A biogenic amine and a neuropeptide act identically: tyramine signals through calcium in Drosophila tubule stellate cells

Another fly diuretic hormone: tachykinins increase fluid and ion transport by adult Drosophila melanogaster Malpighian 'renal' tubules

Insects such as the model organism Drosophila melanogaster must modulate their internal physiology to withstand changes in temperature and availability of water and food. Regulation of the excretory system by peptidergic hormones is one mechanism by which insects maintain their internal homeostasis. Tachykinins are a family of neuropeptides that have been shown to stimulate fluid secretion from the Malpighian 'renal' tubules (MTs) in some insect species, but it is unclear if that is the case in the fruit fly, D. melanogaster. A central objective of the current study was to examine the physiological role of tachykinin signaling in the MTs of adult D. melanogaster. Using the genetic toolbox available in this model organism along with in vitro and whole-animal bioassays, our results indicate that Drosophila tachykinins (DTKs) function as diuretic hormones by binding to the DTK receptor (DTKR) localized in stellate cells of the MTs. Specifically, DTK activates cation and anion transport across the stimulated MTs, which impairs their survival in response to desiccation because of their inability to conserve water. Thus, besides their previously described roles in neuromodulation of pathways controlling locomotion and food search, olfactory processing, aggression, lipid metabolism and metabolic stress, processing of noxious stimuli and hormone release, DTKs also appear to function as bona fide endocrine factors regulating the excretory system and appear essential for the maintenance of hydromineral balance.

Mechanisms of Systemic Osmoregulation in Insects

Water is essential to life. Terrestrial insects lose water by evaporation from the body surface and respiratory surfaces, as well as in the excretory products, posing a challenge made more acute by their high surface-to-volume ratio. These losses must be kept to a minimum and be offset by water gained from other sources. By contrast, insects such as the blood-sucking bug Rhodnius prolixus consume up to 10 times their body weight in a single blood meal, necessitating rapid expulsion of excess water and ions. How do insects manage their ion and water budgets? A century of study has revealed a great deal about the organ systems that insects use to maintain their ion and water balance and their regulation. Traditionally, a taxonomically wide range of species were studied, whereas more recent research has focused on model organisms to leverage the power of the molecular genetic approach. Key advances in new technologies have become available for a wider range of species in the past decade. We document how these approaches have already begun to inform our understanding of the diversity and conservation of insect systemic osmoregulation. We advocate that these technologies be combined with traditional approaches to study a broader range of nonmodel species to gain a comprehensive overview of the mechanism underpinning systemic osmoregulation in the most species-rich group of animals on earth, the insects.

Octopamine and tyramine signalling in Aedes aegypti: Molecular characterization and insight into potential physiological roles

In insects, the biogenic amines octopamine (OA) and tyramine (TA) are involved in controlling several physiological and behavioural processes. OA and TA act as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators or neurohormones, performing their functions by binding to specific receptors belonging to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. OA and TA along with their receptors are involved in reproduction, smell perception, metabolism, and homeostasis. Moreover, OA and TA receptors are targets for insecticides and antiparasitic agents, such as the formamidine Amitraz. In the dengue and yellow fever vector, Aedes aegypti, limited research has been reported on their OA or TA receptors. Here, we identify and molecularly characterize the OA and TA receptors in A. aegypti. Bioinformatic tools were used to identify four OA and three TA receptors in the genome of A. aegypti. The seven receptors are expressed in all developmental stages of A. aegypti; however, their highest transcript abundance is observed in the adult. Among several adult A. aegypti tissues examined, including the central nervous system, antennae and rostrum, midgut, Malpighian tubules, ovaries, and testes, the type 2 TA receptor (TAR2) transcript is most abundant in the ovaries and the type 3 TA receptor (TAR3) is enriched in the Malpighian tubules, leading us to propose putative roles for these receptors in reproduction and diuresis, respectively. Furthermore, a blood meal influenced OA and TA receptor transcript expression patterns in adult female tissues at several time points post blood meal, suggesting these receptors may play key physiological roles associated with feeding. To better understand OA and TA signalling in A. aegypti, the transcript expression profiles of key enzymes in their biosynthetic pathway, namely tyrosine decarboxylase (Tdc) and tyramine β-hydroxylase (Tβh), were examined in developmental stages, adult tissues, and brains from blood-fed females. These findings provide information for better understanding the physiological roles of OA, TA, and their receptors in A. aegypti, and additionally, may help in the development of novel strategies for the control of these human disease vectors.

