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Worsley SF, Davies CS, Lee CZ, Mannarelli ME, Burke T, Komdeur J, Dugdale HL, Richardson DS. Longitudinal gut microbiome dynamics in relation to age and senescence in a wild animal population. Mol Ecol 2024; 33:e17477. [PMID: 39010794 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
In humans, gut microbiome (GM) differences are often correlated with, and sometimes causally implicated in, ageing. However, it is unclear how these findings translate in wild animal populations. Studies that investigate how GM dynamics change within individuals, and with declines in physiological condition, are needed to fully understand links between chronological age, senescence and the GM, but have rarely been done. Here, we use longitudinal data collected from a closed population of Seychelles warblers (Acrocephalus sechellensis) to investigate how bacterial GM alpha diversity, composition and stability are associated with host senescence. We hypothesised that GM diversity and composition will differ, and become more variable, in older adults, particularly in the terminal year prior to death, as the GM becomes increasingly dysregulated due to senescence. However, GM alpha diversity and composition remained largely invariable with respect to adult age and did not differ in an individual's terminal year. Furthermore, there was no evidence that the GM became more heterogenous in senescent age groups (individuals older than 6 years), or in the terminal year. Instead, environmental variables such as season, territory quality and time of day, were the strongest predictors of GM variation in adult Seychelles warblers. These results contrast with studies on humans, captive animal populations and some (but not all) studies on non-human primates, suggesting that GM deterioration may not be a universal hallmark of senescence in wild animal species. Further work is needed to disentangle the factors driving variation in GM-senescence relationships across different host taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah F Worsley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
| | - Charli S Davies
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
| | - Chuen Zhang Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
| | | | - Terry Burke
- NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Jan Komdeur
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hannah L Dugdale
- Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, School of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - David S Richardson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, UK
- Nature Seychelles, Mahé, Republic of Seychelles
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2
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Pearman WS, Duffy GA, Gemmell NJ, Morales SE, Fraser CI. Long-distance movement dynamics shape host microbiome richness and turnover. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2024; 100:fiae089. [PMID: 38857884 PMCID: PMC11212666 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiae089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbial communities are shaped by host migratory movements. These movements can have contrasting impacts on microbiota, and understanding such patterns can provide insight into the ecological processes that contribute to community diversity. Furthermore, long-distance movements to new environments are anticipated to occur with increasing frequency due to host distribution shifts resulting from climate change. Understanding how hosts transport their microbiota with them could be of importance when examining biological invasions. Although microbial community shifts are well-documented, the underlying mechanisms that lead to the restructuring of these communities remain relatively unexplored. Using literature and ecological simulations, we develop a framework to elucidate the major factors that lead to community change. We group host movements into two types-regular (repeated/cyclical migratory movements, as found in many birds and mammals) and irregular (stochastic/infrequent movements that do not occur on a cyclical basis, as found in many insects and plants). Ecological simulations and prior research suggest that movement type and frequency, alongside environmental exposure (e.g. internal/external microbiota) are key considerations for understanding movement-associated community changes. From our framework, we derive a series of testable hypotheses, and suggest means to test them, to facilitate future research into host movement and microbial community dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Pearman
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, 310 Castle St, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, 270 Great King Street, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, 720 Cumberland St, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Grant A Duffy
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, 310 Castle St, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Neil J Gemmell
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, 270 Great King Street, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Sergio E Morales
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, 720 Cumberland St, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Ceridwen I Fraser
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, 310 Castle St, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
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3
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Scholier T, Lavrinienko A, Kallio ER, Watts PC, Mappes T. Effects of past and present habitat on the gut microbiota of a wild rodent. Proc Biol Sci 2024; 291:20232531. [PMID: 38320610 PMCID: PMC10846943 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.2531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
The response of the gut microbiota to changes in the host environment can be influenced by both the host's past and present habitats. To quantify their contributions for two different life stages, we studied the gut microbiota of wild bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) by performing a reciprocal transfer experiment with adults and their newborn offspring between urban and rural forests in a boreal ecosystem. Here, we show that the post-transfer gut microbiota in adults did not shift to resemble the post-transfer gut microbiota of animals 'native' to the present habitat. Instead, their gut microbiota appear to be structured by both their past and present habitat, with some features of the adult gut microbiota still determined by the past living environment (e.g. alpha diversity, compositional turnover). By contrast, we did not find evidence of the maternal past habitat (maternal effects) affecting the post-transfer gut microbiota of the juvenile offspring, and only a weak effect of the present habitat. Our results show that both the contemporary living environment and the past environment of the host organism can structure the gut microbiota communities, especially in adult individuals. These data are relevant for decision-making in the field of conservation and wildlife translocations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany Scholier
