Spontaneous tumour development in human papillomavirus type 8 E6 transgenic mice and rapid induction by UV-light exposure and wounding

Whole exome sequencing of human papillomavirus-related multiphenotypic sinonasal carcinoma: a case report

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) related Multiphenotypic Sinonasal Carcinoma (HMSC) is a rare tumor with features of both atypical squamous cell and adenoid cystic carcinoma, making diagnosis challenging. Approximately 80% of HMSC cases carries HPV type 33 followed by type 35. We present a patient with HMSC. Pathological classification was aided by immunohistochemistry (IHC). The presence of HPV-DNA was tested using PCR and HPV E6/E7 expression by RNA in situ hybridization (RNA ISH). Whole exome sequencing (WES) was used to identify somatic gene mutations and copy number alterations. A 55-year-old male presented with an HMSC in the right nostril. Histological examination showed a solid basaloid subtype with mucinous spaces and ductal structures. IHC showed positive staining for SOX-10, SMA, p40, p63, PanCK, CK8 and MYB. Diffuse positive staining for p16 was observed and PCR and RNA ISH indicated the presence of HPV type 35. The patient was treated with endoscopic surgery and radiotherapy and is currently alive and recurrence-free after 16 months of follow-up. WES revealed 38 somatic sequence variants and several chromosomal regions with copy number alterations, including a copy number gain at 6q23 where MYB is located. EP300, ZNF22, ZNF609 and LRIG3 are some of the genes whose mutations were indicated as probably pathogenic. We did not find mutations predictive for drug response according to the ESMO Scale for Clinical Actionability of Molecular Targets database. This is the first report of WES analysis of an HMSC, in this case associated with HPV type 35. The detected mutation in EP300 and the overexpression of MYB may serve as molecular targets for personalized therapy.

HPV8-induced STAT3 activation led keratinocyte stem cell expansion in human actinic keratoses

Despite epidermal turnover, the skin is host to a complex array of microbes, including viruses, such as HPV, which must infect and manipulate skin keratinocyte stem cells (KSCs) to survive. This crosstalk between the virome and KSC populations remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated the effect of HPV8 on KSCs using various mouse models. We observed that the HPV8 early region gene E6 specifically caused Lrig1+ hair follicle junctional zone KSC proliferation and expansion, which would facilitate viral transmission. Within Lrig1+ KSCs specifically, HPV8 E6 bound intracellular p300 to phosphorylate the STAT3 transcriptional regulatory node. This induced ΔNp63 expression, resulting in KSC expansion into the overlying epidermis. HPV8 was associated with 70% of human actinic keratoses. Together, these results define the "hit-and-run" mechanism for HPV8 in human actinic keratosis as an expansion of KSCs, which lack melanosome protection and are thus susceptible to sun light-induced malignant transformation.

High-risk HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7 and their interplay with the innate immune response: Uncovering mechanisms of immune evasion and therapeutic prospects

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) tumor viruses causally associated with 5% of human cancers, comprising both anogenital and upper aerodigestive tract carcinomas. Despite the availability of prophylactic vaccines, HPVs continue to pose a significant global health challenge, primarily due to inadequate vaccine access and coverage. These viruses can establish persistent infections by evading both the intrinsic defenses of infected tissues and the extrinsic defenses provided by professional innate immune cells. Crucial for their evasion strategies is their unique intraepithelial life cycle, which effectively shields them from host detection. Thus, strategies aimed at reactivating the innate immune response within infected or transformed epithelial cells, particularly through the production of type I interferons (IFNs) and lymphocyte-recruiting chemokines, are considered viable solutions to counteract the adverse effects of persistent infections by these oncogenic viruses. This review focuses on the complex interplay between the high-risk HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7 and the innate immune response in epithelial cells and HPV-associated cancers. In particular, it details the molecular mechanisms by which E6 and E7 modulate the innate immune response, highlighting significant progress in our comprehension of these processes. It also examines forward-looking strategies that exploit the innate immune system to ameliorate existing anticancer therapies, thereby providing crucial insights into future therapeutic developments.

The cutaneous beta human papillomavirus type 8 E6 protein induces CCL2 through the CEBPα/miR-203/p63 pathway to support an inflammatory microenvironment in epidermodysplasia verruciformis skin lesions

Human papillomavirus type 8 (HPV8), a cutaneous genus beta HPV type, has co-carcinogenic potential at sun-exposed sites in patients suffering from the inherited skin disease epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV). We had previously shown that Langerhans cells responsible for epithelial immunosurveillance were strongly reduced at infected sites and that the HPV8 E7 protein interferes with the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)β to suppress the Langerhans cell chemokine CCL20. At the same time, however, we observed that EV lesions are heavily infiltrated with inflammatory immune cells, which is similar to the situation in HPV8 E6 transgenic mice. To identify critical inflammatory factors, we used a broad multiplex approach and found that the monocyte attracting chemokine CCL2 was significantly and strongly induced by HPV8 E6 but not E7-expressing HaCaT cells, which were used as a model for UV-damaged skin keratinocytes. Conditioned media from HPV8 E6-expressing keratinocytes enhanced CCL2-receptor (CCR2)-dependent monocyte recruitment in vitro, and macrophages predominated in the stroma but were also detected in the epidermal compartment of EV lesions in vivo. CCL2 induction by HPV8 E6 was even stronger than stimulation with the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α, and both HPV8 E6 and TNF-α resulted in substantial suppression of the transcription factor C/EBPα. Using RNAi-mediated knockdown and overexpression approaches, we demonstrated a mechanistic role of the recently identified C/EBPα/miR-203/p63 pathway for HPV8 E6-mediated CCL2 induction at protein and transcriptional levels. Epithelial co-expression of p63 and CCL2 was confirmed in HPV8 E6-expressing organotypic air-liquid interface cultures and in lesional EV epidermis in vivo. In summary, our data demonstrate that HPV8 oncoproteins actively deregulate epidermal immune homeostasis through modulation of C/EBP factor-dependent pathways. While HPV8 E7 suppresses immunosurveillance required for viral persistence, the present study provides evidence that E6 involves the stemness-promoting factor p63 to support an inflammatory microenvironment that may fuel carcinogenesis in EV lesions.

T Cell Immunity in Human Papillomavirus-Related Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma-A Systematic Review

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is an invasive malignancy that disproportionately afflicts immunosuppressed individuals. The close associations of cSCC with immunosuppression and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection beget the question of how these three entities are intertwined in carcinogenesis. By exploring the role of T cell immunity in HPV-related cSCC based on the existing literature, we found that the loss of T cell immunity in the background of β-HPV infection promotes cSCC initiation following exposure to environmental carcinogens or chronic trauma. This highlights the potential of developing T-cell centred therapeutic and preventive strategies for populations with increased cSCC risk.

Prevalence of novel gamma HPV types 223 and 225 in oral cavity and skin of Indian normal and neoplastic participants

Gamma-papillomaviruses, though traditionally classified as cutaneotropic, actual tissue tropism is largely unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the tissue-specific prevalence of two novel-HPV 223 and 225 in samples of oral mucosa and keratinized epithelium of varied skin parts from 226 female and male subjects, with or without neoplastic/dysplastic lesions in oral cavity or cervix. The gamma-human papillomavirus (gamma-HPV) 223 and 225 DNA presences were determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ursing the HPV type-specific primers and confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Viral load in the HPV 223 and HPV 225 positive samples were determined by absolute real-time quantification method. Alpha-HPV DNA prevalence was also checked in oral mucosa to ascertain coinfection status. Novel HPV 223 was present in 4.4% (10/226) oral mucosal samples of the study population; interestingly all were females with no prevalence in their corresponding skin swab samples. Whereas, the prevalence of HPV 225 was found both in the skin and oral mucosa of 28.2% (N = 37/131) female and 17.9% (N = 17/95) male participants. Alongside, HPV 223 viral load was found to be significantly higher (p = 0.02 < 0.05) in the oral mucosa of diseased participants, whereas, HPV 225 viral load was higher in the oral mucosa of normal participants. Our results suggest that gamma-HPV 223 has its prevalence only in the oral mucosal epithelium, whereas, HPV 225 has its prevalence on both mucosal and keratinized skin epithelium, indicating its dual tropism nature.

