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Ahmed OM, Crocker A, Murthy M. Transcriptional profiling of Drosophila male-specific P1 (pC1) neurons. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.07.566045. [PMID: 37986870 PMCID: PMC10659367 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.07.566045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
In Drosophila melanogaster, the P1 (pC1) cluster of male-specific neurons both integrates sensory cues and drives or modulates behavioral programs such as courtship, in addition to contributing to a social arousal state. The behavioral function of these neurons is linked to the genes they express, which underpin their capacity for synaptic signaling, neuromodulation, and physiology. Yet, P1 (pC1) neurons have not been fully characterized at the transcriptome level. Moreover, it is unknown how the molecular landscape of P1 (pC1) neurons acutely changes after flies engage in social behaviors, where baseline P1 (pC1) neural activity is expected to increase. To address these two gaps, we use single cell-type RNA sequencing to profile and compare the transcriptomes of P1 (pC1) neurons harvested from socially paired versus solitary male flies. Compared to control transcriptome datasets, we find that P1 (pC1) neurons are enriched in 2,665 genes, including those encoding receptors, neuropeptides, and cell-adhesion molecules (dprs/DIPs). Furthermore, courtship is characterized by changes in ~300 genes, including those previously implicated in regulating behavior (e.g. DopEcR, Octβ3R, Fife, kairos, rad). Finally, we identify a suite of genes that link conspecific courtship with the innate immune system. Together, these data serve as a molecular map for future studies of an important set of higher-order and sexually-dimorphic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama M Ahmed
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Amanda Crocker
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT 05753, USA
| | - Mala Murthy
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
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2
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Kuyateh O, Obbard DJ. Viruses in Laboratory Drosophila and Their Impact on Host Gene Expression. Viruses 2023; 15:1849. [PMID: 37766256 PMCID: PMC10537266 DOI: 10.3390/v15091849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster has one of the best characterized antiviral immune responses among invertebrates. However, relatively few easily transmitted natural virus isolates are available, and so many Drosophila experiments have been performed using artificial infection routes and artificial host-virus combinations. These may not reflect natural infections, especially for subtle phenotypes such as gene expression. Here, to explore the laboratory virus community and to better understand how natural virus infections induce changes in gene expression, we have analysed seven publicly available D. melanogaster transcriptomic sequencing datasets that were originally sequenced for projects unrelated to virus infection. We have found ten known viruses-including five that have not been experimentally isolated-but no previously unknown viruses. Our analysis of host gene expression revealed that numerous genes were differentially expressed in flies that were naturally infected with a virus. For example, flies infected with nora virus showed patterns of gene expression consistent with intestinal vacuolization and possible host repair via the upd3 JAK/STAT pathway. We also found marked sex differences in virus-induced differential gene expression. Our results show that natural virus infection in laboratory Drosophila does indeed induce detectable changes in gene expression, suggesting that this may form an important background condition for experimental studies in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oumie Kuyateh
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK;
- Parasites and Microbes, Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Darren J. Obbard
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK;
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Young RL, Price SM, Schumer M, Wang S, Cummings ME. Individual variation in preference behavior in sailfin fish refines the neurotranscriptomic pathway for mate preference. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10323. [PMID: 37492456 PMCID: PMC10363800 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Social interactions can drive distinct gene expression profiles which may vary by social context. Here we use female sailfin molly fish (Poecilia latipinna) to identify genomic profiles associated with preference behavior in distinct social contexts: male interactions (mate choice) versus female interactions (shoaling partner preference). We measured the behavior of 15 females interacting in a non-contact environment with either two males or two females for 30 min followed by whole-brain transcriptomic profiling by RNA sequencing. We profiled females that exhibited high levels of social affiliation and great variation in preference behavior to identify an order of magnitude more differentially expressed genes associated with behavioral variation than by differences in social context. Using a linear model (limma), we took advantage of the individual variation in preference behavior to identify unique gene sets that exhibited distinct correlational patterns of expression with preference behavior in each social context. By combining limma and weighted gene co-expression network analyses (WGCNA) approaches we identified a refined set of 401 genes robustly associated with mate preference that is independent of shoaling partner preference or general social affiliation. While our refined gene set confirmed neural plasticity pathways involvement in moderating female preference behavior, we also identified a significant proportion of discovered that our preference-associated genes were enriched for 'immune system' gene ontology categories. We hypothesize that the association between mate preference and transcriptomic immune function is driven by the less well-known role of these genes in neural plasticity which is likely involved in higher-order learning and processing during mate choice decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Young
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of TexasAustinTexasUSA
| | - Sarah M. Price
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of TexasAustinTexasUSA
| | - Molly Schumer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyPrinceton UniversityPrincetonNew JerseyUSA
- Present address:
Department of BiologyStanford UniversityStanfordCaliforniaUSA
| | - Silu Wang
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of TexasAustinTexasUSA
- Present address:
Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyCaliforniaUSA
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4
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Huang Z, Wang W, Xu P, Gong S, Hu Y, Liu Y, Su F, Anjum KM, Deng WM, Yang S, Liu J, Jiao R, Chen J. Drosophila Ectoderm-expressed 4 modulates JAK/STAT pathway and protects flies against Drosophila C virus infection. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1135625. [PMID: 36817462 PMCID: PMC9937023 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1135625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sterile alpha and HEAT/Armadillo motif-containing protein (SARM) is conserved in evolution and negatively regulates TRIF-dependent Toll signaling in mammals. The SARM protein from Litopenaeus vannamei and its Drosophila orthologue Ectoderm-expressed (Ect4) are also involved in immune defense against pathogen infection. However, the functional mechanism of the protective effect remains unclear. In this study, we show that Ect4 is essential for the viral load in flies after a Drosophila C virus (DCV) infection. Viral load is increased in Ect4 mutants resulting in higher mortality rates than wild-type. Overexpression of Ect4 leads to a suppression of virus replication and thus improves the survival rate of the animals. Ect4 is required for the viral induction of STAT-responsive genes, TotA and TotM. Furthermore, Ect4 interacts with Stat92E, affecting the tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Stat92E in S2 cells. Altogether, our study identifies the adaptor protein Ect4 of the Toll pathway contributes to resistance to viral infection and regulates JAK/STAT signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongliang Huang
- Fujian Key Laboratory on Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Marine Biodiversity, Fuzhou Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China,Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Fujian Key Laboratory on Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Marine Biodiversity, Fuzhou Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China,Department of Bioengineering and Biotechnology, College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Pengpeng Xu
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shangyu Gong
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yingshan Hu
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Fang Su
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Khalid Mahmood Anjum
- Department of Wildlife and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Wu-Min Deng
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Suping Yang
- Department of Bioengineering and Biotechnology, College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Jiyong Liu
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China,*Correspondence: Jiyong Liu, ; Renjie Jiao, ; Jianming Chen,
| | - Renjie Jiao
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China,*Correspondence: Jiyong Liu, ; Renjie Jiao, ; Jianming Chen,
| | - Jianming Chen
- Fujian Key Laboratory on Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Marine Biodiversity, Fuzhou Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China,Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China,*Correspondence: Jiyong Liu, ; Renjie Jiao, ; Jianming Chen,
