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Yu SF, Sun ZB, Li SD, Hu YF, Ren Q, Xu JL, Song HJ, Sun MH. The Adenylate Cyclase-Encoding Gene crac Is Involved in Clonostachys rosea Mycoparasitism. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:861. [PMID: 37623632 PMCID: PMC10455997 DOI: 10.3390/jof9080861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Clonostachys rosea is an excellent biocontrol fungus against numerous fungal plant pathogens. The cAMP signaling pathway is a crucial signal transduction pathway in fungi. To date, the role of the cAMP signaling pathway in C. rosea mycoparasitism remains unknown. An adenylate cyclase-encoding gene, crac (an important component of the cAMP signaling pathway), was previously screened from C. rosea 67-1, and its expression level was dramatically upregulated during the C. rosea mycoparasitization of the sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. In this study, the function of crac in C. rosea mycoparasitism was explored through gene knockout and complementation. The obtained results show that the deletion of crac influenced the growth rate and colony morphology of C. rosea, as well as the tolerance to NaCl and H2O2 stress. The mycoparasitic effects on the sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum and the biocontrol capacity on soybean Sclerotinia stem rot in ∆crac-6 and ∆crac-13 were both attenuated compared with that of the wild-type strain and complementation transformants. To understand the regulatory mechanism of crac during C. rosea mycoparasitism, transcriptomic analysis was conducted between the wild-type strain and knockout mutant. A number of biocontrol-related genes, including genes encoding cell wall-degrading enzymes and transporters, were significantly differentially expressed during C. rosea mycoparasitism, suggesting that crac may be involved in C. rosea mycoparasitism by regulating the expression of these DEGs. These findings provide insight for further exploring the molecular mechanism of C. rosea mycoparasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Fan Yu
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zhan-Bin Sun
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Shi-Dong Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ya-Feng Hu
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Qing Ren
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Jia-Liang Xu
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Han-Jian Song
- School of Light Industry, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Man-Hong Sun
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
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2
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Pachauri S, Zaid R, Sherkhane PD, Easa J, Viterbo A, Chet I, Horwitz BA, Mukherjee PK. Comparative Phenotypic, Genomic, and Transcriptomic Analyses of Two Contrasting Strains of the Plant Beneficial Fungus Trichoderma virens. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0302422. [PMID: 36719232 PMCID: PMC10100780 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.03024-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma virens is a beneficial fungus that helps plants fight pathogens and abiotic stresses and thereby enhances crop yields. Unlike other Trichoderma spp., there are two well-defined strains (P and Q) of T. virens, classified by secondary metabolites profiling, primarily the biosynthesis of the nonribosomal, strong antimicrobial agents gliotoxin (Q) and gliovirin (P). We have studied the phenotypic and biocontrol properties of two well-studied representative isolates (T. virens Gv29-8 and T. virens GvW/IMI304061) that represent a Q strain and a P strain of T. virens, respectively. We refined the genome assembly of the P strain using nanopore technology, and we compared it with the Q strain. The differences between the genomes include gene expansion in the Q strain. T. virens Gv29-8 is weaker than GvW as a mycoparasite on the broad host-range plant pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii, and it is ineffective as a biocontrol agent when applied to pathogen-infested soil. T. virens Gv29-8 proved to be phytotoxic to Arabidopsis seedlings, whereas the effect of T. virens GvW was not major. Both strains colonized the surface and outer cortex layer of tomato roots, with about 40% higher colonization by T. virens Gv29-8. T. virens Gv29-8 induced the expression of a larger set of tomato genes than did T. virens GvW, although some tomato genes were uniquely induced in response to T. virens GvW. We studied the comparative transcriptome response of T. virens Gv29-8 and T. virens GvW to S. rolfsii. A larger set of genes was regulated in T. virens GvW than in T. virens Gv29-8 in the presence of the plant pathogen. IMPORTANCE Trichoderma virens populations that were earlier classified into two strains (P and Q) based on secondary metabolites profiling are also phenotypically and genetically distinct, with the latter being ineffective in controlling the devastating, broad host range plant pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. The two strains also provoke distinct as well as overlapping transcriptional responses to the presence of the plant and the pathogen. This study enriches our knowledge of Trichoderma-plant-pathogen interactions and identifies novel candidate genes for further research and deployment in agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Pachauri
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, India
| | - Rinat Zaid
- Faculty of Biology, The Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Pramod D. Sherkhane
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Jamela Easa
- Faculty of Biology, The Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ada Viterbo
- Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ilan Chet
- Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Benjamin A. Horwitz
- Faculty of Biology, The Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Prasun K. Mukherjee
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai, India
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3
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Schmoll M, Hinterdobler W. Tools for adapting to a complex habitat: G-protein coupled receptors in Trichoderma. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2022; 193:65-97. [PMID: 36357080 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Sensing the environment and interpretation of the received signals are crucial competences of living organisms in order to properly adapt to their habitat, succeed in competition and to reproduce. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are members of a large family of sensors for extracellular signals and represent the starting point of complex signaling cascades regulating a plethora of intracellular physiological processes and output pathways in fungi. In Trichoderma spp. current research involves a wide range of topics from enzyme production, light response and secondary metabolism to sexual and asexual development as well as biocontrol, all of which require delicate balancing of resources in response to the environmental challenges or biotechnological needs at hand, which are crucially impacted by the surroundings of the fungi and their intercellular signaling cascades triggering a precisely tailored response. In this review we summarize recent findings on sensing by GPCRs in Trichoderma, including the function of pheromone receptors, glucose sensing by CSG1 and CSG2, regulation of secondary metabolism by GPR8 and impacts on mycoparasitism by GPR1. Additionally, we provide an overview on structural determinants, posttranslational modifications and interactions for regulation, activation and signal termination of GPCRs in order to inspire future in depth analyses of their function and to understand previous regulatory outcomes of natural and biotechnological processes modulated or enabled by GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Schmoll
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Division of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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4
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cAMP Signalling Pathway in Biocontrol Fungi. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:2622-2634. [PMID: 35735620 PMCID: PMC9221721 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44060179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biocontrol is a complex process, in which a variety of physiological and biochemical characteristics are altered. The cAMP signalling pathway is an important signal transduction pathway in biocontrol fungi and consists of several key components. The G-protein system contains G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), heterotrimeric G-proteins, adenylate cyclase (AC), cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), and downstream transcription factors (TFs). The cAMP signalling pathway can regulate fungal growth, development, differentiation, sporulation, morphology, secondary metabolite production, environmental stress tolerance, and the biocontrol of pathogens. However, few reviews of the cAMP signalling pathway in comprehensive biocontrol processes have been reported. This work reviews and discusses the functions and applications of genes encoding each component in the cAMP signalling pathway from biocontrol fungi, including the G-protein system components, AC, PKA, and TFs, in biocontrol behaviour. Finally, future suggestions are provided for constructing a complete cAMP signalling pathway in biocontrol fungi containing all the components and downstream effectors involved in biocontrol behavior. This review provides useful information for the understanding the biocontrol mechanism of biocontrol fungi by utilising the cAMP signalling pathway.