MmuPV1 E7's interaction with PTPN14 delays Epithelial differentiation and contributes to virus-induced skin disease

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) contribute to approximately 5% of all human cancers. Species-specific barriers limit the ability to study HPV pathogenesis in animal models. Murine papillomavirus (MmuPV1) provides a powerful tool to study the roles of papillomavirus genes in pathogenesis arising from a natural infection. We previously identified Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Non-Receptor Type 14 (PTPN14), a tumor suppressor targeted by HPV E7 proteins, as a putative cellular target of MmuPV1 E7. Here, we confirmed the MmuPV1 E7-PTPN14 interaction. Based on the published structure of the HPV18 E7/PTPN14 complex, we generated a MmuPV1 E7 mutant, E7K81S, that was defective for binding PTPN14. Wild-type (WT) and E7K81S mutant viral genomes replicated as extrachromosomal circular DNAs to comparable levels in mouse keratinocytes. E7K81S mutant virus (E7K81S MmuPV1) was generated and used to infect FoxN/Nude mice. E7K81S MmuPV1 caused neoplastic lesions at a frequency similar to that of WT MmuPV1, but the lesions arose later and were smaller than WT-induced lesions. The E7K81S MmuPV1-induced lesions also had a trend towards a less severe grade of neoplastic disease. In the lesions, E7K81S MmuPV1 supported the late (productive) stage of the viral life cycle and promoted E2F activity and cellular DNA synthesis in suprabasal epithelial cells to similar degrees as WT MmuPV1. There was a similar frequency of lateral spread of infections among mice infected with E7K81S or WT MmuPV1. Compared to WT MmuPV1-induced lesions, E7K81S MmuPV1-induced lesions had a significant expansion of cells expressing differentiation markers, Keratin 10 and Involucrin. We conclude that an intact PTPN14 binding site is necessary for MmuPV1 E7's ability to contribute to papillomavirus-induced pathogenesis and this correlates with MmuPV1 E7 causing a delay in epithelial differentiation, which is a hallmark of papillomavirus-induced neoplasia.

Prevention and Treatment of HPV-Induced Skin Tumors

Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most common cancer in humans with increasing incidence. Meanwhile, a growing body of evidence has provided a link between skin infections with HPV of the genus beta (betaHPV) and the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (cSCCs). Based on this association, the development of vaccines against betaHPV has become an important research topic. This review summarizes the current advances in prophylactic and therapeutic betaHPV vaccines, including progresses made in preclinical testing and clinical trials.

Poly(I:C) Treatment Prevents Skin Tumor Formation in the Preclinical HPV8 Transgenic Mouse Model

Actinic keratoses and cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas are associated with infections with human papillomavirus of genus beta (betaHPV) in immunosuppressed patients. To date, targeted therapy against betaHPV-associated skin cancer does not exist because of the large number of betaHPV without defined high-risk types. In this study, we hypothesized that the activation of innate antiviral immunity in the skin, asymptomatically infected with betaHPV, induces an antitumor response by in situ autovaccination and prevents the formation of betaHPV-associated skin cancer. To test this, we used the preclinical keratin-14-HPV8 transgenic mouse model, which develops skin tumors after mechanical wounding. Remarkably, treatment with the antiviral immune response activating polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly[I:C]) completely prevented cutaneous tumor growth. The induction of the IFN-induced genes Cxcl10 and Ifit1 by poly(I:C) depended on MDA5 activation. Increased numbers of total and activated CD4 and CD8 T cells were detected in poly(I:C)-treated skin. T cells were found in the skin of poly(I:C)-treated mice but not in the skin tumors of untreated mice. T-cell depletion showed a predominant role of CD4 T cells in poly(I:C)-mediated tumor prevention. Our findings identify the MDA5 ligand poly(I:C) as a promising candidate for in situ autovaccination approaches, which might serve as a treatment strategy against betaHPV-related skin diseases.

Transcription Properties of Beta-HPV8 and HPV38 Genomes in Human Keratinocytes

Persistent infections with high-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPV) from the genus alpha are established risk factors for the development of anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers. In contrast, HPV from the genus beta have been implicated in the development of cutaneous squamous cell cancer (cSCC) in epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) patients and organ transplant recipients. Keratinocytes are the in vivo target cells for HPV, but keratinocyte models to investigate the replication and oncogenic activities of beta-HPV genomes have not been established. A recent study revealed, that beta-HPV49 immortalizes normal human keratinocytes (NHK) only, when the viral E8^E2 repressor (E8^-) is inactivated (T. M. Rehm, E. Straub, T. Iftner, and F. Stubenrauch, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 119:e2118930119, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2118930119). We now demonstrate that beta-HPV8 and HPV38 wild-type or E8^- genomes are unable to immortalize NHK. Nevertheless, HPV8 and HPV38 express E6 and E7 oncogenes and other transcripts in transfected NHK. Inactivation of the conserved E1 and E2 replication genes reduces viral transcription, whereas E8^- genomes display enhanced viral transcription, suggesting that beta-HPV genomes replicate in NHK. Furthermore, growth of HPV8- or HPV38-transfected NHK in organotypic cultures, which are routinely used to analyze the productive replication cycle of HR-HPV, induces transcripts encoding the L1 capsid gene, suggesting that the productive cycle is initiated. In addition, transcription patterns in HPV8 organotypic cultures and in an HPV8-positive lesion from an EV patient show similarities. Taken together, these data indicate that NHK are a suitable system to analyze beta-HPV8 and HPV38 replication. IMPORTANCE High-risk HPV, from the genus alpha, can cause anogenital or oropharyngeal malignancies. The oncogenic properties of high-risk HPV are important for their differentiation-dependent replication in human keratinocytes, the natural target cell for HPV. HPV from the genus beta have been implicated in the development of cutaneous squamous cell cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) patients and organ transplant recipients. Currently, the replication cycle of beta-HPV has not been studied in human keratinocytes. We now provide evidence that beta-HPV8 and 38 are transcriptionally active in human keratinocytes. Inactivation of the viral E8^E2 repressor protein greatly increases genome replication and transcription of the E6 and E7 oncogenes, but surprisingly, this does not result in immortalization of keratinocytes. Differentiation of HPV8- or HPV38-transfected keratinocytes in organotypic cultures induces transcripts encoding the L1 capsid gene, suggesting that productive replication is initiated. This indicates that human keratinocytes are suited as a model to investigate beta-HPV replication.