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Amstrup AB, Bæk I, Loeschcke V, Givskov Sørensen J. A functional study of the role of Turandot genes in Drosophila melanogaster: An emerging candidate mechanism for inducible heat tolerance. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 143:104456. [PMID: 36396076 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2022.104456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plastic responses to heat stress have been shown to temporarily increase heat stress tolerance in many small ectotherms. Heat shock proteins (Hsps) have previously been shown to play a role in this induced heat stress tolerance. The heat shock response is fast but short lived, with the cellular Hsp concentration peaking within a few hours after induction. Induced heat stress tolerance, on the other hand, peaks 16-32 h after induction. Therefore, the inducible heat stress response must depend on additional mechanisms. The Turandot gene family has been suggested as a candidate. It contains eight genes that are all upregulated to some degree following heat stress in Drosophila melanogaster. Previously, Turandot A (totA) and Turandot X (totX) have been linked to induced heat stress tolerance. The study presented here aimed to investigate the temporal dynamics of Turandot expression and the functional role of totA and totC for heat stress tolerance. This was done by assaying the temporal heat tolerance and Turandot gene expression after a heat insult, and by exposing Turandot gene knock down flies to a range of heat hardening treatments, and evaluating the effects on heat tolerance. Successful gene knock down was verified by gene expression assays. In addition, expression of hsp70A was included. Both totA, totC, and hsp70A expression increased following a heat hardening treatment, while the results for totX were less clear. The expression of totC temporally co-occurred with and was functionally linked to increased heat tolerance. Expression of totA did not have a significant effect on heat stress tolerance. The complexity of inducible heat tolerance was underlined by the result that knock down of Turandot genes led to increased expression of hsp70. The results suggest that heat tolerance is determined by the interaction between several mechanisms, of which Turandot genes constitute one such mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ida Bæk
- Department of Biology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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6
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Waring AL, Hill J, Allen BM, Bretz NM, Le N, Kr P, Fuss D, Mortimer NT. Meta-Analysis of Immune Induced Gene Expression Changes in Diverse Drosophila melanogaster Innate Immune Responses. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13050490. [PMID: 35621824 PMCID: PMC9147463 DOI: 10.3390/insects13050490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Organisms can be infected by a wide range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Following infection, the host mounts an immune response to attempt to eliminate the pathogen. These responses are often specific to the type of pathogen and mediated by the expression of specialized genes. We have characterized the expression changes induced in host Drosophila fruit flies following infection by multiple types of pathogens, and identified a small number of genes that show expression changes in each infection. This includes genes that are known to be involved in pathogen resistance, and others that have not been previously studied as immune response genes. These findings provide new insight into transcriptional changes that accompany Drosophila immunity. They may suggest possible roles for the differentially expressed genes in innate immune responses to diverse classes of pathogens, and serve to identify candidate genes for further empirical study of these processes. Abstract Organisms are commonly infected by a diverse array of pathogens and mount functionally distinct responses to each of these varied immune challenges. Host immune responses are characterized by the induction of gene expression, however, the extent to which expression changes are shared among responses to distinct pathogens is largely unknown. To examine this, we performed meta-analysis of gene expression data collected from Drosophila melanogaster following infection with a wide array of pathogens. We identified 62 genes that are significantly induced by infection. While many of these infection-induced genes encode known immune response factors, we also identified 21 genes that have not been previously associated with host immunity. Examination of the upstream flanking sequences of the infection-induced genes lead to the identification of two conserved enhancer sites. These sites correspond to conserved binding sites for GATA and nuclear factor κB (NFκB) family transcription factors and are associated with higher levels of transcript induction. We further identified 31 genes with predicted functions in metabolism and organismal development that are significantly downregulated following infection by diverse pathogens. Our study identifies conserved gene expression changes in Drosophila melanogaster following infection with varied pathogens, and transcription factor families that may regulate this immune induction.
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7
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Veltsos P, Porcelli D, Fang Y, Cossins AR, Ritchie MG, Snook RR. Experimental sexual selection reveals rapid evolutionary divergence in sex-specific transcriptomes and their interactions following mating. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:3374-3388. [PMID: 35437824 PMCID: PMC9325514 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Post copulatory interactions between the sexes in internally fertilizing species elicits both sexual conflict and sexual selection. Macroevolutionary and comparative studies have linked these processes to rapid transcriptomic evolution in sex‐specific tissues and substantial transcriptomic post mating responses in females, patterns of which are altered when mating between reproductively isolated species. Here, we tested multiple predictions arising from sexual selection and conflict theory about the evolution of sex‐specific and tissue‐specific gene expression and the post mating response at the microevolutionary level. Following over 150 generations of experimental evolution under either reduced (enforced monogamy) or elevated (polyandry) sexual selection in Drosophila pseudoobscura, we found a substantial effect of sexual selection treatment on transcriptomic divergence in virgin male and female reproductive tissues (testes, male accessory glands, the female reproductive tract and ovaries). Sexual selection treatment also had a dominant effect on the post mating response, particularly in the female reproductive tract – the main arena for sexual conflict – compared to ovaries. This effect was asymmetric with monandry females typically showing more post mating responses than polyandry females, with enriched gene functions varying across treatments. The evolutionary history of the male partner had a larger effect on the post mating response of monandry females, but females from both sexual selection treatments showed unique patterns of gene expression and gene function when mating with males from the alternate treatment. Our microevolutionary results mostly confirm comparative macroevolutionary predictions on the role of sexual selection on transcriptomic divergence and altered gene regulation arising from divergent coevolutionary trajectories between sexual selection treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paris Veltsos
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Damiano Porcelli
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Yongxiang Fang
- CGR, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Andrew R Cossins
- Centre for Genomic Research, Institute for Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael G Ritchie
- Centre for Biological Diversity, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - Rhonda R Snook
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, 106 91, Sweden
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Fitness Analysis and Transcriptome Profiling Following Repeated Mild Heat Stress of Varying Frequency in Drosophila melanogaster Females. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10121323. [PMID: 34943239 PMCID: PMC8698867 DOI: 10.3390/biology10121323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary We studied the effect of mild heat stress (38 °C, 1 h) occurring once a day or once a week on D. melanogaster fertility, longevity, body composition metabolism and differential gene expression in fat body and adjacent tissues. Weekly stress in the first two weeks did not affect longevity but caused a decrease in fat content and an increase in the total level of fertility. Daily stress caused a significant longevity, fertility and fat content decrease, but an increase in carbohydrate levels compared with the control group. These data agree well with the results of transcriptome analysis, which demonstrated significant changes in expression levels of genes involved in proteolysis/digestion following daily stress. Heat shock protein 23 and stress-inducible humoral factor Turandot gene network are also involved. It is notable that daily and weekly heat stress resulted in different changes in metabolism, fitness and differential gene expression. Abstract Understanding how repeated stress affects metabolic and physiological functions in the long run is of crucial importance for evaluating anthropogenic pressure on the environment. We investigated fertility, longevity and metabolism in D. melanogaster females exposed to short-term heat stress (38 °C, 1 h) repeated daily or weekly. Daily stress was shown to cause a significant decrease in both fertility and longevity, as well as in body mass and triglyceride (fat) content, but a significant increase in trehalose and glucose content. Weekly stress did not affect longevity and carbohydrate metabolism but resulted in a significant decrease in body mass and fat content. Weekly stress did not affect the total level of fertility, despite sharp fertility drops on the exact days of stressing. However, stressing insects weekly, only in the first two weeks after eclosion, caused a significant increase in the total level of fertility. The analysis of differentially expressed genes in the fat bodies and adjacent tissues of researched groups with the use of RNA-Seq profiling revealed changes in signal pathways related to proteolysis/digestion, heat shock protein 23, and in the tightly linked stress-inducible humoral factor Turandot gene network.