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Abbas A, Mubeen M, Zheng H, Sohail MA, Shakeel Q, Solanki MK, Iftikhar Y, Sharma S, Kashyap BK, Hussain S, del Carmen Zuñiga Romano M, Moya-Elizondo EA, Zhou L. Trichoderma spp. Genes Involved in the Biocontrol Activity Against Rhizoctonia solani. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:884469. [PMID: 35694310 PMCID: PMC9174946 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.884469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhizoctonia solani is a pathogen that causes considerable harm to plants worldwide. In the absence of hosts, R. solani survives in the soil by forming sclerotia, and management methods, such as cultivar breeding, crop rotations, and fungicide sprays, are insufficient and/or inefficient in controlling R. solani. One of the most challenging problems facing agriculture in the twenty-first century besides with the impact of global warming. Environmentally friendly techniques of crop production and improved agricultural practices are essential for long-term food security. Trichoderma spp. could serve as an excellent example of a model fungus to enhance crop productivity in a sustainable way. Among biocontrol mechanisms, mycoparasitism, competition, and antibiosis are the fundamental mechanisms by which Trichoderma spp. defend against R. solani, thereby preventing or obstructing its proliferation. Additionally, Trichoderma spp. induce a mixed induced systemic resistance (ISR) or systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants against R. solani, known as Trichoderma-ISR. Stimulation of every biocontrol mechanism involves Trichoderma spp. genes responsible for encoding secondary metabolites, siderophores, signaling molecules, enzymes for cell wall degradation, and plant growth regulators. Rhizoctonia solani biological control through genes of Trichoderma spp. is summarized in this paper. It also gives information on the Trichoderma-ISR in plants against R. solani. Nonetheless, fast-paced current research on Trichoderma spp. is required to properly utilize their true potential against diseases caused by R. solani.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aqleem Abbas
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mustansar Mubeen
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Hongxia Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Muhammad Aamir Sohail
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qaiser Shakeel
- Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Manoj Kumar Solanki
- Plant Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Group, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Yasir Iftikhar
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
- *Correspondence: Yasir Iftikhar,
| | - Sagar Sharma
- Plant Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Group, Institute of Biology, Biotechnology and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Brijendra Kumar Kashyap
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, India
| | - Sarfaraz Hussain
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | | | - Lei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- Lei Zhou,
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6
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Zhang Y, Zhuang WY. MAPK Cascades Mediating Biocontrol Activity of Trichoderma brevicrassum Strain TC967. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:2762-2775. [PMID: 35191703 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c05622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma brevicrassum strain TC967 is a novel biological control agent (BCA) against the plant pathogen Rhizoctonia solani and promotes plant growth. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are involved in a variety of physiological functions of Trichoderma, but functions of each MAPK in regulating biocontrol have not been characterized in a single Trichoderma strain. In this study, we assembled and annotated the genome of strain TC967 and identified its three MAPK gene sequences. Functions of Fus3-, Slt2-, and Hog1-MAPK in strain TC967 were dissected. All three MAPKs were involved in hyphal growth. Hog1-MAPK was essential for conidiation and tolerance to saline/osmotic stress. Both Fus3- and Slt2-MAPK deletion mutants reduced cell-wall integrity (CWI) and increased the activities of chitinase and protease. The growth of Rhizoctoniasolani was further inhibited by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and secondary metabolites produced by Fus3- and Slt2-MAPK deletion mutants, respectively. Biocontrol assays demonstrated that Fus3- and Slt2-MAPK deletion mutants were considerably more effective in disease control than the wild-type strain. RNA-seq analysis revealed that MAPK collectively played a major role in regulating biocontrol-related gene expressions, including the genes in charge of secondary metabolism, fungal cell wall-degrading enzymes (FCWDEs), and small secreted cysteine-rich proteins (SSCPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wen-Ying Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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7
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Olowe OM, Nicola L, Asemoloye MD, Akanmu AO, Babalola OO. Trichoderma: Potential bio-resource for the management of tomato root rot diseases in Africa. Microbiol Res 2022; 257:126978. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.126978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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8
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Dou K, Pang G, Cai F, Chenthamara K, Zhang J, Liu H, Druzhinina IS, Chen J. Functional Genetics of Trichoderma Mycoparasitism. Fungal Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-91650-3_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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9
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Sarrocco S, Vicente I, Staropoli A, Vinale F. Genes Involved in the Secondary Metabolism of Trichoderma and the Biochemistry of These Compounds. Fungal Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-91650-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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Kang S, Lumactud R, Li N, Bell TH, Kim HS, Park SY, Lee YH. Harnessing Chemical Ecology for Environment-Friendly Crop Protection. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 111:1697-1710. [PMID: 33908803 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-21-0035-rvw] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Heavy reliance on synthetic pesticides for crop protection has become increasingly unsustainable, calling for robust alternative strategies that do not degrade the environment and vital ecosystem services. There are numerous reports of successful disease control by various microbes used in small-scale trials. However, inconsistent efficacy has hampered their large-scale application. A better understanding of how beneficial microbes interact with plants, other microbes, and the environment and which factors affect disease control efficacy is crucial to deploy microbial agents as effective and reliable pesticide alternatives. Diverse metabolites produced by plants and microbes participate in pathogenesis and defense, regulate the growth and development of themselves and neighboring organisms, help maintain cellular homeostasis under various environmental conditions, and affect the assembly and activity of plant and soil microbiomes. However, research on the metabolites associated with plant health-related processes, except antibiotics, has not received adequate attention. This review highlights several classes of metabolites known or suspected to affect plant health, focusing on those associated with biocontrol and belowground plant-microbe and microbe-microbe interactions. The review also describes how new insights from systematic explorations of the diversity and mechanism of action of bioactive metabolites can be harnessed to develop novel crop protection strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seogchan Kang
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Rhea Lumactud
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Ningxiao Li
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Terrence H Bell
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Hye-Seon Kim
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Mycotoxin Prevention and Applied Microbiology Research Unit, Peoria, IL 61604, U.S.A
| | - Sook-Young Park
- Department of Agricultural Life Science, Sunchon National University, Suncheon 57922, Korea
| | - Yong-Hwan Lee
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
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11
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Ecological Genomics and Evolution of Trichoderma reesei. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2234:1-21. [PMID: 33165775 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1048-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei (Hypocreales, Ascomycota) is an efficient industrial cell factory for the production of cellulolytic enzymes used for biofuel and other applications. Therefore, researches addressing T. reesei are relatively advanced compared to other Trichoderma spp. because of the significant bulk of available knowledge, multiple genomic data, and gene manipulation techniques. However, the established role of T. reesei in industry has resulted in a frequently biased understanding of the biology of this fungus. Thus, the recent studies unexpectedly show that the superior cellulolytic activity of T. reesei and other Trichoderma species evolved due to multiple lateral gene transfer events, while the innate ability to parasitize other fungi (mycoparasitism) was maintained in the genus, including T. reesei. In this chapter, we will follow the concept of ecological genomics and describe the ecology, distribution, and evolution of T. reesei, as well as critically discuss several common misconceptions that originate from the success of this species in applied sciences and industry.
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12
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Pachauri S, Sherkhane PD, Kumar V, Mukherjee PK. Whole Genome Sequencing Reveals Major Deletions in the Genome of M7, a Gamma Ray-Induced Mutant of Trichoderma virens That Is Repressed in Conidiation, Secondary Metabolism, and Mycoparasitism. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1030. [PMID: 32595612 PMCID: PMC7303927 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma virens is a commercial biofungicide used in agriculture. We have earlier isolated a mutant of T. virens using gamma ray-induced mutagenesis. This mutant, designated as M7, is defective in morphogenesis, secondary metabolism, and mycoparasitism. The mutant does not produce conidia, and the colony is hydrophilic. M7 cannot utilize cellulose and chitin as a sole carbon source and is unable to parasitize the plant pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium aphanidermatum in confrontation assay. Several volatile (germacrenes, beta-caryophyllene, alloaromadendrene, gamma-muurolene) and non-volatile (viridin, viridiol, gliovirin, heptelidic acid) metabolites are not detected in M7. In transcriptome analysis, many genes related to secondary metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, hydrophobicity, and transportation, among others, were found to be downregulated in the mutant. Using whole genome sequencing, we identified five deletions in the mutant genome, totaling about 250 kb (encompassing 71 predicted ORFs), which was confirmed by PCR. This study provides novel insight into genetics of morphogenesis, secondary metabolism, and mycoparasitism and eventually could lead to the identification of novel regulators of beneficial traits in plant beneficial fungi Trichoderma spp. We also suggest that this mutant can be developed as a microbial cell factory for the production of secondary metabolites and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Pachauri
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India.,Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India
| | - Pramod D Sherkhane
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - Vinay Kumar
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India.,Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - Prasun K Mukherjee
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India.,Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, India
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Xiong F, Wang Y, Lu Q, Hao X, Fang W, Yang Y, Zhu X, Wang X. Lifestyle Characteristics and Gene Expression Analysis of Colletotrichum camelliae Isolated from Tea Plant [ Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] Based on Transcriptome. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10050782. [PMID: 32443615 PMCID: PMC7278179 DOI: 10.3390/biom10050782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Colletotrichum camelliae is one of the most serious pathogens causing anthracnose in tea plants, but the interactive relationship between C. camelliae and tea plants has not been fully elucidated. This study investigated the gene expression changes in five different growth stages of C. camelliae based on transcriptome analysis to explain the lifestyle characteristics during the infection. On the basis of gene ontology (GO) enrichment analyses of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in comparisons of germ tube (GT)/conidium (Con), appressoria (App)/Con, and cellophane infectious hyphae (CIH)/Con groups, the cellular process in the biological process category and intracellular, intracellular part, cell, and cell part in the cellular component category were significantly enriched. Hydrolase activity, catalytic activity, and molecular_function in the molecular function category were particularly enriched in the infection leaves (IL)/Con group. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis indicated that the DEGs were enriched in the genetic information processing pathway (ribosome) at the GT stage and the metabolism pathway (metabolic pathways and biosynthesis of secondary metabolism) in the rest of the stages. Interestingly, the genes associated with melanin biosynthesis and carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZys), which are vital for penetration and cell wall degradation, were significantly upregulated at the App, CIH and IL stages. Subcellular localization results further showed that the selected non-annotated secreted proteins based on transcriptome data were majorly located in the cytoplasm and nucleus, predicted as new candidate effectors. The results of this study may establish a foundation and provide innovative ideas for subsequent research on C. camelliae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xiong
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, No.1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China; (F.X.); (W.F.)