Enhanced Spontaneous Skin Tumorigenesis and Aberrant Inflammatory Response to UVB Exposure in Immunosuppressed Human Papillomavirus Type 8‒Transgenic Mice

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) from the beta genus are commensal viruses of the skin usually associated with asymptomatic infection in the general population. However, in individuals with specific genetic backgrounds, such as patients with epidermodysplasia verruciformis, or those with immune defects, such as organ transplant recipients, they are functionally involved in sunlight-induced skin cancer development, mainly keratinocyte carcinoma. Despite their well-established protumorigenic role, the cooperation between β-HPV infection, impaired host immunosurveillance, and UVB exposure has never been formally shown in animal models. In this study, by crossing skin-specific HPV8-transgenic mice with Rag2-deficient mice, we have generated a preclinical mouse model, named Rag2^‒/‒:K14-HPV8. These mice display an unhealthy skin phenotype and spontaneously develop papilloma-like lesions spreading to the entire skin much more rapidly compared with Rag2^+/+:K14-HPV8 mice. Exposure to low doses of UVB radiation is sufficient to trigger severe skin inflammation in Rag2^‒/‒:K14-HPV8 but not in Rag2^+/+:K14-HPV8 mice. Their inflamed skin very much resembled that observed in cutaneous field cancerization in organ transplant recipients, showing high levels of UVB-damaged cells, enhanced production of proinflammatory cytokines, and mast cell recruitment to the dermis. Overall, this immunocompromised HPV8-transgenic mouse model shows that the coexistence of immune defects, β-HPV, and UVB exposure promotes skin cancer development.

Post‐kidney transplant cancers: Racial and ethnic differences in sun‐exposed skin versus non‐sun‐exposed anogenital skin

BACKGROUND

Transplant recipients have a 2- to 4-fold increased risk of developing malignancies over the general population. Cancer is the second most common cause of death for recipients. The magnitude of the risk depends on the cancer type and increases in viral-related malignancies. Skin cancer is the most common. However, data in most cancer registries is limited to cutaneous melanomas, thereby limiting the epidemiologic examination of cancer risk in non-melanoma skin cancer. Our goal was to evaluate post-kidney transplant cancer cases and sites in our population to guide screening recommendations.

METHODS

Between 2009 and 2015, a retrospective study of adult kidney recipients transplanted at East Carolina University was conducted. The first cancer diagnosis after transplant through February 18, 2020, was captured and analyzed. Patient demographics, cancer sites, and histological diagnoses were analyzed and compared. p16 immunohistochemistry was used as a surrogate marker for high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.

RESULTS

Retrospectively, kidney transplant recipients were analyzed (N = 439), the majority were non-Hispanic Black (NHB) individuals, 312 (71.1%), and 127 (28.9%) were non-Hispanic White (NHW) individuals. Of these, 59 (13.4%) developed a posttransplant malignancy, with the majority on sun-exposed skin found in NHW. NHB had all anogenital/mucosa skin cancers on non-sun-exposed skin. Of these detected in NHB, all were squamous cell carcinomas, with five out of six (83.3%) being positive for p16.

CONCLUSIONS

Posttransplant malignancy differed significantly by race, site, and potential source of etiology. The majority of malignancies are likely explained by acceleration of precursor lesions from prior exposure to ultraviolet rays or HPV.

Beta Human Papillomavirus 8 E6 Induces Micronucleus Formation and Promotes Chromothripsis

Cutaneous beta genus human papillomaviruses (β-HPVs) are suspected to promote the development of nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) by destabilizing the host genome. Multiple studies have established the genome destabilizing capacities of β-HPV proteins E6 and E7 as a cofactor with UV. However, the E6 protein from β-HPV8 (HPV8 E6) induces tumors in mice without UV exposure. Here, we examined a UV-independent mechanism of HPV8 E6-induced genome destabilization. We showed that HPV8 E6 reduced the abundance of anaphase bridge resolving helicase, Bloom syndrome protein (BLM). The diminished BLM was associated with increased segregation errors and micronuclei. These HPV8 E6-induced micronuclei had disordered micronuclear envelopes but retained replication and transcription competence. HPV8 E6 decreased antiproliferative responses to micronuclei and time-lapse imaging revealed HPV8 E6 promoted cells with micronuclei to complete mitosis. Finally, whole-genome sequencing revealed that HPV8 E6 induced chromothripsis in nine chromosomes. These data provide insight into mechanisms by which HPV8 E6 induces genome instability independent of UV exposure. IMPORTANCE Some beta genus human papillomaviruses (β-HPVs) may promote skin carcinogenesis by inducing mutations in the host genome. Supporting this, the E6 protein from β-HPV8 (8 E6) promotes skin cancer in mice with or without UV exposure. Many mechanisms by which 8 E6 increases mutations caused by UV have been elucidated, but less is known about how 8 E6 induces mutations without UV. We address that knowledge gap by showing that 8 E6 causes mutations stemming from mitotic errors. Specifically, 8 E6 reduces the abundance of BLM, a helicase that resolves and prevents anaphase bridges. This hinders anaphase bridge resolution and increases their frequency. 8 E6 makes the micronuclei that can result from anaphase bridges more common. These micronuclei often have disrupted envelopes yet retain localization of nuclear-trafficked proteins. 8 E6 promotes the growth of cells with micronuclei and causes chromothripsis, a mutagenic process where hundreds to thousands of mutations occur in a chromosome.

Molecular Mechanisms of MmuPV1 E6 and E7 and Implications for Human Disease

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause a substantial amount of human disease from benign disease such as warts to malignant cancers including cervical carcinoma, head and neck cancer, and non-melanoma skin cancer. Our ability to model HPV-induced malignant disease has been impeded by species specific barriers and pre-clinical animal models have been challenging to develop. The recent discovery of a murine papillomavirus, MmuPV1, that infects laboratory mice and causes the same range of malignancies caused by HPVs provides the papillomavirus field the opportunity to test mechanistic hypotheses in a genetically manipulatable laboratory animal species in the context of natural infections. The E6 and E7 proteins encoded by high-risk HPVs, which are the HPV genotypes associated with human cancers, are multifunctional proteins that contribute to HPV-induced cancers in multiple ways. In this review, we describe the known activities of the MmuPV1-encoded E6 and E7 proteins and how those activities relate to the activities of HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins encoded by mucosal and cutaneous high-risk HPV genotypes.

Human Beta Papillomavirus Type 8 E1 and E2 Proteins Suppress the Activation of the RIG-I-like Receptor MDA5

Persistent infections of the skin with the human papillomavirus of genus beta (β-HPV) in immunocompetent individuals are asymptomatic, but in immunosuppressed patients, β-HPV infections exhibit much higher viral loads on the skin and are associated with an increased risk of skin cancer. Unlike with HPV16, a high-risk α-HPV, the impact of β-HPV early genes on the innate immune sensing of viral nucleic acids has not been studied. Here, we used primary skin keratinocytes and U2OS cells expressing HPV8 or distinct HPV8 early genes and well-defined ligands of the nucleic-acid-sensing receptors RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING to analyze a potential functional interaction. We found that primary skin keratinocytes and U2OS cells expressed RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING, but not TLR7, TLR8, or TLR9. While HPV16-E6 downregulated the expression of RIG-I, MDA5, TLR3, and STING and, in conjunction with HPV16-E7, effectively suppressed type I IFN in response to MDA5 activation, the presence of HPV8 early genes showed little effect on the expression of these immune receptors, except for HPV8-E2, which was associated with an elevated expression of TLR3. Nevertheless, whole HPV8 genome expression, as well as the selective expression of HPV8-E1 or HPV8-E2, was found to suppress MDA5-induced type I IFN and the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6. Furthermore, RNA isolated from HPV8-E2 expressing primary human keratinocytes, but not control cells, stimulated a type I IFN response in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, indicating that the expression of HPV8-E2 in keratinocytes leads to the formation of stimulatory RNA ligands that require the active suppression of immune recognition. These results identify HPV8-E1 and HPV8-E2 as viral proteins that are responsible for the immune escape of β-HPV from the innate recognition of viral nucleic acids, a mechanism that may be necessary for establishing persistent β-HPV infections.