Updates on ion and water transport by the Malpighian tubule

The Malpighian (renal) tubule is capable of transporting fluid at remarkable rates. This review will focus on recent insights into the mechanisms by which these high rates are achieved and controlled, with particular reference to the tubules of Drosophila melanogaster, in which the combination of physiology and genetics has led to particularly rapid progress. Like many vertebrate epithelia, the Drosophila tubule has specialized cell types, with active cation transport confined to a large, metabolically active principal cell; whereas the smaller intercalated stellate cell controls chloride and water shunts to achieve net fluid secretion. Recently, the genes underlying many of these processes have been identified, functionally validated and localized within the tubule. The imminent arrival of new types of post-genomic data (notably single cell sequencing) will herald an exciting era of new discovery.

A unique Malpighian tubule architecture in Tribolium castaneum informs the evolutionary origins of systemic osmoregulation in beetles

Maintaining internal salt and water balance in response to fluctuating external conditions is essential for animal survival. This is particularly true for insects as their high surface-to-volume ratio makes them highly susceptible to osmotic stress. However, the cellular and hormonal mechanisms that mediate the systemic control of osmotic homeostasis in beetles (Coleoptera), the largest group of insects, remain largely unidentified. Here, we demonstrate that eight neurons in the brain of the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum respond to internal changes in osmolality by releasing diuretic hormone (DH) 37 and DH47-homologs of vertebrate corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hormones-to control systemic water balance. Knockdown of the gene encoding the two hormones (Urinate, Urn8) reduces Malpighian tubule secretion and restricts organismal fluid loss, whereas injection of DH37 or DH47 reverses these phenotypes. We further identify a CRF-like receptor, Urinate receptor (Urn8R), which is exclusively expressed in a functionally unique secondary cell in the beetle tubules, as underlying this response. Activation of Urn8R increases K⁺ secretion, creating a lumen-positive transepithelial potential that drives fluid secretion. Together, these data show that beetle Malpighian tubules operate by a fundamentally different mechanism than those of other insects. Finally, we adopt a fluorescent labeling strategy to identify the evolutionary origin of this unusual tubule architecture, revealing that it evolved in the last common ancestor of the higher beetle families. Our work thus uncovers an important homeostatic program that is key to maintaining osmotic control in beetles, which evolved parallel to the radiation of the "advanced" beetle lineages.

The Insect Type 1 Tyramine Receptors: From Structure to Behavior

Simple Summary

This review aims to describe the type 1 tyramine receptors (TAR1s) in insects with a multidisciplinary approach and might be an important tool for a wide scientific audience, including biochemists, molecular physiologists, ethologists, and neurobiologists with a biological entomology background. In fact, in the last years, TAR1 has received much attention due to its broad general interest. The review is composed of a general introduction about the tyraminergic and octopaminergic systems and the corresponding tyramine (TA) and octopamine (OA) receptors, including the recent classification as well as their brief structural and functional information. The four chapters then describe TAR1s: (1) Molecular and structural characterization, with the purpose to provide a clear biochemical overview of the receptor that ensures a well-defined TAR1 identity; (2) pharmacology, in which a clear TAR1-mediated intracellular signaling pathway is detailed; (3) physiology and behavior, focusing on the TAR1-controlled traits in insects; (4) insecticide target, in which the knowledge on TAR1 roles in insects is associated with the growing evidence about the pest management strategies based on this receptor. The conclusions summarize TAR1 features as well as future directions on which the receptor research should move.

Abstract

Tyramine is a neuroactive compound that acts as neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, and neurohormone in insects. Three G protein-coupled receptors, TAR1-3, are responsible for mediating the intracellular pathway in the complex tyraminergic network. TAR1, the prominent player in this system, was initially classified as an octopamine receptor which can also be activated by tyramine, while it later appeared to be a true tyramine receptor. Even though TAR1 is currently considered as a well-defined tyramine receptor and several insect TAR1s have been characterized, a defined nomenclature is still inconsistent. In the last years, our knowledge on the structural, biochemical, and functional properties of TAR1 has substantially increased. This review summarizes the available information on TAR1 from different insect species in terms of basic structure, its regulation and signal transduction mechanisms, and its distribution and functions in the brain and the periphery. A special focus is given to the TAR1-mediated intracellular signaling pathways as well as to their physiological role in regulating behavioral traits. Therefore, this work aims to correlate, for the first time, the physiological relevance of TAR1 functions with the tyraminergic system in insects. In addition, pharmacological studies have shed light on compounds with insecticidal properties having TAR1 as a target and on the emerging trend in the development of novel strategies for pest control.

