolved them? An earlier study suggested that the hidden antipredatory color signals in insects are more likely to have evolved in species with large size because either (or both) (i) large cryptic prey are more frequently detected and pursued or (ii) hidden color signals in large prey are more effective in deterring predation than in small prey. These arguments should apply universally to any prey that use hidden signals, so the association between large size and hidden contrasting color signals should be evident across diverse groups of prey. In this study, we tested this prediction in five different groups of insects. Using phylogenetically controlled analysis to elucidate the relationship between body size and color contrast between forewings and hind wings, we found evidence for the predicted size-color contrast associations in four different groups of insects, namely, Orthoptera, Phasmatidae, Mantidae, and Saturniidae, but not in Sphingidae. Collectively, our study indicates that body size plays an important role in explaining variation in the evolution of hidden contrasting color signals in insects.
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46
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Bae S, Kim D, Sherratt TN, Caro T, Kang C. How size and conspicuousness affect the efficacy of flash coloration. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sangryong Bae
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Chenggye-myeon, Muan, Jeollanam-do, South Korea
| | - Doyeon Kim
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Chenggye-myeon, Muan, Jeollanam-do, South Korea
| | | | - Tim Caro
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and Center for Population Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Biosciences, Mokpo National University, Chenggye-myeon, Muan, Jeollanam-do, South Korea
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47
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Rößler DC, Lötters S, Mappes J, Valkonen JK, Menin M, Lima AP, Pröhl H. Sole coloration as an unusual aposematic signal in a Neotropical toad. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1128. [PMID: 30718568 PMCID: PMC6362010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37705-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals have evolved remarkable strategies to avoid predation. In diurnal, toxic harlequin toads (Atelopus) from the Amazon basin, we find a unique colour signal. Some Atelopus populations have striking red soles of the hands and feet, visible only when walking. When stationary, the toads are hard to detect despite their yellow-black dorsal coloration. Consequently, they switch between high and low conspicuousness. Interestingly, some populations lack the extra colour display of the soles. We found comprehensive support that the red coloration can act as an aposematic signal directed towards potential predators: red soles are significantly more conspicuous than soles lacking red coloration to avian predators and the presence of the red signal significantly increases detection. Further, toads with red soles show bolder behaviour by using higher sites in the vegetation than those lacking this signal. Field experiments hint at a lower attack risk for clay models with red soles than for those lacking the signal, in a population where the red soles naturally occur. We suggest that the absence of the signal may be explained by a higher overall attack risk or potential differences of predator community structure between populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela C Rößler
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany.
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Marcelo Menin
- Department of Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Amazonas Federal University, Av. General Rodrigo Otávio Jordão Ramos 3000, 69077-000, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Albertina P Lima
- Coordenação de Pesquisas em Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Av. André Araujo 2936, 69011-970, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Heike Pröhl
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559, Hannover, Germany
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48
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Umbers KDL, White TE, De Bona S, Haff T, Ryeland J, Drinkwater E, Mappes J. The protective value of a defensive display varies with the experience of wild predators. Sci Rep 2019; 9:463. [PMID: 30679660 PMCID: PMC6346059 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36995-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation has driven the evolution of diverse adaptations for defence among prey, and one striking example is the deimatic display. While such displays can resemble, or indeed co-occur with, aposematic 'warning' signals, theory suggests deimatic displays may function independently of predator learning. The survival value of deimatic displays against wild predators has not been tested before. Here we used the mountain katydid Acripeza reticulata to test the efficacy of a putative deimatic display in the wild. Mountain katydids have a complex defence strategy; they are camouflaged at rest, but reveal a striking red-, blue-, and black-banded abdomen when attacked. We presented live katydids to sympatric (experienced) and allopatric (naive) natural predators, the Australian magpie Cracticus tibicen, and observed bird reactions and katydid behaviors and survival during repeated interactions. The efficacy of the katydids' defence differed with predator experience. Their survival was greatest when faced with naïve predators, which provided clear evidence of the protective value of the display. In contrast, katydid survival was consistently less likely when facing experienced predators. Our results suggest that sympatric predators have learned to attack and consume mountain katydids despite their complex defense, and that their post-attack display can be an effective deterrent, particularly against naïve predators. These results suggest that deimatism does not require predator learning to afford protection, but that a predator can learn to expect the display and subsequently avoid it or ignore it. That sympatric predators learn to ignore the defense is a possible explanation for the mountain katydid's counter-intuitive behavior of revealing warning colors only after tactile stimuli from predator attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate D L Umbers
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia.
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia.
| | - Thomas E White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sebastiano De Bona
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Tonya Haff
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Julia Ryeland
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | | | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Murali G, Kumari K, Kodandaramaiah U. Dynamic colour change and the confusion effect against predation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:274. [PMID: 30670756 PMCID: PMC6342951 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36541-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The confusion effect - the decreased attack-to-kill ratio of a predator with increase in prey group size - is thought to be one of the main reasons for the evolution of group living in animals. Despite much interest, the influence of prey coloration on the confusion effect is not well understood. We hypothesized that dynamic colour change in motion (due to interference coloration or flash marks), seen widely in many group living animals, enhances the confusion effect. Utilizing a virtual tracking task with humans, we found targets that dynamically changed colour during motion were more difficult to track than targets with background matching patterns, and this effect was stronger at larger group sizes. The current study thus provides the first empirical evidence for the idea that dynamic colour change can benefit animals in a group and may explain the widespread occurrence of dynamic colorations in group-living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gopal Murali
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE), School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 551, India.
| | - Kajal Kumari
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE), School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 551, India
| | - Ullasa Kodandaramaiah
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE), School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, Maruthamala PO, Vithura, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 551, India
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O’Hanlon JC, Rathnayake DN, Barry KL, Umbers KDL. Post-attack defensive displays in three praying mantis species. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2591-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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