Small DNA tumor viruses and human cancer: Preclinical models of virus infection and disease

Human tumor viruses cause various human cancers that account for at least 15% of the global cancer burden. Among the currently identified human tumor viruses, two are small DNA tumor viruses: human papillomaviruses (HPVs) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV). The study of small DNA tumor viruses (adenoviruses, polyomaviruses, and papillomaviruses) has facilitated several significant biological discoveries and established some of the first animal models of virus-associated cancers. The development and use of preclinical in vivo models to study HPVs and MCPyV and their role in human cancer is the focus of this review. Important considerations in the design of animal models of small DNA tumor virus infection and disease, including host range, cell tropism, choice of virus isolates, and the ability to recapitulate human disease, are presented. The types of infection-based and transgenic model strategies that are used to study HPVs and MCPyV, including their strengths and limitations, are also discussed. An overview of the current models that exist to study HPV and MCPyV infection and neoplastic disease are highlighted. These comparative models provide valuable platforms to study various aspects of virus-associated human disease and will continue to expand knowledge of human tumor viruses and their relationship with their hosts.

Beta HPV Deregulates Double-Strand Break Repair

Beta human papillomavirus (beta HPV) infections are common in adults. Certain types of beta HPVs are associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) in immunocompromised individuals. However, whether beta HPV infections promote NMSC in the immunocompetent population is unclear. They have been hypothesized to increase genomic instability stemming from ultraviolet light exposure by disrupting DNA damage responses. Implicit in this hypothesis is that the virus encodes one or more proteins that impair DNA repair signaling. Fluorescence-based reporters, next-generation sequencing, and animal models have been used to test this primarily in cells expressing beta HPV E6/E7. Of the two, beta HPV E6 appears to have the greatest ability to increase UV mutagenesis, by attenuating two major double-strand break (DSB) repair pathways, homologous recombination, and non-homologous end-joining. Here, we review this dysregulation of DSB repair and emerging approaches that can be used to further these efforts.

[Role of human papillomavirus (HPV) in the development of skin cancer]

The incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer, the most common cancer in humans, continues to rise. The development of precancerous actinic keratoses and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is associated with infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) of genus beta (betaHPV). Persistent betaHPV infections in immunocompetent individuals are generally very well controlled by the immune system and largely asymptomatic. However, immunosuppression results in high levels of betaHPV in the skin and consequently increased viral oncoprotein activity, which in turn leads to a significantly increased risk for skin cancer. However, even in immunocompetent individuals, the risk of cSCC increases with age as a result of accumulated UV-induced DNA damage in the skin. In these patients, the mechanism of betaHPV-dependent carcinogenesis seems to be different from that observed in immunocompromised patients. The underlying mechanism of oncogenesis in immunocompetent patients is currently less well understood. This review summarizes the current research data, which provide compelling evidence that cutaneous papillomaviruses, particularly in interaction with UV light, promote skin carcinogenesis via a "hit-and-run" mechanism by enhancing the genotoxic effects of UV light in the initial phases of this multistep process. Furthermore, an overview of novel vaccination strategies against papillomaviruses that are currently tested in clinical trials is provided, which could significantly improve the treatment options for high-risk patients in the future.

Viruses and Skin Cancer

Advances in virology and skin cancer over recent decades have produced achievements that have been recognized not only in the field of dermatology, but also in other areas of medicine. They have modified the therapeutic and preventive solutions that can be offered to some patients and represent a significant step forward in our knowledge of the biology of skin cancer. In this paper, we review the viral agents responsible for different types of skin cancer, especially for solid skin tumors. We focus on human papillomavirus and squamous cell cancers, Merkel cell polyomavirus and Merkel cell carcinoma, and human herpesvirus 8 and Kaposi’s sarcoma.

IFN-γ Critically Enables the Intratumoural Infiltration of CXCR3+ CD8+ T Cells to Drive Squamous Cell Carcinoma Regression

Simple Summary

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is prevalent in aged individuals and individuals with compromised or weakened immune systems, indicating a close association between immune function and SCC control. The aim of our study was to uncover the identity of key immune subsets that mediate SCC control, and to elucidate the mechanistic role of the proinflammatory cytokine Interferon-gamma in this process. We established a SCC regressor model, which we used to determine that: (1) CD8⁺ T cells, not CD4⁺ T cells or NK cells, are essential for SCC regression; (2) the neutralisation of Interferon-gamma prevents CD8⁺ T cell infiltration and SCC regression; (3) CD8⁺ T cell migration into SCC critically depends upon Interferon-gamma-induced chemokine expression. Thus, our model can be used to understand the key immune mechanisms involved in SCC regression, which will support targeted investigations into the integrity of these mechanisms in patients with progressive disease.

Abstract

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced tumours carry a high mutational load, are highly immunogenic, and often fail to grow when transplanted into normal, syngeneic mice. The aim of this study was to investigate factors critical for the immune-mediated rejection of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). In our rejection model, transplanted SCC establish and grow in mice immunosuppressed with tacrolimus. When tacrolimus is withdrawn, established SCC tumours subsequently undergo immune-mediated tumour rejection. Through the depletion of individual immune subsets at the time of tacrolimus withdrawal, we established a critical role for CD8⁺ T cells, but not CD4⁺ T cells, γδ T cells, or NK cells, in driving the regression of SCC. Regression was critically dependent on IFN-γ, although IFN-γ was not directly cytotoxic to SCC cells. IFN-γ-neutralisation abrogated SCC regression, significantly reduced CD8⁺ T cell-infiltration into SCC, and significantly impaired the secretion of CXCL9, CXCL10 and CCL5 within the tumour microenvironment. A strong positive correlation was revealed between CXCL10 expression and CD8⁺ T cell abundance in tumours. Indeed, blockade of the CXCL10 receptor CXCR3 at the time of tacrolimus withdrawal prevented CD8⁺ T cell infiltration and the regression of SCC. Chimeric models revealed an important role for immune cells as producers of IFN-γ, but not as recipients of IFN-γ signals via the IFN-γ receptor. Together, these findings suggest a key role for IFN-γ in driving the expression of chemokines within the tumour environment essential for the destruction of established SCC by CD8⁺ T cells.

First Report of Phodopus sungorus Papillomavirus Type 1 Infection in Roborovski Hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii)

Papillomaviruses (PVs) are considered highly species-specific with cospeciation as the main driving force in their evolution. However, a recent increase in the available PV genome sequences has revealed inconsistencies in virus–host phylogenies, which could be explained by adaptive radiation, recombination, host-switching events and a broad PV host range. Unfortunately, with a relatively low number of animal PVs characterized, understanding these incongruities remains elusive. To improve knowledge of biology and the spread of animal PV, we collected 60 swabs of the anogenital and head and neck regions from a healthy colony of 30 Roborovski hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii) and detected PVs in 44/60 (73.3%) hamster samples. This is the first report of PV infection in Roborovski hamsters. Moreover, Phodopus sungorus papillomavirus type 1 (PsuPV1), previously characterized in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus), was the only PV detected in Roborovski hamsters. In addition, after a detailed literature search, review and summary of published evidence and construction of a tanglegram linking the cladograms of PVs and their hosts, our findings were discussed in the context of available knowledge on PVs described in at least two different host species.