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
| | - Anton Lavrinienko
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
- Laboratory of Food Systems Biotechnology, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Eva R. Kallio
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
| | - Phillip C. Watts
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
| | - Tapio Mappes
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
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Klure DM, Dearing MD. Seasonal restructuring facilitates compositional convergence of gut microbiota in free-ranging rodents. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2023; 99:fiad127. [PMID: 37838471 PMCID: PMC10622585 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiad127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbes provide essential services to their host and shifts in their composition can impact host fitness. However, despite advances in our understanding of how microbes are assembled in the gut, we understand little about the stability of these communities within individuals, nor what factors influence its composition over the life of an animal. For this reason, we conducted a longitudinal survey of the gut microbial communities of individual free-ranging woodrats (Neotoma spp.) across a hybrid zone in the Mojave Desert, USA, using amplicon sequencing approaches to characterize gut microbial profiles and diet. We found that gut microbial communities were individualized and experienced compositional restructuring as a result of seasonal transitions and changes in diet. Turnover of gut microbiota was highest amongst bacterial subspecies and was much lower at the rank of Family, suggesting there may be selection for conservation of core microbial functions in the woodrat gut. Lastly, we identified an abundant core gut bacterial community that may aid woodrats in metabolizing a diet of plants and their specialized metabolites. These results demonstrate that the gut microbial communities of woodrats are highly dynamic and experience seasonal restructuring which may facilitate adaptive plasticity in response to changes in diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan M Klure
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, 257 S 1400 E rm 201, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, United States
| | - M Denise Dearing
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Utah, 257 S 1400 E rm 201, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, United States
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Risely A, Müller-Klein N, Schmid DW, Wilhelm K, Clutton-Brock TH, Manser MB, Sommer S. Climate change drives loss of bacterial gut mutualists at the expense of host survival in wild meerkats. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:5816-5828. [PMID: 37485753 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Climate change and climate-driven increases in infectious disease threaten wildlife populations globally. Gut microbial responses are predicted to either buffer or exacerbate the negative impacts of these twin pressures on host populations. However, examples that document how gut microbial communities respond to long-term shifts in climate and associated disease risk, and the consequences for host survival, are rare. Over the past two decades, wild meerkats inhabiting the Kalahari have experienced rapidly rising temperatures, which is linked to the spread of tuberculosis (TB). We show that over the same period, the faecal microbiota of this population has become enriched in Bacteroidia and impoverished in lactic acid bacteria (LAB), a group of bacteria including Lactococcus and Lactobacillus that are considered gut mutualists. These shifts occurred within individuals yet were compounded over generations, and were better explained by mean maximum temperatures than mean rainfall over the previous year. Enriched Bacteroidia were additionally associated with TB exposure and disease, the dry season and poorer body condition, factors that were all directly linked to reduced future survival. Lastly, abundances of LAB taxa were independently and positively linked to future survival, while enriched taxa did not predict survival. Together, these results point towards extreme temperatures driving an expansion of a disease-associated pathobiome and loss of beneficial taxa. Our study provides the first evidence from a longitudinally sampled population that climate change is restructuring wildlife gut microbiota, and that these changes may amplify the negative impacts of climate change through the loss of gut mutualists. While the plastic response of host-associated microbiotas is key for host adaptation under normal environmental fluctuations, extreme temperature increases might lead to a breakdown of coevolved host-mutualist relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Risely
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- School of Science, Engineering, and the Environment, Salford University, Salford, UK
| | - Nadine Müller-Klein
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dominik W Schmid
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Kerstin Wilhelm
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Tim H Clutton-Brock
- Large Animal Research Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Kalahari Research Trust, Kuruman River Reserve, Van Zylsrus, Northern Cape, South Africa
| | - Marta B Manser
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Kalahari Research Trust, Kuruman River Reserve, Van Zylsrus, Northern Cape, South Africa
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simone Sommer
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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6
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Henry LP, Bergelson J. Evolutionary implications of host genetic control for engineering beneficial microbiomes. CURRENT OPINION IN SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2023; 34:None. [PMID: 37287906 PMCID: PMC10242548 DOI: 10.1016/j.coisb.2023.100455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Engineering new functions in the microbiome requires understanding how host genetic control and microbe-microbe interactions shape the microbiome. One key genetic mechanism underlying host control is the immune system. The immune system can promote stability in the composition of the microbiome by reshaping the ecological dynamics of its members, but the degree of stability will depend on the interplay between ecological context, immune system development, and higher-order microbe-microbe interactions. The eco-evolutionary interplay affecting composition and stability should inform the strategies used to engineer new functions in the microbiome. We conclude with recent methodological developments that provide an important path forward for both engineering new functionality in the microbiome and broadly understanding how ecological interactions shape evolutionary processes in complex biological systems.