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Bagchi B, Corbel Q, Khan I, Payne E, Banerji D, Liljestrand-Rönn J, Martinossi-Allibert I, Baur J, Sayadi A, Immonen E, Arnqvist G, Söderhäll I, Berger D. Sexual conflict drives micro- and macroevolution of sexual dimorphism in immunity. BMC Biol 2021; 19:114. [PMID: 34078377 PMCID: PMC8170964 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01049-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sexual dimorphism in immunity is believed to reflect sex differences in reproductive strategies and trade-offs between competing life history demands. Sexual selection can have major effects on mating rates and sex-specific costs of mating and may thereby influence sex differences in immunity as well as associated host-pathogen dynamics. Yet, experimental evidence linking the mating system to evolved sexual dimorphism in immunity are scarce and the direct effects of mating rate on immunity are not well established. Here, we use transcriptomic analyses, experimental evolution and phylogenetic comparative methods to study the association between the mating system and sexual dimorphism in immunity in seed beetles, where mating causes internal injuries in females. RESULTS We demonstrate that female phenoloxidase (PO) activity, involved in wound healing and defence against parasitic infections, is elevated relative to males. This difference is accompanied by concomitant sex differences in the expression of genes in the prophenoloxidase activating cascade. We document substantial phenotypic plasticity in female PO activity in response to mating and show that experimental evolution under enforced monogamy (resulting in low remating rates and reduced sexual conflict relative to natural polygamy) rapidly decreases female (but not male) PO activity. Moreover, monogamous females had evolved increased tolerance to bacterial infection unrelated to mating, implying that female responses to costly mating may trade off with other aspects of immune defence, an hypothesis which broadly accords with the documented sex differences in gene expression. Finally, female (but not male) PO activity shows correlated evolution with the perceived harmfulness of male genitalia across 12 species of seed beetles, suggesting that sexual conflict has a significant influence on sexual dimorphisms in immunity in this group of insects. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides insights into the links between sexual conflict and sexual dimorphism in immunity and suggests that selection pressures moulded by mating interactions can lead to a sex-specific mosaic of immune responses with important implications for host-pathogen dynamics in sexually reproducing organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basabi Bagchi
- Department of Biology, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
| | - Quentin Corbel
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Imroze Khan
- Department of Biology, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India
| | - Ellen Payne
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Johanna Liljestrand-Rönn
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ivain Martinossi-Allibert
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Julian Baur
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ahmed Sayadi
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elina Immonen
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Evolutionary Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Göran Arnqvist
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Irene Söderhäll
- Department of Organismal Biology, Program of Comparative Physiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Berger
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Program of Animal Ecology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Higareda Alvear VM, Mateos M, Cortez D, Tamborindeguy C, Martinez-Romero E. Differential gene expression in a tripartite interaction: Drosophila, Spiroplasma and parasitic wasps. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11020. [PMID: 33717711 PMCID: PMC7937342 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several facultative bacterial symbionts of insects protect their hosts against natural enemies. Spiroplasma poulsonii strain sMel (hereafter Spiroplasma), a male-killing heritable symbiont of Drosophila melanogaster, confers protection against some species of parasitic wasps. Several lines of evidence suggest that Spiroplasma-encoded ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) are involved in the protection mechanism, but the potential contribution of the fly-encoded functions (e.g., immune response), has not been deeply explored. METHODS Here we used RNA-seq to evaluate the response of D. melanogaster to infection by Spiroplasma and parasitism by the Spiroplasma-susceptible wasp Leptopilina heterotoma, and the Spiroplasma-resistant wasp Ganaspis sp. In addition, we used quantitative (q)PCR to evaluate the transcript levels of the Spiroplasma-encoded Ribosomal inactivation protein (RIP) genes. RESULTS In the absence of Spiroplasma infection, we found evidence of Drosophila immune activation by Ganaspis sp., but not by L. heterotoma, which in turn negatively influenced functions associated with male gonad development. As expected for a symbiont that kills males, we detected extensive downregulation in the Spiroplasma-infected treatments of genes known to have male-biased expression. We detected very few genes whose expression patterns appeared to be influenced by the Spiroplasma-L. heterotoma interaction, and these genes are not known to be associated with immune response. For most of these genes, parasitism by L. heterotoma (in the absence of Spiroplasma) caused an expression change that was at least partly reversed when both L. heterotoma and Spiroplasma were present. It is unclear whether such genes are involved in the Spiroplasma-mediated mechanism that leads to wasp death and/or fly rescue. Nonetheless, the expression pattern of some of these genes, which reportedly undergo expression shifts during the larva-to-pupa transition, is suggestive of an influence of Spiroplasma on the development time of L. heterotoma-parasitized flies. One of the five RIP genes (RIP2) was consistently highly expressed independently of wasp parasitism, in two substrains of sMel. Finally, the RNAseq data revealed evidence consistent with RIP-induced damage in the ribosomal (r)RNA of the Spiroplasma-susceptible, but not the Spiroplasma-resistant, wasp. Acknowledging the caveat that we lacked adequate power to detect the majority of DE genes with fold-changes lower than 3, we conclude that immune priming is unlikely to contribute to the Spiroplasma-mediated protection against wasps, and that the mechanism by which Ganaspis sp. resists/tolerates Spiroplasma does not involve inhibition of RIP transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariana Mateos
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Diego Cortez
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
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11