Monocytes promote UV-induced epidermal carcinogenesis

Mononuclear phagocytes consisting of monocytes, macrophages, and DCs play a complex role in tumor development by either promoting or restricting tumor growth. Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is the second most common nonmelanoma skin cancer arising from transformed epidermal keratinocytes. While present at high numbers, the role of tumor-infiltrating and resident myeloid cells in the formation of cSCC is largely unknown. Using transgenic mice and depleting antibodies to eliminate specific myeloid cell types in the skin, we investigated the involvement of mononuclear phagocytes in the development of UV-induced cSCC in K14-HPV8-E6 transgenic mice. Although resident Langerhans cells were enriched in the tumor, their contribution to tumor formation was negligible. Equally, dermal macrophages were dispensable for the development of cSCC. In contrast, mice lacking circulating monocytes were completely resistant to UV-induced cSCC, indicating that monocytes promote tumor development. Collectively, these results demonstrate a critical role for classical monocytes in the initiation of skin cancer.

Mus musculus papillomavirus 1 is a key driver of skin cancer development upon immunosuppression

Epidemiological and experimental data implicate cutaneous human papillomavirus infection as co-factor in the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (cSCCs), particularly in immunocompromised organ transplant recipients (OTRs). Herein, we established and characterized a skin cancer model, in which Mus musculus papillomavirus 1 (MmuPV1) infection caused cSCCs in cyclosporine A (CsA)-treated mice, even in the absence of UV light. Development of cSCCs and their precursors were observed in 70% of MmuPV1-infected, CsA-treated mice on back as well as on tail skin. Immunosuppression by systemic CsA, but not UV-B irradiation, was a prerequisite, as immunocompetent or UV-B-irradiated mice did not develop skin malignancies after infection. In the virus-driven cSCCs the MmuPV1-E6/E7 oncogenes were abundantly expressed, and transcriptional activity and productive infection demonstrated. MmuPV1 infection induced the expression of phosphorylated H2AX, but not degradation of proapoptotic BAK in the cSCCs. Transfer of primary cells, established from a MmuPV1-induced cSCC from back skin, into athymic nude mice gave rise to secondary cSCCs, which lacked viral DNA, demonstrating that maintenance of the malignant phenotype was virus independent. This papillomavirus-induced skin cancer model opens future investigations into viral involvement, pathogenesis, and cancer surveillance, aiming at understanding and controlling the high incidence of skin cancer in OTRs.

Cutaneous viral infections associated with ultraviolet radiation exposure

The complex interplay between ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and cutaneous viral infections in the context of cancer etiology is challenging to unravel, given the limited information on the independent association between UVR and cutaneous viral infections. Using multiple biomarkers of infection with 24 types of cutaneous human papillomavirus (HPV) and 4 types of polyomaviruses (HPyV), we investigated cross-sectional associations with recent UVR exposure, using skin pigmentation measured by spectrophotometer. Age- and sex-adjusted associations between UVR and viral seropositivity, viral DNA present in eyebrow hairs (EBH) and skin swabs (SSW) were estimated using logistic regression. Beta-HPV seropositivity was associated with viral DNA positivity in EBH (OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.05-1.88) and SSW (OR = 1.86, 95% CI = 1.25-2.74). Similar associations were observed for Merkel cell polyomavirus. Participants in the highest tertile of UVR exposure were more likely to be seropositive for beta-HPV (OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.16-2.38), and have beta-HPV DNA in EBH (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.06-2.33) and SSW (OR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.25-3.96), compared to participants with the lowest tertile of UVR exposure. UVR exposure was positively associated with three different markers of beta-HPV infection. Therefore, future studies of HPV associated KC development should address more directly the role of HPV and UVR exposure as potential co-carcinogens.

Beta human papillomaviruses infection and skin carcinogenesis

During the last decade, the worldwide incidence of keratinocyte carcinomas (KC) has increased significantly. They are now the most common malignancy, representing approximately 30% of all cancers. The role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation as a major environmental risk factor for skin cancers is well recognized. The aim of this review is to analyse the current understanding of the nature of beta-human papillomavirus (HPV) and its association with KC and explore the implications for the management and prevention of these cancers. A comprehensive review of the literature on beta-HPV and its association with KC was undertaken, the results reported in the form of a narrative review. A subgroup of HPV that infects the mucosal epithelia of the genital tract has been firmly associated with carcinogenesis. In addition, some HPV types with cutaneous tropism have been proposed to cooperate with UV in the development of KC. The first evidence for this association was reported in 1922 in patients with epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV). Since then, epidemiological studies have highlighted the higher risk of skin cancer in patients with EV and certain cutaneous HPV types, and in vitro studies have elucidated molecular mechanisms and transforming properties of beta-HPV. Furthermore, in vivo research conducted on transgenic mice models has shown the possible role of beta-HPV in cutaneous carcinogenesis as a co-factor with UV radiation and immunosuppression. There is good evidence supporting the role of beta-HPV in the oncogenesis of KC. The high prevalence of beta-HPV in human skin and the worldwide burden of KC makes the search for an effective vaccine relevant and worthwhile.

Beta Human Papillomavirus 8E6 Attenuates LATS Phosphorylation after Failed Cytokinesis

Beta genus human papillomaviruses (β-HPVs) cause cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (cSCCs) in a subset of immunocompromised patients. However, β-HPVs are not necessary for tumor maintenance in the general population. Instead, they may destabilize the genome in the early stages of cancer development. Supporting this idea, β-HPV's 8E6 protein attenuates p53 accumulation after failed cytokinesis. This paper offers mechanistic insight into how β-HPV E6 causes this change in cell signaling. An in silico screen and characterization of HCT 116 cells lacking p300 suggested that the histone acetyltransferase is a negative regulator of Hippo pathway (HP) gene expression. HP activation restricts growth in response to stimuli, including failed cytokinesis. Loss of p300 resulted in increased HP gene expression, including proproliferative genes associated with HP inactivation. β-HPV 8E6 expression recapitulates some of these phenotypes. We used a chemical inhibitor of cytokinesis (dihydrocytochalasin B [H2CB]) to induce failed cytokinesis. This system allowed us to show that β-HPV 8E6 reduced activation of large tumor suppressor kinase (LATS), an HP kinase. LATS is required for p53 accumulation following failed cytokinesis. These phenotypes were dependent on β-HPV 8E6 destabilizing p300 and did not completely attenuate the HP. It did not alter H2CB-induced nuclear exclusion of the transcription factor YAP. β-HPV 8E6 also did not decrease HP activation in cells grown to a high density. Although our group and others have previously described inhibition of DNA repair, to the best of our knowledge, this marks the first time that a β-HPV E6 protein has been shown to hinder HP signaling.IMPORTANCE β-HPVs contribute to cSCC development in immunocompromised populations. However, it is unclear if these common cutaneous viruses are tumorigenic in the general population. Thus, a more thorough investigation of β-HPV biology is warranted. If β-HPV infections do promote cSCCs, they are hypothesized to destabilize the cellular genome. In vitro data support this idea by demonstrating the ability of the β-HPV E6 protein to disrupt DNA repair signaling events following UV exposure. We show that β-HPV E6 more broadly impairs cellular signaling, indicating that the viral protein dysregulates the HP. The HP protects genome fidelity by regulating cell growth and apoptosis in response to a myriad of deleterious stimuli, including failed cytokinesis. After failed cytokinesis, β-HPV 8E6 attenuates phosphorylation of the HP kinase (LATS). This decreases some, but not all, HP signaling events. Notably, β-HPV 8E6 does not limit senescence associated with failed cytokinesis.

Presence of human papillomavirus DNA in voriconazole-associated cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Voriconazole and genus beta human papillomavirus (HPV) are independently associated with the development of photo-exposed cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) but have not been evaluated concurrently. The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence and type of detectable HPV DNA in voriconazole-associated SCC.