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yuchun Wang
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
- College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Zhejiang A&F University, Lin’an, Hangzhou 311300, China
| | - Qinhua Lu
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Xinyuan Hao
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Wanping Fang
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, No.1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China; (F.X.); (W.F.)
| | - Yajun Yang
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Xujun Zhu
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, No.1 Weigang, Nanjing 210095, China; (F.X.); (W.F.)
- Correspondence: (X.Z.); (X.W.); Tel.: +86-25-84395182 (X.Z.); Fax: +86-25-84395182 (X.Z.)
| | - Xinchao Wang
- Tea Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; National Center for Tea Improvement; Key Laboratory of Tea Biology and Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Hangzhou, 310008, China; (Y.W.); (Q.L.); (X.H.); (Y.Y.)
- Correspondence: (X.Z.); (X.W.); Tel.: +86-25-84395182 (X.Z.); Fax: +86-25-84395182 (X.Z.)
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Changes in Peptaibol Production of Trichoderma Species during In Vitro Antagonistic Interactions with Fungal Plant Pathogens. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10050730. [PMID: 32392805 PMCID: PMC7277233 DOI: 10.3390/biom10050730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma species are widely used as biofungicides for the control of fungal plant pathogens. Several studies have been performed to identify the main genes and compounds involved in Trichoderma–plant–microbial pathogen cross-talks. However, there is not much information about the exact mechanism of this profitable interaction. Peptaibols secreted mainly by Trichoderma species are linear, 5–20 amino acid residue long, non-ribosomally synthesized peptides rich in α-amino isobutyric acid, which seem to be effective in Trichoderma–plant pathogenic fungus interactions. In the present study, reversed phase (RP) high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS) was used to detect peptaibol profiles of Trichoderma strains during interactions with fungal plant pathogens. MS investigations of the crude extracts deriving from in vitro confrontations of Trichoderma asperellum and T. longibrachiatum with different plant pathogenic fungi (Fusarium moniliforme, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum species complex, Alternaria solani and Rhizoctonia solani) were performed to get a better insight into the role of these non-ribosomal antimicrobial peptides. The results revealed an increase in the total amount of peptaibols produced during the interactions, as well as some differences in the peptaibol profiles between the confrontational and control tests. Detection of the expression level of the peptaibol synthetase tex1 by qRT-PCR showed a significant increase in T. asperellum/R. solani interaction in comparison to the control. In conclusion, the interaction with plant pathogens highly influenced the peptaibol production of the examined Trichoderma strains.
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15
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Rabinal C, Bhat S. Identification of Differentially Expressed Genes in Trichoderma koningii IABT1252 During Its Interaction with Sclerotium rolfsii. Curr Microbiol 2019; 77:396-404. [PMID: 31844935 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-019-01838-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sclerotium rolfsii, a soil-borne fungal pathogen, infects more than 500 crop species and causes stem rot/collar rot/seed rot/southern blight/wilt in a wide variety of crops which results in significant yield loses. Presently, antagonistic microbes are gaining more importance in managing plant pathogens because they control the pathogen in an environment-friendly manner. Trichoderma is an antagonistic fungi and most popularly used biocontrol agent against phytopathogenic fungi. It is predominantly used to treat soil and seed for the control of Sclerotium rolfsii infestation. In this study, the Trichoderma koningii IABT1252 that performed better in controlling groundnut seed/ seedling rot caused by S. rolfsii in pot experiments were selected to know the molecular basis for the control. Differentially expressed genes in Trichoderma at two different stages of interaction (prior to contact and after contact with S. rolfsii) were identified. In both the stages, some of the differentially expressed genes included ones coding for hydrolytic enzymes, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, transcription factors, signaling proteins, transporter proteins, and proteins involved in mycoparasitic process of Trichoderma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chidanand Rabinal
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, UAS Dharwad, Karnataka, 580005, India.
| | - Sumangala Bhat
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, UAS Dharwad, Karnataka, 580005, India
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16
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Mukherjee PK, Mehetre ST, Sherkhane PD, Muthukathan G, Ghosh A, Kotasthane AS, Khare N, Rathod P, Sharma KK, Nath R, Tewari AK, Bhattacharyya S, Arya M, Pathak D, Wasnikar AR, Tiwari RKS, Saxena DR. A Novel Seed-Dressing Formulation Based on an Improved Mutant Strain of Trichoderma virens, and Its Field Evaluation. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1910. [PMID: 31543866 PMCID: PMC6730527 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Using gamma-ray-induced mutagenesis, we have developed a mutant (named G2) of Trichoderma virens that produced two- to three-fold excesses of secondary metabolites, including viridin, viridiol, and some yet-to-be identified compounds. Consequently, this mutant had improved antibiosis against the oomycete test pathogen Pythium aphanidermatum. A transcriptome analysis of the mutant vis-à-vis the wild-type strain showed upregulation of several secondary-metabolism-related genes. In addition, many genes predicted to be involved in mycoparasitism and plant interactions were also upregulated. We used tamarind seeds as a mass multiplication medium in solid-state fermentation and, using talcum powder as a carrier, developed a novel seed dressing formulation. A comparative evaluation of the wild type and the mutant in greenhouse under high disease pressure (using the test pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii) revealed superiority of the mutant over wild type in protecting chickpea (Cicer arietinum) seeds and seedlings from infection. We then undertook extensive field evaluation (replicated micro-plot trials, on-farm demonstration trials, and large-scale trials in farmers' fields) of our mutant-based formulation (named TrichoBARC) for management of collar rot (S. rolfsii) in chickpea and lentil (Lens culinaris) over multiple locations in India. In certain experiments, other available formulations were included for comparison. This formulation consistently, over multiple locations and years, improved seed germination, reduced seedling mortality, and improved plant growth and yield. We also noticed growth promotion, improved pod bearing, and early flowering (7-10 days) in TrichoBARC-treated chickpea and lentil plants under field conditions. In toxicological studies in animal models, this formulation exhibited no toxicity to mammals, birds, or fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasun K Mukherjee
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - Sayaji T Mehetre
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - P D Sherkhane
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - Gopi Muthukathan
- Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
| | - Ananya Ghosh
- Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India
| | - A S Kotasthane
- Department of Plant Pathology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
| | - N Khare
- Department of Plant Pathology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
| | - Parshuram Rathod
- Department of Plant Pathology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
| | - Kishan Kumar Sharma
- Department of Plant Pathology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
| | - Rajib Nath
- Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, India
| | - Anand K Tewari
- Department of Plant Pathology, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India
| | | | - Meenakshi Arya
- Department of Plant Pathology, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, India
| | - D Pathak
- Regional Agricultural Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, Shillongani, India
| | - A R Wasnikar
- Department of Plant Pathology, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, India
| | - R K S Tiwari
- Department of Plant Pathology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, India
| | - D R Saxena
- R.A.K. College of Agriculture, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Sehore, India
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17
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Regulation of conidiation and antagonistic properties of the soil-borne plant beneficial fungus Trichoderma virens by a novel proline-, glycine-, tyrosine-rich protein and a GPI-anchored cell wall protein. Curr Genet 2019; 65:953-964. [DOI: 10.1007/s00294-019-00948-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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18
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Hirpara DG, Gajera HP, Patel AK, Katakpara ZA, Golakiya BA. Molecular insights into development of
Trichoderma
interfusants for multistress tolerance enhancing antagonism against
Sclerotium rolfsii
Sacc. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:7368-7383. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darshna G. Hirpara
- Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh Gujarat India
| | - H. P. Gajera
- Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh Gujarat India
| | - Abha K. Patel
- Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh Gujarat India
| | - Zinkal A. Katakpara
- Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh Gujarat India
| | - B. A. Golakiya
- Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh Gujarat India
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Abstract