Coelenterazine-Dependent Luciferases as a Powerful Analytical Tool for Research and Biomedical Applications

: The functioning of bioluminescent systems in most of the known marine organisms is based on the oxidation reaction of the same substrate-coelenterazine (CTZ), catalyzed by luciferase. Despite the diversity in structures and the functioning mechanisms, these enzymes can be united into a common group called CTZ-dependent luciferases. Among these, there are two sharply different types of the system organization-Ca2+-regulated photoproteins and luciferases themselves that function in accordance with the classical enzyme-substrate kinetics. Along with deep and comprehensive fundamental research on these systems, approaches and methods of their practical use as highly sensitive reporters in analytics have been developed. The research aiming at the creation of artificial luciferases and synthetic CTZ analogues with new unique properties has led to the development of new experimental analytical methods based on them. The commercial availability of many ready-to-use assay systems based on CTZ-dependent luciferases is also important when choosing them by first-time-users. The development of analytical methods based on these bioluminescent systems is currently booming. The bioluminescent systems under consideration were successfully applied in various biological research areas, which confirms them to be a powerful analytical tool. In this review, we consider the main directions, results, and achievements in research involving these luciferases.

Physiology, Development, and Disease Modeling in the Drosophila Excretory System

The insect excretory system contains two organ systems acting in concert: the Malpighian tubules and the hindgut perform essential roles in excretion and ionic and osmotic homeostasis. For over 350 years, these two organs have fascinated biologists as a model of organ structure and function. As part of a recent surge in interest, research on the Malpighian tubules and hindgut of Drosophila have uncovered important paradigms of organ physiology and development. Further, many human disease processes can be modeled in these organs. Here, focusing on discoveries in the past 10 years, we provide an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the Drosophila excretory system. We describe the major developmental events that build these organs during embryogenesis, remodel them during metamorphosis, and repair them following injury. Finally, we highlight the use of the Malpighian tubules and hindgut as accessible models of human disease biology. The Malpighian tubule is a particularly excellent model to study rapid fluid transport, neuroendocrine control of renal function, and modeling of numerous human renal conditions such as kidney stones, while the hindgut provides an outstanding model for processes such as the role of cell chirality in development, nonstem cell-based injury repair, cancer-promoting processes, and communication between the intestine and nervous system.

The septate junction protein Mesh is required for epithelial morphogenesis, ion transport, and paracellular permeability in the Drosophila Malpighian tubule

Septate junctions (SJs) are occluding cell-cell junctions that have roles in paracellular permeability and barrier function in the epithelia of invertebrates. Arthropods have two types of SJs, pleated SJs and smooth SJs (sSJs). In Drosophila melanogaster, sSJs are found in the midgut and Malpighian tubules, but the functions of sSJs and their protein components in the tubule epithelium are unknown. Here we examined the role of the previously identified integral sSJ component, Mesh, in the Malpighian tubule. We genetically manipulated mesh specifically in the principal cells of the tubule at different life stages. Tubules of flies with developmental mesh knockdown revealed defects in epithelial architecture, sSJ molecular and structural organization, and lack of urine production in basal and kinin-stimulated conditions, resulting in edema and early adult lethality. Knockdown of mesh during adulthood did not disrupt tubule epithelial and sSJ integrity but decreased the transepithelial potential, diminished transepithelial fluid and ion transport, and decreased paracellular permeability to 4-kDa dextran. Drosophila kinin decreased transepithelial potential and increased chloride permeability, and it stimulated fluid secretion in both control and adult mesh knockdown tubules but had no effect on 4-kDa dextran flux. Together, these data indicate roles for Mesh in the developmental maturation of the Drosophila Malpighian tubule and in ion and macromolecular transport in the adult tubule.