METHODS

SCCs from immunosuppressed patients, in those with and without voriconazole exposure, were evaluated by PCR analysis for HPV DNA and compared to SCC from non-immunosuppressed patients. An additional expanded PCR analysis of all SCC that developed in the voriconazole group was also performed.

RESULTS

HPV DNA was detected by PCR in all groups regardless of the immunosuppression status (80.5%) with beta HPV most prevalent (64.3-78.6%). However, immunosuppressed patients were significantly more likely to be infected by beta HPV types 5, 8, 14, 20, and 21 (P-value 0.014), and represented the majority of beta HPV types found in the voriconazole group.

CONCLUSIONS

In this retrospective study, beta HPV 5, 8, 14, 20, and 21 were commonly detected in voriconazole-associated SCC. The results indicate a possible role of beta HPV in the pathogenesis of cutaneous SCC in photo-exposed areas. Further studies are needed to establish the role of HPV and voriconazole in the pathogenesis of the lesion.

Viruses in Skin Cancer (VIRUSCAN): Study Design and Baseline Characteristics of a Prospective Clinic-Based Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence suggests that cutaneous viral infections are risk factors for the development of keratinocyte carcinomas. The Viruses in Skin Cancer (VIRUSCAN) Study, a prospective cohort study, was established in 2014 to investigate the risk of keratinocyte carcinoma associated with cutaneous human papillomavirus and polyomavirus infection and the possible interaction with ultraviolet radiation exposure (UVR).

METHODS/RESULTS

VIRUSCAN incorporates repeated measures of viral infection using multiple markers of infection and quantitative measures of UVR using a spectrophotometer. Participants were recruited between July 14, 2014 and August 31, 2017 at the University of South Florida Dermatology Clinic in Tampa, FL. After excluding 124 individuals with prevalent keratinocyte carcinomas at baseline, 1,179 participants (53.2% women, 46.8% men, all ages 60 years and older) were followed for up to 4 years with routine skin exams occurring every 6 to 12 months. Here, we present the VIRUSCAN Study design, methods, and baseline characteristics, including demographics, sun exposure behavior, quantitative UVR exposure measurements, and cutaneous viral prevalence, for the full study cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

The VIRUSCAN Study will provide critical temporal evidence needed to assess the causality of the role cutaneous viral infections play in the development of keratinocyte carcinomas, as well as the potential interaction between cutaneous viral infections and UVR exposure.

IMPACT

Study findings will be valuable in future development of novel keratinocyte carcinoma prevention strategies.

Human Papillomaviruses and Skin Cancer

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect squamous epithelia and can induce hyperproliferative lesions. More than 220 different HPV types have been characterized and classified into five different genera. While mucosal high-risk HPVs have a well-established causal role in anogenital carcinogenesis, the biology of cutaneous HPVs is less well understood.From patients with the rare genetic disorder epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) and animal models, evidence is accumulating that cutaneous PV of genus β synergize with ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). In 2009, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified the genus β-HPV types 5 and 8 as "possible carcinogenic" biological agents (group 2B) in EV disease. Epidemiological and biological studies indicate that genus β-PV infection may also play a role in UV-mediated skin carcinogenesis in non-EV patients. However, they rather act at early stages of carcinogenesis and become dispensable for the maintenance of the malignant phenotype, compatible with a "hit-and-run" mechanism.This chapter will give an overview on genus β-PV infections and discuss similarities and differences of cutaneous and genus α mucosal high-risk HPV in epithelial carcinogenesis.

Wnt Signaling Pathways in Keratinocyte Carcinomas

The skin functions as a barrier between the organism and the surrounding environment. Direct exposure to external stimuli and the accumulation of genetic mutations may lead to abnormal cell growth, irreversible tissue damage and potentially favor skin malignancy. Skin homeostasis is coordinated by an intricate signaling network, and its dysregulation has been implicated in the development of skin cancers. Wnt signaling is one such regulatory pathway orchestrating skin development, homeostasis, and stem cell activation. Aberrant regulation of Wnt signaling cascades not only gives rise to tumor initiation, progression and invasion, but also maintains cancer stem cells which contribute to tumor recurrence. In this review, we summarize recent studies highlighting functional evidence of Wnt-related oncology in keratinocyte carcinomas, as well as discussing preclinical and clinical approaches that target oncogenic Wnt signaling to treat cancers. Our review provides valuable insight into the significance of Wnt signaling for future interventions against keratinocyte carcinomas.

HPV and skin carcinogenesis

Epidemiological and biological studies provide several lines of evidence for the involvement of cutaneous beta human papillomaviruses (HPVs), together with ultraviolet (UV) radiation, in the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. These viruses appear to act with a hit-and-run mechanism, being necessary at an early stage of carcinogenesis and being dispensable for the maintenance of the malignant phenotype. Studies in experimental models show that beta HPVs, mainly via the E6 and E7 oncoproteins, are able to promote proliferation and to circumvent cellular stresses induced by UV radiation. These findings support a model of skin carcinogenesis in which beta HPV-infected keratinocytes remain alive despite the accumulation of UV-induced DNA mutations. In this manner, these cells become highly susceptible to progression towards malignancy. Thus, UV radiation is the main driver of skin cancer development, while beta HPVs act as facilitators of the accumulation of UV-induced DNA mutations.

Cross-talk of cutaneous beta human papillomaviruses and the immune system: determinants of disease penetrance

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect the epithelia of skin or mucosa, where they can induce hyperproliferative lesions. More than 220 different HPV types have been characterized and classified into five different genera. Mucosal high-risk HPVs are causative for cancers of the anogenital region and oropharynx. Clinical data from patients with the rare genetic disorder epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) indicate that genus beta-HPVs cooperate with ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. In addition, epidemiological and biological findings indicate that beta-HPV types play a role in UV-mediated skin carcinogenesis also in non-EV individuals. However, the mechanisms used by these cutaneous viruses to promote epithelial carcinogenesis differ significantly from those of mucosal HPVs. Recent studies point to a delicate cross-talk of beta-HPVs with the cell-autonomous immunity of the host keratinocytes and the local immune microenvironment that eventually determines the fate of cutaneous HPV infection and the penetrance of disease. This review gives an overview of the critical interactions of genus beta-HPVs with the local immune system that allow the virus to complete its life cycle, to escape from extrinsic immunity, and eventually to cause chronic inflammation contributing to skin carcinogenesis. This article is part of the theme issue 'Silent cancer agents: multi-disciplinary modelling of human DNA oncoviruses'.

An Emerging Issue in Oncogenic Virology: the Role of Beta Human Papillomavirus Types in the Development of Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Evidence suggests that beta human papillomaviruses (HPVs), together with ultraviolet radiation, contribute to the development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Beta HPVs appear to be not the main drivers of carcinogenesis but rather facilitators of the accumulation of ultraviolet-induced DNA mutations. Beta HPVs are promoters of skin carcinogenesis, although they are dispensable for the maintenance of the malignant phenotype. Therefore, beta HPV represents a target for skin cancer prevention, especially in high-risk populations.

The Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase H1 PTPH1 Supports Proliferation of Keratinocytes and is a Target of the Human Papillomavirus Type 8 E6 Oncogene

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) replicate their DNA in the suprabasal layer of the infected mucosa or skin. In order to create a suitable environment for vegetative viral DNA replication HPV delay differentiation and sustain keratinocyte proliferation that can lead to hyperplasia. The mechanism underlying cell growth stimulation is not well characterized. Here, we show that the E6 oncoprotein of the βHPV type 8 (HPV8), which infects the cutaneous skin and is associated with skin cancer in Epidermodysplasia verruciformis patients and immunosuppressed organ transplant recipients, binds to the protein tyrosine phosphatase H1 (PTPH1), which resulted in increased protein expression and phosphatase activity of PTPH1. Suppression of PTPH1 in immortalized keratinocytes reduced cell proliferation as well as the level of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Furthermore, we report that HPV8E6 expressing keratinocytes have increased level of active, GTP-bound Ras. This effect was independent of PTPH1. Therefore, HPV8E6-mediated targeting of PTPH1 might result in higher level of EGFR and enhanced keratinocyte proliferation. The HPV8E6-mediated stimulation of Ras may be an additional step to induce cell growth. Our results provide novel insights into the mechanism how βHPVE6 proteins support proliferation of infected keratinocytes, thus creating an environment with increased risk of development of skin cancer particularly upon UV-induced DNA mutations.

Mastomys Species as Model Systems for Infectious Diseases

Replacements of animal models by advanced in vitro systems in biomedical research, despite exceptions, are currently still not satisfactory in reproducing the whole complexity of pathophysiological mechanisms that finally lead to disease. Therefore, preclinical models are additionally required to reflect analogous in vivo situations as found in humans. Despite proven limitations of both approaches, only a combined experimental arrangement guarantees generalizability of results and their transfer to the clinics. Although the laboratory mouse still stands as a paradigm for many scientific discoveries and breakthroughs, it is mandatory to broaden our view by also using nontraditional animal models. The present review will first reflect the value of experimental systems in life science and subsequently describes the preclinical rodent model Mastomys coucha that-although still not well known in the scientific community-has a long history in research of parasites, bacteria, papillomaviruses and cancer. Using Mastomys, we could recently show for the first time that cutaneous papillomaviruses-in conjunction with UV as an environmental risk factor-induce squamous cell carcinomas of the skin via a "hit-and-run" mechanism. Moreover, Mastomys coucha was also used as a proof-of-principle model for the successful vaccination against non-melanoma skin cancer even under immunosuppressive conditions.

Phospholipidation of nuclear proteins by the human papillomavirus E6 oncoprotein: implication in carcinogenesis

Phospholipids regulate numerous cellular functions and their deregulation is known to be associated with cancer development. Here, we show for the first time that expression of the E6 oncoprotein of human papillomavirus type 8 (HPV8) leads to a profound increase in nuclear phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) lipid levels in monolayer cultures, that led to an aberrant phospholipidation of cellular proteins. Elevated PI(4,5)P₂ levels in organotypic skin cultures, skin tumors of K14-HPV8-E6 transgenic mice as well as HPV8 positive skin carcinomas highly suggest a decisive role of PI(4,5)P₂ in HPV associated squamous-cell-carcinoma development. Furthermore, mass-spectrometric analysis confirmed an increase of PI(4,5)P₂, which was characterized by a shift in the distribution of lipid species. PI(4,5)P₂ upregulation was independent of E6 interference with MAML1. However, E6 does interfere with the PI(4,5)P₂ metabolic pathway by upregulation of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate-5-kinase type I and phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinase type II as well as the binding to 5'-phosphatase OCRL and phosphatidylinositol. All of these mechanisms combined may contribute to PI(4,5)P₂ elevation in E6 positive cells. The identification of CAND1 and SND1 - two proteins known to be involved in carcinogenic processes - were significantly stronger phospholipidized in the presence of E6. In conclusion we provide evidence that the modulation of the PI(4,5)P₂ metabolism is a novel oncogenic mechanism relevant for HPV-induced carcinogenesis.

Cutaneous Papillomaviruses and Non-melanoma Skin Cancer: Causal Agents or Innocent Bystanders?

There is still controversy in the scientific field about whether certain types of cutaneous human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are causally involved in the development of non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). Deciphering the etiological role of cutaneous HPVs requires - besides tissue culture systems - appropriate preclinical models to match the obtained results with clinical data from affected patients. Clear scientific evidence about the etiology and underlying mechanisms involved in NMSC development is fundamental to provide reasonable arguments for public health institutions to classify at least certain cutaneous HPVs as group 1 carcinogens. This in turn would have implications on fundraising institutions and health care decision makers to force - similarly as for anogenital cancer - the implementation of a broad vaccination program against "high-risk" cutaneous HPVs to prevent NMSC as the most frequent cancer worldwide. Precise knowledge of the multi-step progression from normal cells to cancer is a prerequisite to understand the functional and clinical impact of cofactors that affect the individual outcome and the personalized treatment of a disease. This overview summarizes not only recent arguments that favor the acceptance of a viral etiology in NMSC development but also reflects aspects of causality in medicine, the use of empirically meaningful model systems and strategies for prevention.

Human papillomavirus and posttransplantation cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: A multicenter, prospective cohort study

Organ transplant recipients (OTRs) have a 100-fold increased risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). We prospectively evaluated the association between β genus human papillomaviruses (βPV) and keratinocyte carcinoma in OTRs. Two OTR cohorts without cSCC were assembled: cohort 1 was transplanted in 2003-2006 (n = 274) and cohort 2 was transplanted in 1986-2002 (n = 352). Participants were followed until death or cessation of follow-up in 2016. βPV infection was assessed in eyebrow hair by using polymerase chain reaction-based methods. βPV IgG seroresponses were determined with multiplex serology. A competing risk model with delayed entry was used to estimate cumulative incidence of histologically proven cSCC and the effect of βPV by using a multivariable Cox regression model. Results are reported as adjusted hazard ratios (HRs). OTRs with 5 or more different βPV types in eyebrow hair had 1.7 times the risk of cSCC vs OTRs with 0 to 4 different types (HR 1.7, 95% confidence interval 1.1-2.6). A similar risk was seen with high βPV loads (HR 1.8, 95% confidence interval 1.2-2.8). No significant associations were seen between serum antibodies and cSCC or between βPV and basal cell carcinoma. The diversity and load of βPV types in eyebrow hair are associated with cSCC risk in OTRs, providing evidence that βPV is associated with cSCC carcinogenesis and may present a target for future preventive strategies.

WNT ligands control initiation and progression of human papillomavirus-driven squamous cell carcinoma

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-driven cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is the most common cancer in immunosuppressed patients. Despite indications suggesting that HPV promotes genomic instability during cSCC development, the molecular pathways underpinning HPV-driven cSCC development remain unknown. We compared the transcriptome of HPV-driven mouse cSCC with normal skin and observed higher amounts of transcripts for Porcupine and WNT ligands in cSCC, suggesting a role for WNT signaling in cSCC progression. We confirmed increased Porcupine expression in human cSCC samples. Blocking the secretion of WNT ligands by the Porcupine inhibitor LGK974 significantly diminished initiation and progression of HPV-driven cSCC. Administration of LGK974 to mice with established cSCC resulted in differentiation of cancer cells and significant reduction of the cancer stem cell compartment. Thus, WNT/β-catenin signaling is essential for HPV-driven cSCC initiation and progression as well as for maintaining the cancer stem cell niche. Interference with WNT secretion may thus represent a promising approach for therapeutic intervention.