Mycoparasitism is a lifestyle where one fungus establishes parasitic interactions with other fungi. Species of the genus Trichoderma together with Clonostachys rosea are among the most studied fungal mycoparasites. They have wide host ranges comprising several plant pathogens and are used for biological control of plant diseases. Trichoderma as well as C. rosea mycoparasites efficiently overgrow and kill their fungal prey by using infection structures and by applying lytic enzymes and toxic metabolites. Most of our knowledge on the putative signals and signaling pathways involved in prey recognition and activation of the mycoparasitic response is derived from studies with Trichoderma. These fungi rely on G-protein signaling, the cAMP pathway, and mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades during growth and development as well as during mycoparasitism. The signals being recognized by the mycoparasite may include surface molecules and surface properties as well as secondary metabolites and other small molecules released from the prey. Their exact nature, however, remains elusive so far. Recent genomics-based studies of mycoparasitic fungi of the order Hypocreales, i.e., Trichoderma species, C. rosea, Tolypocladium ophioglossoides, and Escovopsis weberi, revealed not only several gene families with a mycoparasitism-related expansion of gene paralogue numbers, but also distinct differences between the different mycoparasites. We use this information to illustrate the biological principles and molecular basis of necrotrophic mycoparasitism and compare the mycoparasitic strategies of Trichoderma as a "model" mycoparasite with the behavior and special features of C. rosea, T. ophioglossoides, and E. weberi.
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20
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García-Rico RO, Fierro F. [Role of G-protein alpha sub-units in the morphogenic processes of filamentous Ascomycota fungi]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2017; 34:1-9. [PMID: 28169110 DOI: 10.1016/j.riam.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The phylum Ascomycota comprises about 75% of all the fungal species described, and includes species of medical, phytosanitary, agricultural, and biotechnological importance. The ability to spread, explore, and colonise new substrates is a feature of critical importance for this group of organisms. In this regard, basic processes such as conidial germination, the extension of hyphae and sporulation, make up the backbone of development in most filamentous fungi. These processes require specialised morphogenic machinery, coordinated and regulated by mechanisms that are still being elucidated. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in understanding the role of the signalling pathway mediated by heterotrimericG proteins in basic biological processes of many filamentous fungi. This review focuses on the role of the alpha subunits of heterotrimericG proteins in the morphogenic processes of filamentous Ascomycota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón O García-Rico
- Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de Pamplona, Pamplona, Norte de Santander, Colombia.
| | - Francisco Fierro
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Unidad Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, Distrito Federal, México
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21
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Voisey CR, Christensen MT, Johnson LJ, Forester NT, Gagic M, Bryan GT, Simpson WR, Fleetwood DJ, Card SD, Koolaard JP, Maclean PH, Johnson RD. cAMP Signaling Regulates Synchronised Growth of Symbiotic Epichloë Fungi with the Host Grass Lolium perenne. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1546. [PMID: 27833620 PMCID: PMC5082231 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The seed-transmitted fungal symbiont, Epichloë festucae, colonizes grasses by infecting host tissues as they form on the shoot apical meristem (SAM) of the seedling. How this fungus accommodates the complexities of plant development to successfully colonize the leaves and inflorescences is unclear. Since adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent signaling is often essential for host colonization by fungal pathogens, we disrupted the cAMP cascade by insertional mutagenesis of the E. festucae adenylate cyclase gene (acyA). Consistent with deletions of this gene in other fungi, acyA mutants had a slow radial growth rate in culture, and hyphae were convoluted and hyper-branched suggesting that fungal apical dominance had been disrupted. Nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) staining of hyphae showed that cAMP disruption mutants were impaired in their ability to synthesize superoxide, indicating that cAMP signaling regulates accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Despite significant defects in hyphal growth and ROS production, E. festucae ΔacyA mutants were infectious and capable of forming symbiotic associations with grasses. Plants infected with E. festucae ΔacyA were marginally less robust than the wild-type (WT), however hyphae were hyper-branched, and leaf tissues heavily colonized, indicating that the tight regulation of hyphal growth normally observed in maturing leaves requires functional cAMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R. Voisey
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Michael T. Christensen
- Formally of Forage Improvement, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Linda J. Johnson
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Natasha T. Forester
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Milan Gagic
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Gregory T. Bryan
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Wayne R. Simpson
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Damien J. Fleetwood
- Biotelliga Ltd., Institute for Innovation in BiotechnologyAuckland, New Zealand
| | - Stuart D. Card
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - John P. Koolaard
- Bioinformatics and Statistics Team, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Paul H. Maclean
- Bioinformatics and Statistics Team, AgResearch Ltd., Lincoln Research CentreChristchurch, New Zealand
| | - Richard D. Johnson
- Forage Science, AgResearch Ltd., Grasslands Research CentrePalmerston North, New Zealand
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22
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Sun Q, Jiang X, Pang L, Wang L, Li M. Functions of thga1 Gene in Trichoderma harzianum Based on Transcriptome Analysis. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:8329513. [PMID: 27672660 PMCID: PMC5031823 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8329513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 05/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Trichoderma spp. are important biocontrol filamentous fungi, which are widely used for their adaptability, broad antimicrobial spectrum, and various antagonistic mechanisms. In our previous studies, we cloned thga1 gene encoding GαI protein from Trichoderma harzianum Th-33. Its knockout mutant showed that the growth rate, conidial yield, cAMP level, antagonistic action, and hydrophobicity decreased. Therefore, Illumina RNA-seq technology (RNA-seq) was used to determine transcriptomic differences between the wild-type strain and thga1 mutant. A total of 888 genes were identified as differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 427 upregulated and 461 downregulated genes. All DEGs were assigned to KEGG pathway databases, and 318 genes were annotated in 184 individual pathways. KEGG analysis revealed that these unigenes were significantly enriched in metabolism and degradation pathways. GO analysis suggested that the majority of DEGs were associated with catalytic activities and metabolism processes that encode carbohydrate-active enzymes, secondary metabolites, secreted proteins, or transcription factors. According to the functional annotation of these DEGs by KOG, the most abundant group was "secondary metabolite biosynthesis, transport, and catabolism." Further studies for functional characterization of candidate genes and pathways reported in this paper are necessary to further define the G protein signaling system in T. harzianum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiliang Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Li Pang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Lirong Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Mei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
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23
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Wang W, Wang M, Wang J, Zhu C, Chung KR, Li H. Adenylyl cyclase is required for cAMP production, growth, conidial germination, and virulence in the citrus green mold pathogen Penicillium digitatum. Microbiol Res 2016; 192:11-20. [PMID: 27664719 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Penicillium digitatum is the causative agent of green mold decay on citrus fruit. The cAMP-mediated signaling pathway plays an important role in the transduction of extracellular signals and has been shown to regulate a wide range of developmental processes and pathogenicity in fungal pathogens. We cloned and characterized a Pdac1 gene of P. digitatum, which encodes a polypeptide similar to fungal adenylyl cyclases. Using a loss-of-function mutation in the Pdac1 gene we demonstrated a critical requirement for hyphal growth and conidial germination. Deletion of Pdac1 resulted in decreased accumulation of cAMP and down-regulation of genes encoding a G protein α subunit, both catalytic and regulatory subunits of PKA, and two transcriptional regulators StuA and Som1. Fungal mutants lacking Pdac1 produced abundant conidia, which failed to germinate effectively and displayed an elevated sensitivity to heat treatment. Pdac1 mutant failed to utilize carbohydrates effectively and thus displayed severe growth retardation on rich and synthetic media. Slow growth seen in the Pdac1 mutants could be due to a defect in nutrient sensing and acquisition. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that Pdac1 was primarily expressed at the early stage of infection. Fungal pathogenicity assayed on citrus fruit revealed that P. digitatum strains impaired for Pdac1 delayed lesion formation. Our results highlight important regulatory roles of adenylyl cyclase-mediated cAMP production in P. digitatum and provide insights into the critical role of cAMP in fungal growth, development and virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weili Wang
- Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Mingshuang Wang
- Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jiye Wang
- Zhejiang Police College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Congyi Zhu
- Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Kuang-Ren Chung
- Department of Plant Pathology, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, 40227 Taiwan.