Specialized stellate cells offer a privileged route for rapid water flux in Drosophila renal tubule

Insects are highly successful, in part through an excellent ability to osmoregulate. The renal (Malpighian) tubules can secrete fluid faster on a per-cell basis than any other epithelium, but the route for these remarkable water fluxes has not been established. In Drosophila melanogaster, we show that 4 genes of the major intrinsic protein family are expressed at a very high level in the fly renal tissue: the aquaporins (AQPs) Drip and Prip and the aquaglyceroporins Eglp2 and Eglp4 As predicted from their structure, and by their transport function by expressing these proteins in Xenopus oocytes, Drip, Prip, and Eglp2 show significant and specific water permeability, whereas Eglp2 and Eglp4 show very high permeability to glycerol and urea. Knockdowns of any of these genes result in impaired hormone-induced fluid secretion. The Drosophila tubule has 2 main secretory cell types: active cation-transporting principal cells, wherein the aquaglyceroporins localize to opposite plasma membranes, and small stellate cells, the site of the chloride shunt conductance, with these AQPs localizing to opposite plasma membranes. This suggests a model in which osmotically obliged water flows through the stellate cells. Consistent with this model, fluorescently labeled dextran, an in vivo marker of membrane water permeability, is trapped in the basal infoldings of the stellate cells after kinin diuretic peptide stimulation, confirming that these cells provide the major route for transepithelial water flux. The spatial segregation of these components of epithelial water transport may help to explain the unique success of the higher insects in regulating their internal environments.

Voltages and resistances of the anterior Malpighian tubule of Drosophila melanogaster

The small size of Malpighian tubules in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has discouraged measurements of the transepithelial electrical resistance. The present study introduces two methods for measuring the transepithelial resistance in isolated D . melanogaster Malpighian tubules using conventional microelectrodes and PClamp hardware and software. The first method uses three microelectrodes to measure the specific transepithelial resistance normalized to tubule length or luminal surface area for comparison with resistances of other epithelia. The second method uses only two microelectrodes to measure the relative resistance for comparing before and after effects in a single Malpighian tubule. Knowledge of the specific transepithelial resistance allows the first electrical model of electrolyte secretion by the main segment of the anterior Malpighian tubule of D . melanogaster The electrical model is remarkably similar to that of the distal Malpighian tubule of Aedes aegypti when tubules of Drosophila and Aedes are studied in vitro under the same experimental conditions. Thus, despite 189 millions of years of evolution separating these two genera, the electrophysiological properties of their Malpighian tubules remains remarkably conserved.

secCl is a cys-loop ion channel necessary for the chloride conductance that mediates hormone-induced fluid secretion in Drosophila

Organisms use circulating diuretic hormones to control water balance (osmolarity), thereby avoiding dehydration and managing excretion of waste products. The hormones act through G-protein-coupled receptors to activate second messenger systems that in turn control the permeability of secretory epithelia to ions like chloride. In insects, the chloride channel mediating the effects of diuretic hormones was unknown. Surprisingly, we find a pentameric, cys-loop chloride channel, a type of channel normally associated with neurotransmission, mediating hormone-induced transepithelial chloride conductance. This discovery is important because: 1) it describes an unexpected role for pentameric receptors in the membrane permeability of secretory epithelial cells, and 2) it suggests that neurotransmitter-gated ion channels may have evolved from channels involved in secretion.

Recent advances in neuropeptide signaling in Drosophila, from genes to physiology and behavior

This review focuses on neuropeptides and peptide hormones, the largest and most diverse class of neuroactive substances, known in Drosophila and other animals to play roles in almost all aspects of daily life, as w;1;ell as in developmental processes. We provide an update on novel neuropeptides and receptors identified in the last decade, and highlight progress in analysis of neuropeptide signaling in Drosophila. Especially exciting is the huge amount of work published on novel functions of neuropeptides and peptide hormones in Drosophila, largely due to the rapid developments of powerful genetic methods, imaging techniques and innovative assays. We critically discuss the roles of peptides in olfaction, taste, foraging, feeding, clock function/sleep, aggression, mating/reproduction, learning and other behaviors, as well as in regulation of development, growth, metabolic and water homeostasis, stress responses, fecundity, and lifespan. We furthermore provide novel information on neuropeptide distribution and organization of peptidergic systems, as well as the phylogenetic relations between Drosophila neuropeptides and those of other phyla, including mammals. As will be shown, neuropeptide signaling is phylogenetically ancient, and not only are the structures of the peptides, precursors and receptors conserved over evolution, but also many functions of neuropeptide signaling in physiology and behavior.