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Roche KE, Bjork JR, Dasari MR, Grieneisen L, Jansen D, Gould TJ, Gesquiere LR, Barreiro LB, Alberts SC, Blekhman R, Gilbert JA, Tung J, Mukherjee S, Archie EA. Universal gut microbial relationships in the gut microbiome of wild baboons. eLife 2023; 12:e83152. [PMID: 37158607 PMCID: PMC10292843 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Ecological relationships between bacteria mediate the services that gut microbiomes provide to their hosts. Knowing the overall direction and strength of these relationships is essential to learn how ecology scales up to affect microbiome assembly, dynamics, and host health. However, whether bacterial relationships are generalizable across hosts or personalized to individual hosts is debated. Here, we apply a robust, multinomial logistic-normal modeling framework to extensive time series data (5534 samples from 56 baboon hosts over 13 years) to infer thousands of correlations in bacterial abundance in individual baboons and test the degree to which bacterial abundance correlations are 'universal'. We also compare these patterns to two human data sets. We find that, most bacterial correlations are weak, negative, and universal across hosts, such that shared correlation patterns dominate over host-specific correlations by almost twofold. Further, taxon pairs that had inconsistent correlation signs (either positive or negative) in different hosts always had weak correlations within hosts. From the host perspective, host pairs with the most similar bacterial correlation patterns also had similar microbiome taxonomic compositions and tended to be genetic relatives. Compared to humans, universality in baboons was similar to that in human infants, and stronger than one data set from human adults. Bacterial families that showed universal correlations in human infants were often universal in baboons. Together, our work contributes new tools for analyzing the universality of bacterial associations across hosts, with implications for microbiome personalization, community assembly, and stability, and for designing microbiome interventions to improve host health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly E Roche
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
| | - Johannes R Bjork
- University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Gastroenterology and HepatologyGroningenNetherlands
- University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Department of GeneticsGroningenNetherlands
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre DameNotre DameUnited States
| | - Mauna R Dasari
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre DameNotre DameUnited States
| | - Laura Grieneisen
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia-Okanagan CampusKelownaCanada
| | - David Jansen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre DameNotre DameUnited States
| | - Trevor J Gould
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of MinnesotaMinneapolisUnited States
| | | | - Luis B Barreiro
- Committee on Genetics, Genomics, and Systems Biology, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
- Committee on Immunology, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Susan C Alberts
- Department of Biology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Duke University Population Research Institute, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
| | - Ran Blekhman
- Section of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of ChicagoChicagoUnited States
| | - Jack A Gilbert
- Department of Pediatrics and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San DiegoSan DiegoUnited States
| | - Jenny Tung
- Department of Biology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Duke University Population Research Institute, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Sayan Mukherjee
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Departments of Statistical Science, Mathematics, Computer Science, and Bioinformatics & Biostatistics, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States
- Center for Scalable Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence, University of LeipzigLeipzigGermany
- Max Plank Institute for Mathematics in the Natural SciencesLeipzigGermany
| | - Elizabeth A Archie
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre DameNotre DameUnited States
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Taxonomic, Genomic, and Functional Variation in the Gut Microbiomes of Wild Spotted Hyenas Across 2 Decades of Study. mSystems 2023; 8:e0096522. [PMID: 36533929 PMCID: PMC9948708 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00965-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome provides vital functions for mammalian hosts, yet research on its variability and function across adult life spans and multiple generations is limited in large mammalian carnivores. Here, we used 16S rRNA gene and metagenomic high-throughput sequencing to profile the bacterial taxonomic composition, genomic diversity, and metabolic function of fecal samples collected from 12 wild spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) residing in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, over a 23-year period spanning three generations. The metagenomic data came from four of these hyenas