| | - Hongye Li
- Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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24
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Zeilinger S, Gruber S, Bansal R, Mukherjee PK. Secondary metabolism in Trichoderma – Chemistry meets genomics. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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25
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Schmoll M, Dattenböck C, Carreras-Villaseñor N, Mendoza-Mendoza A, Tisch D, Alemán MI, Baker SE, Brown C, Cervantes-Badillo MG, Cetz-Chel J, Cristobal-Mondragon GR, Delaye L, Esquivel-Naranjo EU, Frischmann A, Gallardo-Negrete JDJ, García-Esquivel M, Gomez-Rodriguez EY, Greenwood DR, Hernández-Oñate M, Kruszewska JS, Lawry R, Mora-Montes HM, Muñoz-Centeno T, Nieto-Jacobo MF, Nogueira Lopez G, Olmedo-Monfil V, Osorio-Concepcion M, Piłsyk S, Pomraning KR, Rodriguez-Iglesias A, Rosales-Saavedra MT, Sánchez-Arreguín JA, Seidl-Seiboth V, Stewart A, Uresti-Rivera EE, Wang CL, Wang TF, Zeilinger S, Casas-Flores S, Herrera-Estrella A. The Genomes of Three Uneven Siblings: Footprints of the Lifestyles of Three Trichoderma Species. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:205-327. [PMID: 26864432 PMCID: PMC4771370 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00040-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Trichoderma contains fungi with high relevance for humans, with applications in enzyme production for plant cell wall degradation and use in biocontrol. Here, we provide a broad, comprehensive overview of the genomic content of these species for "hot topic" research aspects, including CAZymes, transport, transcription factors, and development, along with a detailed analysis and annotation of less-studied topics, such as signal transduction, genome integrity, chromatin, photobiology, or lipid, sulfur, and nitrogen metabolism in T. reesei, T. atroviride, and T. virens, and we open up new perspectives to those topics discussed previously. In total, we covered more than 2,000 of the predicted 9,000 to 11,000 genes of each Trichoderma species discussed, which is >20% of the respective gene content. Additionally, we considered available transcriptome data for the annotated genes. Highlights of our analyses include overall carbohydrate cleavage preferences due to the different genomic contents and regulation of the respective genes. We found light regulation of many sulfur metabolic genes. Additionally, a new Golgi 1,2-mannosidase likely involved in N-linked glycosylation was detected, as were indications for the ability of Trichoderma spp. to generate hybrid galactose-containing N-linked glycans. The genomic inventory of effector proteins revealed numerous compounds unique to Trichoderma, and these warrant further investigation. We found interesting expansions in the Trichoderma genus in several signaling pathways, such as G-protein-coupled receptors, RAS GTPases, and casein kinases. A particularly interesting feature absolutely unique to T. atroviride is the duplication of the alternative sulfur amino acid synthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Schmoll
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | - Christoph Dattenböck
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | | | | | - Doris Tisch
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mario Ivan Alemán
- Cinvestav, Department of Genetic Engineering, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Scott E Baker
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
| | - Christopher Brown
- University of Otago, Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | | - José Cetz-Chel
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - Luis Delaye
- Cinvestav, Department of Genetic Engineering, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - Alexa Frischmann
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Monica García-Esquivel
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | | | - David R Greenwood
- The University of Auckland, School of Biological Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Miguel Hernández-Oñate
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Joanna S Kruszewska
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Laboratory of Fungal Glycobiology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Robert Lawry
- Lincoln University, Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sebastian Piłsyk
- Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Laboratory of Fungal Glycobiology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kyle R Pomraning
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
| | - Aroa Rodriguez-Iglesias
- Austrian Institute of Technology, Department Health and Environment, Bioresources Unit, Tulln, Austria
| | | | | | - Verena Seidl-Seiboth
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - Chih-Li Wang
- National Chung-Hsing University, Department of Plant Pathology, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Fang Wang
- Academia Sinica, Institute of Molecular Biology, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Susanne Zeilinger
- Research Division Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria University of Innsbruck, Institute of Microbiology, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Alfredo Herrera-Estrella
- LANGEBIO, National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Cinvestav-Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
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27
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Physiological and Molecular Signalling Involved in Disease Management Through Trichoderma: An Effective Biocontrol Paradigm. Fungal Biol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27312-9_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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28
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Nogueira KMV, Costa MDN, de Paula RG, Mendonça-Natividade FC, Ricci-Azevedo R, Silva RN. Evidence of cAMP involvement in cellobiohydrolase expression and secretion by Trichoderma reesei in presence of the inducer sophorose. BMC Microbiol 2015; 15:195. [PMID: 26424592 PMCID: PMC4590280 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-015-0536-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The signaling second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) regulates many aspects of cellular function in all organisms. Previous studies have suggested a role for cAMP in the regulation of gene expression of cellulolytic enzymes in Trichoderma reesei (anamorph of Hypocrea jecorina). Methods The effects of cAMP in T. reesei were analyzed through both activity and expression of cellulase, intracellular cAMP level measurement, western blotting, indirect immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Results To elucidate the involvement of cAMP in the cellulase expression, we analyzed the growth of the mutant strain ∆acy1 and its parental strain QM9414 in the presence of the inducers cellulose, cellobiose, lactose, or sophorose, and the repressor glucose. Our results indicated that cAMP regulates the expression of cellulase in a carbon source-dependent manner. The expression cel7a, and cel6a genes was higher in the presence of sophorose than in the presence of cellulose, lactose, cellobiose, or glucose. Moreover, intracellular levels of cAMP were up to four times higher in the presence of sophorose compared to other carbon sources. Concomitantly, our immunofluorescence microscopy and western blot data suggest that in the presence of sophorose, cAMP may regulate secretion of cellulolytic enzymes in T. reesei. Conclusions These results allow us to better understand the role of cAMP and expand our knowledge on the signal transduction pathways involved in the regulation of cellulase expression in T. reesei. Finally, our data may help develop new strategies to improve the expression of cel7a and cel6a genes, and therefore, favor their application in several biotechnology fields. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0536-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karoline Maria Vieira Nogueira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Mariana do Nascimento Costa
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Renato Graciano de Paula