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Interactions with ectoparasitic mites induce host metabolic and immune responses in flies at the expense of reproduction-associated factors. Parasitology 2020; 147:1196-1205. [PMID: 32498733 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182020000918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Parasites cause harm to their hosts and represent pervasive causal agents of natural selection. Understanding host proximate responses during interactions with parasites can help predict which genes and molecular pathways are targets of this selection. In the current study, we examined transcriptional changes arising from interactions between Drosophila melanogaster and their naturally occurring ectoparasitic mite, Gamasodes queenslandicus. Shifts in host transcript levels associated with behavioural avoidance revealed the involvement of genes underlying nutrient metabolism. These genetic responses were reflected in altered body lipid and glycogen levels in the flies. Mite infestation triggered a striking immune response, while male accessory gland protein transcript levels were simultaneously reduced, suggesting a trade-off between host immune responses to parasite challenge and reproduction. Comparison of transcriptional analyses during mite infestation to those during nematode and parasitoid attack identified host genes similarly expressed in flies during these interactions. Validation of the involvement of specific genes with RNA interference lines revealed candidates that may directly mediate fly-ectoparasite interactions. Our physiological and molecular characterization of the Drosophila-Gamasodes interface reveals new proximate mechanisms underlying host-parasite interactions, specifically host transcriptional shifts associated with behavioural avoidance and infestation. The results identify potential general mechanisms underlying host resistance and evolutionarily relevant trade-offs.
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Abstract
Microorganisms that reside within or transmit through arthropod reproductive tissues have profound impacts on host reproduction, health and evolution. In this Review, we discuss select principles of the biology of microorganisms in arthropod reproductive tissues, including bacteria, viruses, protists and fungi. We review models of specific symbionts, routes of transmission, and the physiological and evolutionary outcomes for both hosts and microorganisms. We also identify areas in need of continuing research, to answer the fundamental questions that remain in fields within and beyond arthropod-microorganism associations. New opportunities for research in this area will drive a broader understanding of major concepts as well as the biodiversity, mechanisms and translational applications of microorganisms that interact with host reproductive tissues.
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13
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Keiser CN, Rudolf VH, Luksik MC, Saltz JB. Sex differences in disease avoidance behavior vary across modes of pathogen exposure. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carl N. Keiser
- Department of Biology University of Florida Gainesville Florida
- Department of BioSciences Rice University Houston Texas
| | | | - Matthew C. Luksik
- School of Engineering and Applied Science University of Virginia Charlottesville Virginia
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14
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Leech T, Evison SEF, Armitage SAO, Sait SM, Bretman A. Interactive effects of social environment, age and sex on immune responses in Drosophila melanogaster. J Evol Biol 2019; 32:1082-1092. [PMID: 31313398 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Social environments have been shown to have multiple effects on individual immune responses. For example, increased social contact might signal greater infection risk and prompt a prophylactic upregulation of immunity. This differential investment of resources may in part explain why social environments affect ageing and lifespan. Our previous work using Drosophila melanogaster showed that single-sex social contact reduced lifespan for both sexes. Here, we assess how social interactions (isolation or contact) affect susceptibility to infection, phagocytotic activity and expression of a subset of immune- and stress-related genes in young and old flies of both sexes. Social contact had a neutral, or even improved, effect on post-infection lifespan in older flies and reduced the expression of stress response genes in females; however, it reduced phagocytotic activity. Overall, the effects of social environment were complex and largely subtle and do not indicate a consistent effect. Together, these findings indicate that social contact in D. melanogaster does not have a predictable impact on immune responses and does not simply trade-off immune investment with lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Leech
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Sophie E F Evison
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, Western Bank, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | | | - Steven M Sait
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Amanda Bretman
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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15
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Female bed bugs ( Cimex lectularius L) anticipate the immunological consequences of traumatic insemination via feeding cues. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:14682-14687. [PMID: 31262812 PMCID: PMC6642350 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1904539116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
We show that female insects can subtly change the management of their immune system contingent on infradian feeding cycles that act as cues to immune insult during mating. We experimentally reject the possibility that this is learned behavior, and show instead that it is dependent on the predictability of feeding which in turn is a cue for mating-induced infection. Although evidence exists for insect immune anticipation over life-time scales, this study links the temporal features of feeding to the insect’s mating behavior in the context of a system with infection caused by traumatic insemination. We predict similar mating ecology in other animals is likely to select for similar reproductive immune anticipation (RIA). Not all encounters with pathogens are stochastic and insects can adjust their immune management in relation to cues associated with the likelihood of infection within a life cycle as well as across generations. In this study we show that female insects (bed bugs) up-regulate immune function in their copulatory organ in anticipation of mating by using feeding cues. Male bed bugs only mate with recently fed females and do so by traumatic insemination (TI). Consequently, there is a tight temporal correlation between female feeding and the likelihood of her being infected via TI. Females that received predictable access to food (and therefore predictable insemination and infection cycles) up-regulated induced immunity (generic antibacterial activity) in anticipation of feeding and mating. Females that received unpredictable (but the same mean periodicity) access to food did not. Females that anticipated mating-associated immune insult received measurable fitness benefits (survival and lifetime reproductive success) despite laying eggs at the same rate as females that were not able to predict these cycles. Given that mating is a time of increased likelihood of infection in many organisms, and is often associated with temporal cues such as courtship and/or feeding, we propose that anticipation of mating-associated infection in females may be more widespread than is currently evidenced.