Identification of multiple functional receptors for tyramine on an insect secretory epithelium

The biogenic amine tyramine (TA) regulates many aspects of invertebrate physiology and development. Although three TA receptor subtypes have been identified (TAR1-3), specific receptors have not been linked to physiological responses in native tissue. In the Malpighian (renal) tubule of Drosophila melanogaster, TA activates a transepithelial chloride conductance, resulting in diuresis and depolarization of the transepithelial potential. In the current work, mutation or RNAi-mediated knockdown in the stellate cells of the tubule of TAR2 (tyrR, CG7431) resulted in a dramatic reduction, but not elimination, of the TA-mediated depolarization. Mutation or knockdown of TAR3 (tyrRII, CG16766) had no effect. However, deletion of both genes, or knockdown of TAR3 on a TAR2 mutant background, eliminated the TA responses. Thus while TAR2 is responsible for the majority of the TA sensitivity of the tubule, TAR3 also contributes to the response. Knockdown or mutation of TAR2 also eliminated the response of tubules to the related amine octopamine (OA), indicating that OA can activate TAR2. This finding contrasts to reports that heterologously expressed TAR2 is highly selective for TA over OA. This is the first report of TA receptor function in a native tissue and indicates unexpected complexity in the physiology of the Malpighian tubule.

Fluorescent Protein-photoprotein Fusions and Their Applications in Calcium Imaging

Calcium-activated photoproteins, such as aequorin, have been used as luminescent Ca²⁺ indicators since 1967. After the cloning of aequorin in 1985, microinjection was substituted by its heterologous expression, which opened the way for a widespread use. Molecular fusion of green fluorescent protein (GFP) to aequorin recapitulated the nonradiative energy transfer process that occurs in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, from which these two proteins were obtained, resulting in an increase of light emission and a shift to longer wavelength. The abundance and location of the chimera are seen by fluorescence, whereas its luminescence reports Ca²⁺ levels. GFP-aequorin is broadly used in an increasing number of studies, from organelles and cells to intact organisms. By fusing other fluorescent proteins to aequorin, the available luminescence color palette has been expanded for multiplexing assays and for in vivo measurements. In this report, we will attempt to review the various photoproteins available, their reported fusions with fluorescent proteins and their biological applications to image Ca²⁺ dynamics in organelles, cells, tissue explants and in live organisms.

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new method of Ca(2+)-imaging using the bioluminescent reporter GFP-aequorin (GA) has been developed. This new technique relies on the fusion of the GFP and aequorin genes, producing a molecule capable of binding calcium and - with the addition of its cofactor coelenterazine - emitting bright light that can be monitored through a photon collector. Transgenic lines carrying the GFP-aequorin gene have been generated for both mice and Drosophila. In Drosophila, the GFP-aequorin gene has been placed under the control of the GAL4/UAS binary expression system allowing for targeted expression and imaging within the brain. This method has subsequently been shown to be capable of detecting both inward Ca(2+)-transients and Ca(2+)-released from inner stores. Most importantly it allows for a greater duration in continuous recording, imaging at greater depths within the brain, and recording at high temporal resolutions (up to 8.3 msec). Here we present the basic method for using bioluminescent imaging to record and analyze Ca(2+)-activity within the mushroom bodies, a structure central to learning and memory in the fly brain.

The Splice Isoforms of the Drosophila Ecdysis Triggering Hormone Receptor Have Developmentally Distinct Roles

To grow, insects must periodically shed their exoskeletons. This process, called ecdysis, is initiated by the endocrine release of Ecdysis Trigger Hormone (ETH) and has been extensively studied as a model for understanding the hormonal control of behavior. Understanding how ETH regulates ecdysis behavior, however, has been impeded by limited knowledge of the hormone's neuronal targets. An alternatively spliced gene encoding a G-protein-coupled receptor (ETHR) that is activated by ETH has been identified, and several lines of evidence support a role in ecdysis for its A-isoform. The function of a second ETHR isoform (ETHRB) remains unknown. Here we use the recently introduced "Trojan exon" technique to simultaneously mutate the ETHR gene and gain genetic access to the neurons that express its two isoforms. We show that ETHRA and ETHRB are expressed in largely distinct subsets of neurons and that ETHRA- but not ETHRB-expressing neurons are required for ecdysis at all developmental stages. However, both genetic and neuronal manipulations indicate an essential role for ETHRB at pupal and adult, but not larval, ecdysis. We also identify several functionally important subsets of ETHR-expressing neurons including one that coexpresses the peptide Leucokinin and regulates fluid balance to facilitate ecdysis at the pupal stage. The general strategy presented here of using a receptor gene as an entry point for genetic and neuronal manipulations should be useful in establishing patterns of functional connectivity in other hormonally regulated networks.