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Flávia Costa Mendonça-Natividade
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Rafael Ricci-Azevedo
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular and Pathogenic Bioagents, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Roberto Nascimento Silva
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, 14049-900, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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Šimkovič M, Olejníková P, Mat'at'a M, Žemla P, Vilimová V, Farkašová L, Varečka L. Nutrient transport into germinating Trichoderma atroviride conidia and development of its driving force. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2015; 161:1240-50. [PMID: 25777081 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The exit from dormancy and the start of growth should be preceded or at least accompanied by the uptake of nutrients. In this work we studied changes in the transport of several nutrients into Trichoderma atroviride conidia. Germination started with a short period of isodiametric growth (conidial swelling), followed by polarized growth (germ tube formation) after about 8 h at 26 °C. The onset of isodiametric growth required the presence of external both phosphate and nitrate. At the same time, an increased uptake of precursors of macromolecules and phospholipids ((14)C- or (3)H-labelled valine, uracil, N-acetylglucosamine and choline) occurred. A low uptake of these precursors was observed also in non-germinating conidia. Concomitantly, this uptake developed an increased sensitivity to the uncoupler 3,3',4',5-tetrachlorosalicylanilide. Expression and activity of H(+)-ATPase started after completing isodiametric growth, suggesting that the proton-motive force (PMF) generated by H(+)-ATPase may be an accelerator of nutrient uptake and metabolism. (14)C-valine uptake was also measured into a mutant with disrupted pma1 gene. This mutant did not form conidia. The mutant also exhibited uncoupler sensitivity of (14)C-valine uptake. These observations showed that a PMF must have been generated by a mechanism(s) other than the H(+)-ATPase activity in the WT before H(+)-ATPase expression and in mycelia with disrupted H(+)-ATPase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Šimkovič
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Petra Olejníková
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Matej Mat'at'a
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Žemla
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Viera Vilimová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Lenka Farkašová
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - L'udovít Varečka
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Radlinského 9, 81237-Bratislava, Slovakia
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Daguerre Y, Siegel K, Edel-Hermann V, Steinberg C. Fungal proteins and genes associated with biocontrol mechanisms of soil-borne pathogens: a review. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Studt L, Humpf HU, Tudzynski B. Signaling governed by G proteins and cAMP is crucial for growth, secondary metabolism and sexual development in Fusarium fujikuroi. PLoS One 2013; 8:e58185. [PMID: 23469152 PMCID: PMC3585259 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0058185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant-pathogenic fungus Fusarium fujikuroi is a notorious rice pathogen causing hyper-elongation of infected plants due to the production of gibberellic acids (GAs). In addition to GAs, F. fujikuroi produces a wide range of other secondary metabolites, such as fusarins, fusaric acid or the red polyketides bikaverins and fusarubins. The recent availability of the fungal genome sequence for this species has revealed the potential of many more putative secondary metabolite gene clusters whose products remain to be identified. However, the complex regulation of secondary metabolism is far from being understood. Here we studied the impact of the heterotrimeric G protein and the cAMP-mediated signaling network, including the regulatory subunits of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), to study their effect on colony morphology, sexual development and regulation of bikaverins, fusarubins and GAs. We demonstrated that fusarubin biosynthesis is negatively regulated by at least two Gα subunits, FfG1 and FfG3, which both function as stimulators of the adenylyl cyclase FfAC. Surprisingly, the primary downstream target of the adenylyl cyclase, the PKA, is not involved in the regulation of fusarubins, suggesting that additional, yet unidentified, cAMP-binding protein(s) exist. In contrast, bikaverin biosynthesis is significantly reduced in ffg1 and ffg3 deletion mutants and positively regulated by FfAC and FfPKA1, while GA biosynthesis depends on the active FfAC and FfPKA2 in an FfG1- and FfG3-independent manner. In addition, we provide evidence that G Protein-mediated/cAMP signaling is important for growth in F. fujikuroi because deletion of ffg3, ffac and ffpka1 resulted in impaired growth on minimal and rich media. Finally, sexual crosses of ffg1 mutants showed the importance of a functional FfG1 protein for development of perithecia in the mating strain that carries the MAT1-1 idiomorph.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Studt
- Institut für Lebensmittelchemie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany
- Institut für Biologie und Biotechnologie der Pflanzen, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institut für Lebensmittelchemie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany
| | - Bettina Tudzynski
- Institut für Biologie und Biotechnologie der Pflanzen, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Trichoderma-plant-pathogen interactions: advances in genetics of biological control. Indian J Microbiol 2012; 52:522-9. [PMID: 24293705 DOI: 10.1007/s12088-012-0308-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma spp. are widely used in agriculture as biofungicides. Induction of plant defense and mycoparasitism (killing of one fungus by another) are considered to be the most important mechanisms of Trichoderma-mediated biological control. Understanding these mechanisms at the molecular level would help in developing strains with superior biocontrol properties. In this article, we review our current understanding of the genetics of interactions of Trichoderma with plants and plant pathogens.
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Roles of protein kinase A and adenylate cyclase in light-modulated cellulase regulation in Trichoderma reesei. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:2168-78. [PMID: 22286997 DOI: 10.1128/aem.06959-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathway represents a central signaling cascade with crucial functions in all organisms. Previous studies of Trichoderma reesei (anamorph of Hypocrea jecorina) suggested a function of cAMP signaling in regulation of cellulase gene expression. We were therefore interested in how the crucial components of this pathway, adenylate cyclase (ACY1) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), would affect cellulase gene expression. We found that both ACY1 and PKA catalytic subunit 1 (PKAC1) are involved in regulation of vegetative growth but are not essential for sexual development. Interestingly, our results showed considerably increased transcript abundance of cellulase genes in darkness compared to light (light responsiveness) upon growth on lactose. This effect is strongly enhanced in mutant strains lacking PKAC1 or ACY1. Comparison to the wild type showed that ACY1 has a consistently positive effect on cellulase gene expression in light and darkness, while PKAC1 influences transcript levels of cellulase genes positively in light but negatively in darkness. A function of PKAC1 in light-modulated cellulase gene regulation is also reflected by altered complex formation within the cel6a/cbh2 promoter in light and darkness and in the absence of pkac1. Analysis of transcript levels of cellulase regulator genes indicates that the regulatory output of the cAMP pathway may be established via adjustment of XYR1 abundance. Consequently, both adenylate cyclase and protein kinase A are involved in light-modulated cellulase gene expression in T. reesei and have a dampening effect on the light responsiveness of this process.