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16
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Analysis of natural female post-mating responses of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coluzzii unravels similarities and differences in their reproductive ecology. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6594. [PMID: 29700344 PMCID: PMC5920108 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24923-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Anopheles gambiae and An. coluzzii, the two most important malaria vectors in sub-Saharan Africa, are recently radiated sibling species that are reproductively isolated even in areas of sympatry. In females from these species, sexual transfer of male accessory gland products, including the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), induces vast behavioral, physiological, and transcriptional changes that profoundly shape their post-mating ecology, and that may have contributed to the insurgence of post-mating, prezygotic reproductive barriers. As these barriers can be detected by studying transcriptional changes induced by mating, we set out to analyze the post-mating response of An. gambiae and An. coluzzii females captured in natural mating swarms in Burkina Faso. While the molecular pathways shaping short- and long-term mating-induced changes are largely conserved in females from the two species, we unravel significant inter-specific differences that suggest divergent regulation of key reproductive processes such as egg development, processing of seminal secretion, and mating behavior, that may have played a role in reproductive isolation. Interestingly, a number of these changes occur in genes previously shown to be regulated by the sexual transfer of 20E and may be due to divergent utilization of this steroid hormone in the two species.
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17
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Delbare SYN, Chow CY, Wolfner MF, Clark AG. Roles of Female and Male Genotype in Post-Mating Responses in Drosophila melanogaster. J Hered 2018; 108:740-753. [PMID: 29036644 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esx081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mating induces a multitude of changes in female behavior, physiology, and gene expression. Interactions between female and male genotype lead to variation in post-mating phenotypes and reproductive success. So far, few female molecules responsible for these interactions have been identified. Here, we used Drosophila melanogaster from 5 geographically dispersed populations to investigate such female × male genotypic interactions at the female transcriptomic and phenotypic levels. Females from each line were singly-mated to males from the same 5 lines, for a total of 25 combinations. Reproductive output and refractoriness to re-mating were assayed in females from the 25 mating combinations. Female × male genotypic interactions resulted in significant differences in these post-mating phenotypes. To assess whether female × male genotypic interactions affect the female post-mating transcriptome, next-generation RNA sequencing was performed on virgin and mated females at 5 to 6 h post-mating. Seventy-seven genes showed strong variation in mating-induced expression changes in a female × male genotype-dependent manner. These genes were enriched for immune response and odorant-binding functions, and for expression exclusively in the head. Strikingly, variation in post-mating transcript levels of a gene encoding a spermathecal endopeptidase was correlated with short-term egg production. The transcriptional variation found in specific functional classes of genes might be a read-out of female × male compatibility at a molecular level. Understanding the roles these genes play in the female post-mating response will be crucial to better understand the evolution of post-mating responses and related conflicts between the sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Y N Delbare
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2703
| | - Clement Y Chow
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2703.,Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Mariana F Wolfner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2703
| | - Andrew G Clark
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-2703
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18
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Keiser CN, Rudolf VHW, Sartain E, Every ER, Saltz JB. Social context alters host behavior and infection risk. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Carl N Keiser
- Rice University Academy of Fellows, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Emma R Every
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Julia B Saltz
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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19
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Otti O, Deines P, Hammerschmidt K, Reinhardt K. Regular Wounding in a Natural System: Bacteria Associated With Reproductive Organs of Bedbugs and Their Quorum Sensing Abilities. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1855. [PMID: 29326722 PMCID: PMC5741697 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
During wounding, tissues are disrupted so that bacteria can easily enter the host and trigger a host response. Both the host response and bacterial communication can occur through quorum sensing (QS) and quorum sensing inhibition (QSI). Here, we characterize the effect of wounding on the host-associated bacterial community of the bed bug. This is a model system where the male is wounding the female during every mating. Whereas several aspects of the microbial involvement during wounding have been previously examined, it is not clear to what extent QS and QSI play a role. We find that the microbiome differs depending on mating and feeding status of female bedbugs and is specific to the location of isolation. Most organs of bedbugs harbor bacteria, which are capable of both QS and QSI signaling. By focusing on the prokaryotic quorum communication system, we provide a baseline for future research in this unique system. We advocate the bedbug system as suitable for studying the effects of bacteria on reproduction and for addressing prokaryote and eukaryote communication during wounding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Otti
- Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Peter Deines
- Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Zoological Institute, Christian Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Katrin Hammerschmidt
- Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Institute of Microbiology, Christian Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Klaus Reinhardt
- Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,Applied Zoology, Department of Biology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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20
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Veltsos P, Fang Y, Cossins AR, Snook RR, Ritchie MG. Mating system manipulation and the evolution of sex-biased gene expression in Drosophila. Nat Commun 2017; 8:2072. [PMID: 29233985 PMCID: PMC5727229 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02232-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in dioecious animals are pervasive and result from gene expression differences. Elevated sexual selection has been predicted to increase the number and expression of male-biased genes, and experimentally imposing monogamy on Drosophila melanogaster has led to a relative feminisation of the transcriptome. Here, we test this hypothesis further by subjecting another polyandrous species, D. pseudoobscura, to 150 generations of experimental monogamy or elevated polyandry. We find that sex-biased genes do change in expression but, contrary to predictions, there is usually masculinisation of the transcriptome under monogamy, although this depends on tissue and sex. We also identify and describe gene expression changes following courtship experience. Courtship often influences gene expression, including patterns in sex-biased gene expression. Our results confirm that mating system manipulation disproportionately influences sex-biased gene expression but show that the direction of change is dynamic and unpredictable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paris Veltsos
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK.,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yongxiang Fang
- Centre for Genomic Researc, Institute for Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7BX, UK
| | - Andrew R Cossins
- Centre for Genomic Researc, Institute for Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7BX, UK
| | - Rhonda R Snook
- Department of Animal & Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK. .,Zoologiska Institutionen (Ekologi), Stockholm University, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Michael G Ritchie
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK.
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21
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Mondotte JA, Saleh MC. Antiviral Immune Response and the Route of Infection in Drosophila melanogaster. Adv Virus Res 2017; 100:247-278. [PMID: 29551139 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The use of Drosophila as a model organism has made an important contribution to our understanding of the function and regulation of innate immunity in insects. Indeed, insects can discriminate between different types of pathogens and mount specific and effective responses. Strikingly, the same pathogen can trigger a different immune response in the same organism, depending solely on the route of infection by which the pathogen is delivered. In this review, we recapitulate what is known about antiviral responses in Drosophila, and how they are triggered depending on the route and the mode used for the virus to infect its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan A Mondotte
- Institut Pasteur, Viruses and RNA Interference Unit, CNRS Unité Mixte de Recherche 3569, Paris, France
| | - Maria-Carla Saleh
- Institut Pasteur, Viruses and RNA Interference Unit, CNRS Unité Mixte de Recherche 3569, Paris, France.