Physiological responses of emerald ash borer larvae to feeding on different ash species reveal putative resistance mechanisms and insect counter-adaptations

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, an Asian wood-boring beetle, has devastated ash (Fraxinus spp.) trees in North American forests and landscapes since its discovery there in 2002. In this study, we collected living larvae from EAB-resistant Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), and susceptible white (Fraxinus americana) and green (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) ash hosts, and quantified the activity and production of selected detoxification, digestive, and antioxidant enzymes. We hypothesized that differences in larval physiology could be used to infer resistance mechanisms of ash. We found no differences in cytochrome P450, glutathione-S-transferase, carboxylesterase, sulfotransferase, and tryptic BApNAase activities between larvae feeding on different hosts. Despite this, Manchurian ash-fed larvae produced a single isozyme of low electrophoretic mobility that was not produced in white or green ash-fed larvae. Additionally, larvae feeding on white and green ash produced two serine protease isozymes of high electrophoretic mobility that were not observed in Manchurian ash-fed larvae. We also found lower activity of β-glucosidase and higher activities of monoamine oxidase, ortho-quinone reductase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione reductase in Manchurian ash-fed larvae compared to larvae that had fed on susceptible ash. A single isozyme was detected for both catalase and superoxide dismutase in all larval groups. The activities of the quinone-protective and antioxidant enzymes are consistent with the resistance phenotype of the host species, with the highest activities measured in larvae feeding on resistant Manchurian ash. We conclude that larvae feeding on Manchurian ash could be under quinone and oxidative stress, suggesting these may be potential mechanisms of resistance of Manchurian ash to EAB larvae, and that quinone-protective and antioxidant enzymes are important counter-adaptations of larvae for dealing with these resistance mechanisms.

Tracing the evolutionary origins of insect renal function

Knowledge on neuropeptide receptor systems is integral to understanding animal physiology. Yet, obtaining general insight into neuropeptide signalling in a clade as biodiverse as the insects is problematic. Here we apply fluorescent analogues of three key insect neuropeptides to map renal tissue architecture across systematically chosen representatives of the major insect Orders, to provide an unprecedented overview of insect renal function and control. In endopterygote insects, such as Drosophila, two distinct transporting cell types receive separate neuropeptide signals, whereas in the ancestral exopterygotes, a single, general cell type mediates all signals. Intriguingly, the largest insect Order Coleoptera (beetles) has evolved a unique approach, in which only a small fraction of cells are targets for neuropeptide action. In addition to demonstrating a universal utility of this technology, our results reveal not only a generality of signalling by the evolutionarily ancient neuropeptide families but also a clear functional separation of the types of cells that mediate the signal.

The evolution of neuropeptide signalling in insects is poorly understood. Here the authors map renal tissue architecture in the major insect Orders, and show that while the ancient neuropeptide families are involved in signalling in nearly all species, there is functional variation in the cell types that mediate the signal.

Expression analysis of octopamine and tyramine receptors in Drosophila

The monoamines octopamine and tyramine, which are the invertebrate counterparts of epinephrine and norepinephrine, transmit their action through sets of G protein-coupled receptors. Four different octopamine receptors (Oamb, Octß1R, Octß2R, Octß3R) and 3 different tyramine receptors (TyrR, TyrRII, TyrRIII) are present in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Utilizing the presumptive promoter regions of all 7 octopamine and tyramine receptors, the Gal4/UAS system is utilized to elucidate their complete expression pattern in larvae as well as in adult flies. All these receptors show strong expression in the nervous system but their exact expression patterns vary substantially. Common to all octopamine and tyramine receptors is their expression in mushroom bodies, centers for learning and memory in insects. Outside the central nervous system, the differences in the expression patterns are more conspicuous. However, four of them are present in the tracheal system, where they show different regional preferences within this organ. On the other hand, TyrR appears to be the only receptor present in the heart muscles and TyrRII the only one expressed in oenocytes. Skeletal muscles express octß2R, Oamb and TyrRIII, with octß2R being present in almost all larval muscles. Taken together, this study provides comprehensive information about the sites of expression of all octopamine and tyramine receptors in the fruit fly, thus facilitating future research in the field.