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Omann MR, Lehner S, Escobar Rodríguez C, Brunner K, Zeilinger S. The seven-transmembrane receptor Gpr1 governs processes relevant for the antagonistic interaction of Trichoderma atroviride with its host. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2011; 158:107-118. [PMID: 22075023 PMCID: PMC3352357 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.052035-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mycoparasitic Trichoderma species are applied as biocontrol agents in agriculture to guard plants against fungal diseases. During mycoparasitism, Trichoderma directly interacts with phytopathogenic fungi, preceded by a specific recognition of the host and resulting in its disarming and killing. In various fungal pathogens, including mycoparasites, signalling via heterotrimeric G proteins plays a major role in regulating pathogenicity-related functions. However, the corresponding receptors involved in the recognition of host-derived signals are largely unknown. Functional characterization of Trichoderma atroviride Gpr1 revealed a prominent role of this seven-transmembrane protein of the cAMP-receptor-like family of fungal G-protein-coupled receptors in the antagonistic interaction with the host fungus and governing of mycoparasitism-related processes. Silencing of gpr1 led to an avirulent phenotype accompanied by an inability to attach to host hyphae. Furthermore, gpr1-silenced transformants were unable to respond to the presence of living host fungi with the expression of chitinase- and protease-encoding genes. Addition of exogenous cAMP was able to restore host attachment in gpr1-silenced transformants but could not restore mycoparasitic overgrowth. A search for downstream targets of the signalling pathway(s) involving Gpr1 resulted in the isolation of genes encoding e.g. a member of the cyclin-like superfamily and a small secreted cysteine-rich protein. Although silencing of gpr1 caused defects similar to those of mutants lacking the Tga3 Gα protein, no direct interaction between Gpr1 and Tga3 was observed in a split-ubiquitin two-hybrid assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus R. Omann
- Research Area Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Center for Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorferstrasse 1a, Wien, Austria
| | - Sylvia Lehner
- Department for Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, Tulln, Austria
| | - Carolina Escobar Rodríguez
- Research Area Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Center for Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorferstrasse 1a, Wien, Austria
| | - Kurt Brunner
- Research Area Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Center for Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorferstrasse 1a, Wien, Austria
- Department for Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, Tulln, Austria
| | - Susanne Zeilinger
- Research Area Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Center for Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Gumpendorferstrasse 1a, Wien, Austria
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Carreras-Villaseñor N, Sánchez-Arreguín JA, Herrera-Estrella AH. Trichoderma: sensing the environment for survival and dispersal. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2011; 158:3-16. [PMID: 21964734 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.052688-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Species belonging to the genus Trichoderma are free-living fungi common in soil and root ecosystems, and have a broad range of uses in industry and agricultural biotechnology. Some species of the genus are widely used biocontrol agents, and their success is in part due to mycoparasitism, a lifestyle in which one fungus is parasitic on another. In addition Trichoderma species have been found to elicit plant defence responses and to stimulate plant growth. In order to survive and spread, Trichoderma switches from vegetative to reproductive development, and has evolved with several sophisticated molecular mechanisms to this end. Asexual development (conidiation) is induced by light and mechanical injury, although the effects of these inducers are influenced by environmental conditions, such as nutrient status and pH. A current appreciation of the links between the molecular participants is presented in this review. The photoreceptor complex BLR-1/BLR-2, ENVOY, VELVET, and NADPH oxidases have been suggested as key participants in this process. In concert with these elements, conserved signalling pathways, such as those involving heterotrimeric G proteins, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (cAMP-PKA) are involved in this molecular orchestration. Finally, recent comparative and functional genomics analyses allow a comparison of the machinery involved in conidiophore development in model systems with that present in Trichoderma and a model to be proposed for the key factors involved in the development of these structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nohemí Carreras-Villaseñor
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad, CINVESTAV Irapuato, Km 9.6 libramiento Norte Carretera Irapuato-León, CP 36821, Irapuato, Gto., México
| | - José Alejandro Sánchez-Arreguín
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad, CINVESTAV Irapuato, Km 9.6 libramiento Norte Carretera Irapuato-León, CP 36821, Irapuato, Gto., México
| | - Alfredo H Herrera-Estrella
- Laboratorio Nacional de Genómica para la Biodiversidad, CINVESTAV Irapuato, Km 9.6 libramiento Norte Carretera Irapuato-León, CP 36821, Irapuato, Gto., México
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Leeder AC, Palma-Guerrero J, Glass NL. The social network: deciphering fungal language. Nat Rev Microbiol 2011; 9:440-51. [PMID: 21572459 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
It has been estimated that up to one quarter of the world's biomass is of fungal origin, comprising approximately 1.5 million species. In order to interact with one another and respond to environmental cues, fungi communicate with their own chemical languages using a sophisticated series of extracellular signals and cellular responses. A new appreciation for the linkage between these chemical languages and developmental processes in fungi has renewed interest in these signalling molecules, which can now be studied using post-genomic resources. In this Review, we focus on the molecules that are secreted by the largest phylum of fungi, the Ascomycota, and the quest to understand their biological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail C Leeder
- Plant and Microbial Biology Department, The University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3102, USA
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Steyaert JM, Weld RJ, Mendoza-Mendoza A, Stewart A. Reproduction without sex: conidiation in the filamentous fungus Trichoderma. Microbiology (Reading) 2010; 156:2887-2900. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.041715-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma spp. have served as models for asexual reproduction in filamentous fungi for over 50 years. Physical stimuli, such as light exposure and mechanical injury to the mycelium, trigger conidiation; however, conidiogenesis itself is a holistic response determined by the cell's metabolic state, as influenced by the environment and endogenous biological rhythms. Key environmental parameters are the carbon and nitrogen status and the C : N ratio, the ambient pH and the level of calcium ions. Recent advances in our understanding of the molecular biology of this fungus have revealed a conserved mechanism of environmental perception through the White Collar orthologues BLR-1 and BLR-2. Also implicated in the molecular regulation are the PacC pathways and the conidial regulator VELVET. Signal transduction cascades which link environmental signals to physiological outputs have also been revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M. Steyaert
- Bio-Protection Research Centre, PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - Richard J. Weld
- Lincoln Ventures Limited, PO Box 133, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | | | - Alison Stewart
- Bio-Protection Research Centre, PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
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Overlapping and distinct functions of two Trichoderma virens MAP kinases in cell-wall integrity, antagonistic properties and repression of conidiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 398:765-70. [PMID: 20633533 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 07/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have studied the functions of the Trichoderma virens TmkB, a homologue of the yeast cell-wall integrity MAP kinase Slt2, using gene knockout. The functions of TmkB were compared to those of the pathogenicity MAP kinase homologue (TmkA). Like the tmkA loss-of-function mutants, tmkB mutants exhibited reduced radial growth and constitutive conidiation in dark as well as in liquid shake cultures. The tmkB mutants, in contrast to tmkA mutants, had cell-wall integrity defects, as shown by autolysis of the mycelia and increased sensitivity to cell-wall degrading enzymes. Interestingly, the tmkB mutants were not autolytic on the synthetic Vogels minimal medium. The tmkB mutants had attenuated ability to overgrow the plant pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii, while retaining the ability to overgrow Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp., a phenotype also exhibited by the tmkA mutants. This first functional analysis of a cell-wall integrity MAPK in Trichoderma spp., a group of economically important fungi, shows the importance of this signaling pathway in biocontrol. Common phenotypes of the TmkA and TmkB pathways suggest that the two MAPKs may share some substrates, perhaps subunits of key transcription factors, thus dependent on two phosphorylation events for their activity.
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Biology and biotechnology of Trichoderma. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 87:787-99. [PMID: 20461510 PMCID: PMC2886115 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2632-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2010] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are soilborne, green-spored ascomycetes that can be found all over the world. They have been studied with respect to various characteristics and applications and are known as successful colonizers of their habitats, efficiently fighting their competitors. Once established, they launch their potent degradative machinery for decomposition of the often heterogeneous substrate at hand. Therefore, distribution and phylogeny, defense mechanisms, beneficial as well as deleterious interaction with hosts, enzyme production and secretion, sexual development, and response to environmental conditions such as nutrients and light have been studied in great detail with many species of this genus, thus rendering Trichoderma one of the best studied fungi with the genome of three species currently available. Efficient biocontrol strains of the genus are being developed as promising biological fungicides, and their weaponry for this function also includes secondary metabolites with potential applications as novel antibiotics. The cellulases produced by Trichoderma reesei, the biotechnological workhorse of the genus, are important industrial products, especially with respect to production of second generation biofuels from cellulosic waste. Genetic engineering not only led to significant improvements in industrial processes but also to intriguing insights into the biology of these fungi and is now complemented by the availability of a sexual cycle in T. reesei/Hypocrea jecorina, which significantly facilitates both industrial and basic research. This review aims to give a broad overview on the qualities and versatility of the best studied Trichoderma species and to highlight intriguing findings as well as promising applications.