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22
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Castrezana S, Faircloth BC, Bridges WC, Gowaty PA. Polyandry enhances offspring viability with survival costs to mothers only when mating exclusively with virgin males in Drosophila melanogaster. Ecol Evol 2017; 7:7515-7526. [PMID: 28944035 PMCID: PMC5606902 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
A prominent hypothesis for polyandry says that male–male competitive drivers induce males to coerce already‐mated females to copulate, suggesting that females are more likely to be harassed in the presence of multiple males. This early sociobiological idea of male competitive drive seemed to explain why sperm‐storing females mate multiply. Here, we describe an experiment eliminating all opportunities for male–male behavioral competition, while varying females’ opportunities to mate or not with the same male many times, or with many other males only one time each. We limited each female subject's exposure to no more than one male per day over her entire lifespan starting at the age at which copulations usually commence. We tested a priori predictions about relative lifespan and daily components of RS of female Drosophila melanogaster in experimental social situations producing lifelong virgins, once‐mated females, lifelong monogamous, and lifelong polyandrous females, using a matched‐treatments design. Results included that (1) a single copulation enhanced female survival compared to survival of lifelong virgins, (2) multiple copulations enhanced the number of offspring for both monogamous and polyandrous females, (3) compared to females in lifelong monogamy, polyandrous females paired daily with a novel, age‐matched experienced male produced offspring of enhanced viability, and (4) female survival was unchallenged when monogamous and polyandrous females could re‐mate with age‐ and experienced‐matched males. (5) Polyandrous females daily paired with novel virgin males had significantly reduced lifespans compared to polyandrous females with novel, age‐matched, and experienced males. (6) Polyandrous mating enhanced offspring viability and thereby weakened support for the random mating hypothesis for female multiple mating. Analyzes of nonequivalence of variances revealed opportunities for within‐sex selection among females. Results support the idea that females able to avoid constraints on their behavior from simultaneous exposure to multiple males can affect both RS and survival of females and offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Castrezana
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles CA USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Washington DC USA
| | - Brant C Faircloth
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles CA USA
| | - William C Bridges
- Department of Mathematical Sciences Clemson University Clemson SC USA
| | - Patricia Adair Gowaty
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles CA USA.,Institute of the Environment and Sustainability University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles CA USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Washington DC USA
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23
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Wang JB, Lu HL, St. Leger RJ. The genetic basis for variation in resistance to infection in the Drosophila melanogaster genetic reference panel. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006260. [PMID: 28257468 PMCID: PMC5352145 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals vary extensively in the way they respond to disease but the genetic basis of this variation is not fully understood. We found substantial individual variation in resistance and tolerance to the fungal pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae Ma549 using the Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP). In addition, we found that host defense to Ma549 was correlated with defense to the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pa14, and several previously published DGRP phenotypes including oxidative stress sensitivity, starvation stress resistance, hemolymph glucose levels, and sleep indices. We identified polymorphisms associated with differences between lines in both their mean survival times and microenvironmental plasticity, suggesting that lines differ in their ability to adapt to variable pathogen exposures. The majority of polymorphisms increasing resistance to Ma549 were sex biased, located in non-coding regions, had moderately large effect and were rare, suggesting that there is a general cost to defense. Nevertheless, host defense was not negatively correlated with overall longevity and fecundity. In contrast to Ma549, minor alleles were concentrated in the most Pa14-susceptible as well as the most Pa14-resistant lines. A pathway based analysis revealed a network of Pa14 and Ma549-resistance genes that are functionally connected through processes that encompass phagocytosis and engulfment, cell mobility, intermediary metabolism, protein phosphorylation, axon guidance, response to DNA damage, and drug metabolism. Functional testing with insertional mutagenesis lines indicates that 12/13 candidate genes tested influence susceptibility to Ma549. Many candidate genes have homologs identified in studies of human disease, suggesting that genes affecting variation in susceptibility are conserved across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan B. Wang
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hsiao-Ling Lu
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Raymond J. St. Leger
- Department of Entomology, University of Maryland College Park, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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24
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Srinivasan N, Gordon O, Ahrens S, Franz A, Deddouche S, Chakravarty P, Phillips D, Yunus AA, Rosen MK, Valente RS, Teixeira L, Thompson B, Dionne MS, Wood W, Reis e Sousa C. Actin is an evolutionarily-conserved damage-associated molecular pattern that signals tissue injury in Drosophila melanogaster. eLife 2016; 5:e19662. [PMID: 27871362 PMCID: PMC5138034 DOI: 10.7554/elife.19662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are molecules released by dead cells that trigger sterile inflammation and, in vertebrates, adaptive immunity. Actin is a DAMP detected in mammals by the receptor, DNGR-1, expressed by dendritic cells (DCs). DNGR-1 is phosphorylated by Src-family kinases and recruits the tyrosine kinase Syk to promote DC cross-presentation of dead cell-associated antigens. Here we report that actin is also a DAMP in invertebrates that lack DCs and adaptive immunity. Administration of actin to Drosophila melanogaster triggers a response characterised by selective induction of STAT target genes in the fat body through the cytokine Upd3 and its JAK/STAT-coupled receptor, Domeless. Notably, this response requires signalling via Shark, the Drosophila orthologue of Syk, and Src42A, a Drosophila Src-family kinase, and is dependent on Nox activity. Thus, extracellular actin detection via a Src-family kinase-dependent cascade is an ancient means of detecting cell injury that precedes the evolution of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naren Srinivasan
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Gordon
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Ahrens
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Franz
- Department of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Safia Deddouche
- Immunobiology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - David Phillips
- Genomics-Equipment Park, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ali A Yunus
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, United States
| | - Michael K Rosen
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, United States
| | | | | | - Barry Thompson
- Epithelial Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc S Dionne
- Department of Life Sciences and MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Will Wood
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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25
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Lu HL, St. Leger R. Insect Immunity to Entomopathogenic Fungi. GENETICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF ENTOMOPATHOGENIC FUNGI 2016; 94:251-85. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adgen.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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26
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Moskalev A, Zhikrivetskaya S, Krasnov G, Shaposhnikov M, Proshkina E, Borisoglebsky D, Danilov A, Peregudova D, Sharapova I, Dobrovolskaya E, Solovev I, Zemskaya N, Shilova L, Snezhkina A, Kudryavtseva A. A comparison of the transcriptome of Drosophila melanogaster in response to entomopathogenic fungus, ionizing radiation, starvation and cold shock. BMC Genomics 2015; 16 Suppl 13:S8. [PMID: 26694630 PMCID: PMC4686790 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-16-s13-s8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The molecular mechanisms that determine the organism's response to a variety of doses and modalities of stress factors are not well understood. Results We studied effects of ionizing radiation (144, 360 and 864 Gy), entomopathogenic fungus (10 and 100 CFU), starvation (16 h), and cold shock (+4, 0 and -4°C) on an organism's viability indicators (survival and locomotor activity) and transcriptome changes in the Drosophila melanogaster model. All stress factors but cold shock resulted in a decrease of lifespan proportional to the dose of treatment. However, stress-factors affected locomotor activity without correlation with lifespan. Our data revealed both significant similarities and differences in differential gene expression and the activity of biological processes under the influence of stress factors. Conclusions Studied doses of stress treatments deleteriously affect the organism's viability and lead to different changes of both general and specific cellular stress response mechanisms.