Chloride channels in stellate cells are essential for uniquely high secretion rates in neuropeptide-stimulated Drosophila diuresis

Epithelia frequently segregate transport processes to specific cell types, presumably for improved efficiency and control. The molecular players underlying this functional specialization are of particular interest. In Drosophila, the renal (Malpighian) tubule displays the highest per-cell transport rates known and has two main secretory cell types, principal and stellate. Electrogenic cation transport is known to reside in the principal cells, whereas stellate cells control the anion conductance, but by an as-yet-undefined route. Here, we resolve this issue by showing that a plasma membrane chloride channel, encoded by ClC-a, is exclusively expressed in the stellate cell and is required for Drosophila kinin-mediated induction of diuresis and chloride shunt conductance, evidenced by chloride ion movement through the stellate cells, leading to depolarization of the transepithelial potential. By contrast, ClC-a knockdown had no impact on resting secretion levels. Knockdown of a second CLC gene showing highly abundant expression in adult Malpighian tubules, ClC-c, did not impact depolarization of transepithelial potential after kinin stimulation. Therefore, the diuretic action of kinin in Drosophila can be explained by an increase in ClC-a-mediated chloride conductance, over and above a resting fluid transport level that relies on other (ClC-a-independent) mechanisms or routes. This key segregation of cation and anion transport could explain the extraordinary fluid transport rates displayed by some epithelia.

Signaling by Drosophila capa neuropeptides

The capa peptide family, originally identified in the tobacco hawk moth, Manduca sexta, is now known to be present in many insect families, with increasing publications on capa neuropeptides each year. The physiological actions of capa peptides vary depending on the insect species but capa peptides have key myomodulatory and osmoregulatory functions, depending on insect lifestyle, and life stage. Capa peptide signaling is thus critical for fluid homeostasis and survival, making study of this neuropeptide family attractive for novel routes for insect control. In Dipteran species, including the genetically tractable Drosophila melanogaster, capa peptide action is diuretic; via elevation of nitric oxide, cGMP and calcium in the principal cells of the Malpighian tubules. The identification of the capa receptor (capaR) in several insect species has shown this to be a canonical GPCR. In D. melanogaster, ligand-activated capaR activity occurs in a dose-dependent manner between 10(-6) and 10(-12)M. Lower concentrations of capa peptide do not activate capaR, either in adult or larval Malpighian tubules. Use of transgenic flies in which capaR is knocked-down in only Malpighian tubule principal cells demonstrates that capaR modulates tubule fluid secretion rates and in doing so, sets the organismal response to desiccation. Thus, capa regulates a desiccation-responsive pathway in D. melanogaster, linking its role in osmoregulation and fluid homeostasis to environmental response and survival. The conservation of capa action between some Dipteran species suggests that capa's role in desiccation tolerance may not be confined to D. melanogaster.

Phylogenetic investigation of Peptide hormone and growth factor receptors in five dipteran genomes

Peptide hormones and growth factors bind to membrane receptors and regulate a myriad of processes in insects and other metazoans. The evolutionary relationships among characterized and uncharacterized ("orphan") receptors can provide insights into receptor-ligand biology and narrow target choices in deorphanization studies. However, the large number and low sequence conservation of these receptors make evolutionary analysis difficult. Here, we characterized the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor guanylyl cyclases (RGCs), and protein kinase receptors (PKRs) of mosquitoes and select other flies by interrogating the genomes of Aedes aegypti, Anopheles gambiae, Culex quinquefasciatus, Drosophila melanogaster, and D. mojavensis. Sequences were grouped by receptor type, clustered using the program CLANS, aligned using HMMR, and phylogenetic trees built using PhyML. Our results indicated that PKRs had relatively few orphan clades whereas GPCRs and RGCs had several. In addition, more than half of the Class B secretin-like GPCRs and RGCs remained uncharacterized. Additional studies revealed that Class B GPCRs exhibited more gain and loss events than other receptor types. Finally, using the neuropeptide F family of insect receptors and the neuropeptide Y family of vertebrate receptors, we also show that functional sites considered critical for ligand binding are conserved among distinct family members and between distantly related taxa. Overall, our results provide the first comprehensive analysis of peptide hormone and growth factor receptors for a major insect group.