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Choi YE, Xu JR. The cAMP signaling pathway in Fusarium verticillioides is important for conidiation, plant infection, and stress responses but not fumonisin production. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2010; 23:522-33. [PMID: 20192838 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-23-4-0522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides is one of the most important fungal pathogens of maize. Mycotoxin, fumonisins produced by this pathogen pose a threat to human and animal health. Because cAMP signaling has been implicated in regulating diverse developmental and infection processes in fungal pathogens, in this study, we aimed to elucidate the function of the cAMP-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway in toxin production and plant infection in F. verticillioides. Targeted deletion mutants were generated for the CPK1 and FAC1 genes that encode a catalytic subunit of PKA and the adenylate cyclase, respectively. Defects in radial growth and macroconidiation were observed in both the cpk1 and fac1 deletion mutants. The fac1 mutant also was significantly reduced in virulence and microconidiation but increased in tolerance to heat and oxidative stresses. These phenotypes were not observed in the cpk1 mutant, indicating that additional catalytic subunit of PKA must exist and function downstream from FAC1. The fac1 mutant formed microconidia mainly in false heads. The expression levels of the hydrophobin genes HYD1 and HYD2, which are known to be associated with change in formation of microconidia, were significantly reduced in the fac1 mutant. Expression of F. verticillioides GSY2 and HSP26 genes, two other putative downstream targets of FAC1, was increased in the fac1 mutant and may be associated with its enhanced stress tolerance. Although fumonisin production was normal, biosynthesis of bikaverin was increased in the fac1 mutant, suggesting that FAC1 and cAMP signaling may have pathway-or metabolite-specific regulatory roles in secondary metabolism. Overall, the pleiotropic defects of the fac1 deletion mutant indicate that the cAMP-PKA pathway is involved in growth, conidiation, bikaverin production, and plant infection in F. verticillioides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon-E Choi
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Steyaert JM, Weld RJ, Stewart A. Ambient pH intrinsically influences Trichoderma conidiation and colony morphology. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:198-208. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 12/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Seidl V, Song L, Lindquist E, Gruber S, Koptchinskiy A, Zeilinger S, Schmoll M, Martínez P, Sun J, Grigoriev I, Herrera-Estrella A, Baker SE, Kubicek CP. Transcriptomic response of the mycoparasitic fungus Trichoderma atroviride to the presence of a fungal prey. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:567. [PMID: 19948043 PMCID: PMC2794292 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Combating the action of plant pathogenic microorganisms by mycoparasitic fungi has been announced as an attractive biological alternative to the use of chemical fungicides since two decades. The fungal genus Trichoderma includes a high number of taxa which are able to recognize, combat and finally besiege and kill their prey. Only fragments of the biochemical processes related to this ability have been uncovered so far, however. Results We analyzed genome-wide gene expression changes during the begin of physical contact between Trichoderma atroviride and two plant pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Rhizoctonia solani, and compared with gene expression patterns of mycelial and conidiating cultures, respectively. About 3000 ESTs, representing about 900 genes, were obtained from each of these three growth conditions. 66 genes, represented by 442 ESTs, were specifically and significantly overexpressed during onset of mycoparasitism, and the expression of a subset thereof was verified by expression analysis. The upregulated genes comprised 18 KOG groups, but were most abundant from the groups representing posttranslational processing, and amino acid metabolism, and included components of the stress response, reaction to nitrogen shortage, signal transduction and lipid catabolism. Metabolic network analysis confirmed the upregulation of the genes for amino acid biosynthesis and of those involved in the catabolism of lipids and aminosugars. Conclusion The analysis of the genes overexpressed during the onset of mycoparasitism in T. atroviride has revealed that the fungus reacts to this condition with several previously undetected physiological reactions. These data enable a new and more comprehensive interpretation of the physiology of mycoparasitism, and will aid in the selection of traits for improvement of biocontrol strains by recombinant techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Seidl
- Research Area Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/166, A-1060 Vienna, Austria.
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Brunner K, Omann M, Pucher ME, Delic M, Lehner SM, Domnanich P, Kratochwill K, Druzhinina I, Denk D, Zeilinger S. Trichoderma G protein-coupled receptors: functional characterisation of a cAMP receptor-like protein from Trichoderma atroviride. Curr Genet 2008; 54:283-99. [PMID: 18836726 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-008-0217-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2008] [Revised: 09/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Galpha subunits act to regulate vegetative growth, conidiation, and the mycoparasitic response in Trichoderma atroviride. To extend our knowledge on G protein signalling, we analysed G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). As the genome sequence of T. atroviride is not publicly available yet, we carried out an in silico exploration of the genome database of the close relative T. reesei. Twenty genes encoding putative GPCRs distributed over eight classes and additional 35 proteins similar to the Magnaporthe grisea PTH11 receptor were identified. Subsequently, four T. atroviride GPCR-encoding genes were isolated and affiliated to the cAMP receptor-like family by phylogenetic and topological analyses. All four genes showed lowest expression on glycerol and highest mRNA levels upon carbon starvation. Transcription of gpr3 and gpr4 responded to exogenously added cAMP and the shift from liquid to solid media. gpr3 mRNA levels also responded to the presence of fungal hyphae or cellulose membranes. Further characterisation of mutants bearing a gpr1-silencing construct revealed that Gpr1 is essential for vegetative growth, conidiation and conidial germination. Four genes encoding the first GPCRs described in Trichoderma were isolated and their expression characterized. At least one of these GPCRs is important for several cellular processes, supporting the fundamental role of G protein signalling in this fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Brunner
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Chemical Engineering, Research Area of Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Getreidemarkt 9/166, Vienna, Austria
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Three alpha-subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins and an adenylyl cyclase have distinct roles in fruiting body development in the homothallic fungus Sordaria macrospora. Genetics 2008; 180:191-206. [PMID: 18723884 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.108.091603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Sordaria macrospora, a self-fertile filamentous ascomycete, carries genes encoding three different alpha-subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins (gsa, G protein Sordaria alpha subunit). We generated knockout strains for all three gsa genes (Deltagsa1, Deltagsa2, and Deltagsa3) as well as all combinations of double mutants. Phenotypic analysis of single and double mutants showed that the genes for Galpha-subunits have distinct roles in the sexual life cycle. While single mutants show some reduction of fertility, double mutants Deltagsa1Deltagsa2 and Deltagsa1Deltagsa3 are completely sterile. To test whether the pheromone receptors PRE1 and PRE2 mediate signaling via distinct Galpha-subunits, two recently generated Deltapre strains were crossed with all Deltagsa strains. Analyses of the corresponding double mutants revealed that compared to GSA2, GSA1 is a more predominant regulator of a signal transduction cascade downstream of the pheromone receptors and that GSA3 is involved in another signaling pathway that also contributes to fruiting body development and fertility. We further isolated the gene encoding adenylyl cyclase (AC) (sac1) for construction of a knockout strain. Analyses of the three DeltagsaDeltasac1 double mutants and one Deltagsa2Deltagsa3Deltasac1 triple mutant indicate that SAC1 acts downstream of GSA3, parallel to a GSA1-GSA2-mediated signaling pathway. In addition, the function of STE12 and PRO41, two presumptive signaling components, was investigated in diverse double mutants lacking those developmental genes in combination with the gsa genes. This analysis was further completed by expression studies of the ste12 and pro41 transcripts in wild-type and mutant strains. From the sum of all our data, we propose a model for how different Galpha-subunits interact with pheromone receptors, adenylyl cyclase, and STE12 and thus cooperatively regulate sexual development in S. macrospora.
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Zeilinger S, Omann M. Trichoderma biocontrol: signal transduction pathways involved in host sensing and mycoparasitism. GENE REGULATION AND SYSTEMS BIOLOGY 2007; 1:227-34. [PMID: 19936091 PMCID: PMC2759141 DOI: 10.4137/grsb.s397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are used as biocontrol agents against several plant pathogenic fungi like Rhizoctonia spp., Pythium spp., Botrytis cinerea and Fusarium spp. which cause both soil-borne and leaf- or flower-borne diseases of agricultural plants. Plant disease control by Trichoderma is based on complex interactions between Trichoderma, the plant pathogen and the plant. Until now, two main components of biocontrol have been identified: direct activity of Trichoderma against the plant pathogen by mycoparasitism and induced systemic resistance in plants. As the mycoparasitic interaction is host-specific and not merely a contact response, it is likely that signals from the host fungus are recognised by Trichoderma and provoke transcription of mycoparasitism-related genes. In the last few years examination of signalling pathways underlying Trichoderma biocontrol started and it was shown that heterotrimeric G-proteins and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases affected biocontrol-relevant processes such as the production of hydrolytic enzymes and antifungal metabolites and the formation of infection structures. MAPK signalling was also found to be involved in induction of plant systemic resistance in Trichoderma virens and in the hyperosmotic stress response in Trichoderma harzianum. Analyses of the function of components of the cAMP pathway during Trichoderma biocontrol revealed that mycoparasitism-associated coiling and chitinase production as well as secondary metabolism are affected by the internal cAMP level; in addition, a cross talk between regulation of light responses and the cAMP signalling pathway was found in Trichoderma atroviride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Zeilinger
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute for Chemical Engineering, Research Area of Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Working Group Molecular Biochemistry of Fungi, Getreidemarkt 9, A-1060 Vienna, Austria.
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