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27
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Hunt VL, Zhong W, McClure CD, Mlynski DT, Duxbury EML, Keith Charnley A, Priest NK. Cold-seeking behaviour mitigates reproductive losses from fungal infection in Drosophila. J Anim Ecol 2015; 85:178-86. [PMID: 26332860 PMCID: PMC4879349 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Animals must tailor their life‐history strategies to suit the prevailing conditions and respond to hazards in the environment. Animals with lethal infections are faced with a difficult choice: to allocate more resources to reproduction and suffer higher mortality or to reduce reproduction with the expectation of enhanced immunity and late‐age reproduction. However, the strategies employed to mediate shifts in life‐history traits are largely unknown. Here, we investigate the temperature preference of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, during infection with the fungal pathogen, Metarhizium robertsii, and the consequence of temperature preference on life‐history traits. We have measured the temperature preference of fruit flies under different pathogen conditions. We conducted multiple fitness assays of the host and the pathogen under different thermal conditions. From these data, we estimated standard measures of fitness and used age‐specific methodologies to test for the fitness trade‐offs that are thought to underlie differences in life‐history strategy. We found that fungus‐infected fruit flies seek out cooler temperatures, which facilitates an adaptive shift in their life‐history strategy. The colder temperatures preferred by infected animals were detrimental to the pathogen because it increased resistance to infection. But, it did not provide net benefits that were specific to infected animals, as cooler temperatures increased lifetime reproductive success and survival whether or not the animals were infected. Instead, we find that cold‐seeking benefits infected animals by increasing their late‐age reproductive output, at a cost to their early‐age reproductive output. In contrast, naive control flies prefer warmer temperatures that optimize early‐age reproductive, at a cost to reproductive output at late ages. These findings show that infected animals exhibit fundamentally different reproductive strategies than their healthy counterparts. Temperature preference can facilitate shifts in strategy, but not without inevitable trade‐offs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicky L Hunt
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Weihao Zhong
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Colin D McClure
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - David T Mlynski
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Elizabeth M L Duxbury
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - A Keith Charnley
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Nicholas K Priest
- Milner Centre for Evolution and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
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28
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Roshina NV, Symonenko AV, Krementsova AV, Trostnikov MV, Pasyukova EG. Embryonic expression of shuttle craft, a Drosophila gene involved in neuron development, is associated with adult lifespan. Aging (Albany NY) 2015; 6:1076-93. [PMID: 25567608 PMCID: PMC4298367 DOI: 10.18632/aging.100712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Despite the progress in aging research that highlights the role of the nervous system in longevity, whether genes that control development and consequently structure of the nervous system affect lifespan is unclear. We demonstrated that a mutation in shuttle craft, a gene involved in the nervous system development, increased the lifespan of unmated females and decreased the lifespan of mated females, without affecting males. Precise reversions of the mutation lead to the restoration of the lifespan specific to control females. In mutant unmated females, increased lifespan was associated with elevated locomotion at older ages, indicating slowed aging. In mutant mated females, reproduction was decreased compared to controls, indicating a lack of tradeoff between this trait and lifespan. No differences in shuttle craft transcription were observed between whole bodies, ovaries, and brains of mutant and control females of different ages, either unmated or mated. The amount of shuttle craft transcript appeared to be substantially decreased in mutant embryos. Our results demonstrated that a gene that regulates development of the nervous system might also influence longevity, and thus expanded the spectrum of genes involved in lifespan control. We hypothesize that this “carry-over” effect might be the result of transcription regulation in embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia V Roshina
- Institute of Molecular Genetics of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 123182, Russia
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29
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Reinhardt K, Anthes N, Lange R. Copulatory wounding and traumatic insemination. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2015; 7:cshperspect.a017582. [PMID: 25877218 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a017582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Copulatory wounding (CW) is widespread in the animal kingdom, but likely underreported because of its cryptic nature. We use four case studies (Drosophila flies, Siphopteron slugs, Cimex bugs, and Callosobruchus beetles) to show that CW entails physiological and life-history costs, but can evolve into a routine mating strategy that, in some species, involves insemination through the wound. Although interspecific variation in CW is documented, few data exist on intraspecific and none on individual differences. Although defensive mechanisms evolve in the wound recipient, our review also indicates that mating costs in species with CW are slightly higher than in other species. Whether such costs are dose- or frequency-dependent, and whether defense occurs as resistance or tolerance, decisively affects the evolutionary outcome. In addition to sexual conflict, CW may also become a model system for reproductive isolation. In this context, we put forward a number of predictions, including (1) occasional CW is more costly than routine CW, (2) CW is more costly in between- than within-population matings, and (3) in the presence of CW, selection may favor the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases if they induce resource allocation. Finally, we outline, and briefly discuss, several medical implications of CW in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Reinhardt
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nils Anthes
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rolanda Lange
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Institute of Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia
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30
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Shi Z, Lin Y, Hou Y, Zhang H. Humoral immunocompetence shifts in response to developmental stage change and mating access in Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel (Diptera: Tephritidae). BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2015; 105:166-172. [PMID: 25611211 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485314000911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Because immune defenses are often costly employed, insect immunocompetence cannot be always maintained at its maximum level. Here, the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), was used as a study object to investigate how its immune defenses varied with the developmental stage change and mating access. Our data indicated that both phenoloxidase (PO) activity and antibacterial activity significantly increased from new larvae to pupae but decreased in adults after emergence. Furthermore, both the PO activity and antibacterial activity in the hemolymph of copulated male and female adults were dramatically higher than that of virgin male and female ones, respectively. It provided the evidence that copulation could increase the magnitude of immune defense in hemolymph of B. dorsalis. Together, these results suggest that B. dorsalis possess a flexible investment strategy in immunity to meet its specific needs based on the endo- and exogenous factors, such as their distinct food source and living environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Shi
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management of Fujian-Taiwan Crops,Ministry of Agriculture,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology,College of Plant Protection,Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,Fujian,China
| | - Y Lin
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management of Fujian-Taiwan Crops,Ministry of Agriculture,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology,College of Plant Protection,Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,Fujian,China
| | - Y Hou