and spanned two 2-year periods. With these data, we determined the extent to which host factors predicted variation in the gut microbiome and identified the core microbes present in the guts of hyenas. We also investigated novel genomic diversity in the mammalian gut by reporting the first metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) for hyenas. We found that gut microbiome taxonomic composition varied temporally, but despite this, a core set of 14 bacterial genera were identified. The strongest predictors of the microbiome were host identity and age, suggesting that hyenas possess individualized microbiomes and that these may change with age during adulthood. The gut microbiome functional profiles of the four adult hyenas were also individual specific and were associated with prey abundance, indicating that the functions of the gut microbiome vary with host diet. We recovered 149 high-quality MAGs from the hyenas' guts; some MAGs were classified as taxa previously reported for other carnivores, but many were novel and lacked species-level matches to genomes in existing reference databases. IMPORTANCE There is a gap in knowledge regarding the genomic diversity and variation of the gut microbiome across a host's life span and across multiple generations of hosts in wild mammals. Using two types of sequencing approaches, we found that although gut microbiomes were individualized and temporally variable among hyenas, they correlated similarly to large-scale changes in the ecological conditions experienced by their hosts. We also recovered 149 high-quality MAGs from the hyena gut, greatly expanding the microbial genome repertoire known for hyenas, carnivores, and wild mammals in general. Some MAGs came from genera abundant in the gastrointestinal tracts of canid species and other carnivores, but over 80% of MAGs were novel and from species not previously represented in genome databases. Collectively, our novel body of work illustrates the importance of surveying the gut microbiome of nonmodel wild hosts, using multiple sequencing methods and computational approaches and at distinct scales of analysis.
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Mallott EK. Individualized composition or community dynamics? A new statistical approach to assess the individuality of host-associated microbiomes. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20221794. [PMID: 36350214 PMCID: PMC9653253 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth K. Mallott
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
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10
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Risely A, Schmid DW, Müller-Klein N, Wilhelm K, Clutton-Brock TH, Manser MB, Sommer S. Gut microbiota individuality is contingent on temporal scale and age in wild meerkats. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220609. [PMID: 35975437 PMCID: PMC9382201 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inter-individual differences in gut microbiota composition are hypothesized to generate variation in host fitness-a premise for the evolution of host-gut microbe symbioses. However, recent evidence suggests that gut microbial communities are highly dynamic, challenging the notion that individuals harbour unique gut microbial phenotypes. Leveraging a long-term dataset of wild meerkats, we reconcile these concepts by demonstrating that the relative importance of identity for shaping gut microbiota phenotypes depends on the temporal scale. Across meerkat lifespan, year-to-year variation overshadowed the effects of identity and social group in predicting gut microbiota composition, with identity explaining on average less than 2% of variation. However, identity was the strongest predictor of microbial phenotypes over short sampling intervals (less than two months), predicting on average 20% of variation. The effect of identity was also dependent on meerkat age, with the gut microbiota becoming more individualized and stable as meerkats aged. Nevertheless, while the predictive power of identity was negligible after two months, gut microbiota composition remained weakly individualized compared to that of other meerkats for up to 1 year. These findings illuminate the degree to which individualized gut microbial signatures can be expected, with important implications for the time frames over which gut microbial phenotypes may mediate host physiology, behaviour and fitness in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Risely
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dominik W. Schmid
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Nadine Müller-Klein
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Kerstin Wilhelm
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Tim H. Clutton-Brock
- Large Animal Research Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Kalahari Research Trust, Kuruman River Reserve, Northern Cape, South Africa
| | - Marta B. Manser
- Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- Kalahari Research Trust, Kuruman River Reserve, Northern Cape, South Africa
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simone Sommer
- Institute for Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation Genomics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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