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management of Fujian-Taiwan Crops,Ministry of Agriculture,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Ecology,College of Plant Protection,Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University,Fujian,China
| | - H Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology,Hubei Key Laboratory of Insect Resource Application and Sustainable Pest Control,Institute of Urban and Horticultural Pests,College of Plant Science and Technology,Huazhong Agricultural University,Wuhan,China
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31
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Abstract
In sexual reproduction different types of symbiotic relationships between insects and microbes have become established. For example, some bacteria have evolved almost exclusive vertical transmission and even define the compatibility of insect mating partners. Many strictly sexually transmitted diseases have also been described in insects. Apart from such rather specific relationships the role of opportunistic infections in the reproductive process has been widely neglected. Opportunistic microbes transmitted passively during mating might impose an energetic cost, as the immune system will need to be alert and will use resources to fight potential intruders. Through mating wounds and contaminated reproductive organs opportunistic microbes might be transferred to mating partners and even enter the body cavity. Females as the "receiving" sex are particularly likely to have evolved adaptations to avoid or reduce opportunistic infections. Males of several species show highly complex seminal fluids, which as well as containing components that influence a males' fertilization success, also possess antimicrobial substances. The role of antimicrobials in the reproductive process is not well understood. Some evidence hints at the protection of sperm against microbes, indicating a role for natural selection in shaping the evolution of reproductive traits. By highlighting the potential importance of microbes in sexual selection and their role in reproduction in general I will make a case for studies in sexual selection, especially the ones investigating postcopulatory processes, that should incorporate environmental, as well as genotypic variation, in reproductive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Otti
- Animal Population Ecology, Animal Ecology I, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research (BayCEER), University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse, 30, 95440, Bayreuth, Germany
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32
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Sirot LK, Wong A, Chapman T, Wolfner MF. Sexual conflict and seminal fluid proteins: a dynamic landscape of sexual interactions. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2014; 7:a017533. [PMID: 25502515 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a017533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Sexual reproduction requires coordinated contributions from both sexes to proceed efficiently. However, the reproductive strategies that the sexes adopt often have the potential to give rise to sexual conflict because they can result in divergent, sex-specific costs and benefits. These conflicts can occur at many levels, from molecular to behavioral. Here, we consider sexual conflict mediated through the actions of seminal fluid proteins. These proteins provide many excellent examples in which to trace the operation of sexual conflict from molecules through to behavior. Seminal fluid proteins are made by males and provided to females during mating. As agents that can modulate egg production at several steps, as well as reproductive behavior, sperm "management," and female feeding, activity, and longevity, the actions of seminal proteins are prime targets for sexual conflict. We review these actions in the context of sexual conflict. We discuss genomic signatures in seminal protein (and related) genes that are consistent with current or previous sexual conflict. Finally, we note promising areas for future study and highlight real-world practical situations that will benefit from understanding the nature of sexual conflicts mediated by seminal proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura K Sirot
- Department of Biology, College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio 44691
| | - Alex Wong
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Tracey Chapman
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Mariana F Wolfner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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McClure CD, Zhong W, Hunt VL, Chapman FM, Hill FV, Priest NK. Hormesis results in trade-offs with immunity. Evolution 2014; 68:2225-33. [PMID: 24862588 PMCID: PMC4282086 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Many have argued that we may be able to extend life and improve human health through hormesis, the beneficial effects of low-level toxins and other stressors. But, studies of hormesis in model systems have not yet established whether stress-induced benefits are cost free, artifacts of inbreeding, or come with deleterious side effects. Here, we provide evidence that hormesis results in trade-offs with immunity. We find that a single topical dose of dead spores of the entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium robertsii, increases the longevity of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, without significant decreases in fecundity. We find that hormetic benefits of pathogen challenge are greater in lines that lack key components of antifungal immunity (Dif and Turandot M). And, in outbred fly lines, we find that topical pathogen challenge enhances both survival and fecundity, but reduces ability to fight off live infections. The results provide evidence that hormesis is manifested by stress-induced trade-offs with immunity, not cost-free benefits or artifacts of inbreeding. Our findings illuminate mechanisms underlying pathogen-induced life-history trade-offs, and indicate that reduced immune function may be an ironic side effect of the "elixirs of life."
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin D McClure
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom.
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Al-Wathiqui N, Lewis SM, Dopman EB. Using RNA sequencing to characterize female reproductive genes between Z and E Strains of European Corn Borer moth (Ostrinia nubilalis). BMC Genomics 2014; 15:189. [PMID: 24621199 PMCID: PMC4007636 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Reproductive proteins often evolve rapidly and are thought to be subject to strong sexual selection, and thus may play a key role in reproductive isolation and species divergence. However, our knowledge of reproductive proteins has been largely limited to males and model organisms with sequenced genomes. With advances in sequencing technology, Lepidoptera are emerging models for studies of sexual selection and speciation. By profiling the transcriptomes of the bursa copulatrix and bursal gland from females of two incipient species of moth, we characterize reproductive genes expressed in the primary reproductive tissues of female Lepidoptera and identify candidate genes contributing to a one-way gametic incompatibility between Z and E strains of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis). Results Using RNA sequencing we identified transcripts from ~37,000 and ~36,000 loci that were expressed in the bursa copulatrix or the bursal gland respectively. Of bursa copulatrix genes, 8% were significantly differentially expressed compared to the female thorax, and those that were up-regulated or specific to the bursa copulatrix showed functional biases toward muscle activity and/or organization. In the bursal gland, 9% of genes were differentially expressed compared to the thorax, with many showing reproduction or gamete production functions. Of up-regulated bursal gland genes, 46% contained a transmembrane region and 16% possessed secretion signal peptides. Divergently expressed genes in the bursa copulatrix were exclusively biased toward protease-like functions and 51 proteases or protease inhibitors were divergently expressed overall. Conclusions This is the first comprehensive characterization of female reproductive genes in any lepidopteran system. The transcriptome of the bursa copulatrix supports its role as a muscular sac that is the primary site for disruption of the male ejaculate. We find that the bursal gland acts as a reproductive secretory body that might also interact with male ejaculate. In addition, differential expression of proteases between strains supports a potential role for these tissues in contributing to reproductive isolation. Our study provides new insight into how male ejaculate is processed by female Lepidoptera, and paves the way for future work on interactions between post-mating sexual selection and speciation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-189) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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