Inhibition of TGF-β and NOTCH Signaling by Cutaneous Papillomaviruses

Infections with cutaneous papillomaviruses have been linked to cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas that arise in patients who suffer from a rare genetic disorder, epidermodysplasia verruciformis, or those who have experienced long-term, systemic immunosuppression following organ transplantation. The E6 proteins of the prototypical cutaneous human papillomavirus (HPV) 5 and HPV8 inhibit TGF-β and NOTCH signaling. The Mus musculus papillomavirus 1, MmuPV1, infects laboratory mouse strains and causes cutaneous skin warts that can progress to squamous cell carcinomas. MmuPV1 E6 shares biological and biochemical activities with HPV8 E6 including the ability to inhibit TGF-β and NOTCH signaling by binding the SMAD2/SMAD3 and MAML1 transcription factors, respectively. Inhibition of TGF-β and NOTCH signaling is linked to delayed differentiation and sustained proliferation of differentiating keratinocytes. Furthermore, the ability of MmuPV1 E6 to bind MAML1 is necessary for wart and cancer formation in experimentally infected mice. Hence, experimental MmuPV1 infection in mice will be a robust and valuable experimental system to dissect key aspects of cutaneous HPV infection, pathogenesis, and carcinogenesis.

Deletion of epidermal Rac1 inhibits HPV-8 induced skin papilloma formation and facilitates HPV-8- and UV-light induced skin carcinogenesis

Overexpression and increased activity of the small Rho GTPase Rac1 has been linked to squamous cell carcinoma of the epidermis and mucosa in humans. Targeted deletion of Rac1 or inhibition of Rac1 activity in epidermal keratinocytes reduced papilloma formation in a chemical skin carcinogenesis mouse model. However, a potential role of Rac1 in HPV- and UV-light induced skin carcinogenesis has not been investigated so far, solar UV radiation being an important carcinogen to the skin.To investigate this, we deleted Rac1 or modulated its activity in mice with transgenic expression of Human papilloma virus type-8 (HPV-8) in epidermal keratinocytes. Our data show that inhibition or deletion of Rac1 results in reduced papilloma formation upon UV-irradiation with a single dose, whereas constitutive activation of Rac1 strongly increases papilloma frequency in these mice. Surprisingly, we observed that, upon chronic UV-irradiation, the majority of mice with transgenic expression of HPV-8 and epidermis specific Rac1 deletion developed squamous cell carcinomas. Taken together, our data show that Rac1 exerts a dual role in skin carcinogenesis: its activation is, on one hand, required for HPV-8- and UV-light induced papilloma formation but, on the other, suppresses the development of squamous cell carcinomas.

β-HPV Infection Correlates with Early Stages of Carcinogenesis in Skin Tumors and Patient-Derived Xenografts from a Kidney Transplant Recipient Cohort

Many malignancies that occur in high excess in kidney transplant recipients (KTRs) are due to viruses that thrive in the setting of immunosuppression. Keratinocyte carcinoma (KC), the most frequently occurring cancer type in KTR, has been associated with skin infection by human papillomavirus (HPV) from the beta genus. In this report, we extend our previous investigation aimed at identifying the presence of active β-HPV infection in skin tumors from KTRs through detection of viral protein expression. Using a combination of antibodies raised against the E4 and L1 proteins of the β-genotypes, we were able to visualize infection in five tumors [one keratoacanthoma (KA), three actinic keratoses (AKs), and one seborrheic keratoses (SKs)] that were all removed from two patients who had been both transplanted twice, had developed multiple KCs, and presented with a long history of immunosuppression (>30 years). These infected tissues displayed intraepidermal hyperplasia and increased expression of the ΔNp63 protein, which extended into the upper epithelial layers. In addition, using a xenograft model system in nude mice displaying a humanized stromal bed in the site of grafting, we successfully engrafted three AKs, two of which were derived from the aforementioned KTRs and displayed β-HPV infection in the original tumor. Of note, one AK-derived xenograft, along with its ensuing lymph node metastasis, was diagnosed as squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). In the latter, both β-HPV infection and ΔNp63 expression were no longer detectable. Although the overall success rate of engrafting was very low, the results of this study show for the first time that β-HPV⁺ and ΔNp63⁺ intraepidermal hyperplasia can indeed progress to an aggressive SCC able to metastasize. Consistent with a series of reports attributing a causative role of β-HPV at early stages of skin carcinogenesis through ΔNp63 induction and increased keratinocytes stemness, here we provide in vivo evidence that these events are also occurring in the affected skin of KTRs. Due to these β-HPV-driven molecular pathways, the nascent tumor cell is able to acquire a high enough number of carcinogenic insults that its proliferation and survival will eventually become independent of viral gene expression.

Rodent Papillomaviruses

Preclinical infection model systems are extremely valuable tools to aid in our understanding of Human Papillomavirus (HPV) biology, disease progression, prevention, and treatments. In this context, rodent papillomaviruses and their respective infection models are useful tools but remain underutilized resources in the field of papillomavirus biology. Two rodent papillomaviruses, MnPV1, which infects the Mastomys species of multimammate rats, and MmuPV1, which infects laboratory mice, are currently the most studied rodent PVs. Both of these viruses cause malignancy in the skin and can provide attractive infection models to study the lesser understood cutaneous papillomaviruses that have been frequently associated with HPV-related skin cancers. Of these, MmuPV1 is the first reported rodent papillomavirus that can naturally infect the laboratory strain of mice. MmuPV1 is an attractive model virus to study papillomavirus pathogenesis because of the ubiquitous availability of lab mice and the fact that this mouse species is genetically modifiable. In this review, we have summarized the knowledge we have gained about PV biology from the study of rodent papillomaviruses and point out the remaining gaps that can provide new research opportunities.

Loss of Genome Fidelity: Beta HPVs and the DNA Damage Response

While the role of genus alpha human papillomaviruses in the tumorigenesis and tumor maintenance of anogenital and oropharyngeal cancers is well-established, the role of genus beta human papilloviruses (β-HPVs) in non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) is less certain. Persistent β-HPV infections cause NMSCs in sun-exposed skin of people with a rare genetic disorder, epidermodysplasia verruciformis. However, β-HPV infections in people without epidermodysplasia verruciformis are typically transient. Further, β-HPV gene expression is not necessary for tumor maintenance in the general population as on average there is fewer than one copy of the β-HPV genome per cell in NMSC tumor biopsies. Cell culture, epidemiological, and mouse model experiments support a role for β-HPV infections in the initiation of NMSCs through a "hit and run" mechanism. The virus is hypothesized to act as a cofactor, augmenting the genome destabilizing effects of UV. Supporting this idea, two β-HPV proteins (β-HPV E6 and E7) disrupt the cellular response to UV exposure and other genome destabilizing events by abrogating DNA repair and deregulating cell cycle progression. The aberrant damage response increases the likelihood of oncogenic mutations capable of driving tumorigenesis independent of a sustained β-HPV infection or continued viral protein expression. This review summarizes what is currently known about the deleterious effects of β-HPV on genome maintenance in the context of the virus's putative role in NMSC initiation.

The PDZ-Binding Motif of HPV16-E6 Oncoprotein Modulates the Keratinization and Stemness Transcriptional Profile In Vivo

Objective

The aim of this work was to compare the early gene expression profiles in the skin of HPV16-E6 transgenic mice regulated by the E6 PDZ-binding motif.

Materials and Methods

The global transcriptional profiles in dorsal skin biopsies from K14E6 and K14E6Δ146-151 transgenic mice were compared using microarrays. Relevant genes obtained from the most differentially expressed processes were further examined by RT-qPCR, in situ RT-PCR, Western blot, or immunofluorescence.

Results

The transcriptomic landscape of K14E6 versus K14E6Δ146-151 shows that the most affected expression profiles were those related to keratinocyte differentiation, stem cell maintenance, and keratinization. Additionally, downregulation of epidermal stemness markers such as K15 and CD34, as well as the upregulation of cytokeratin 6b, appeared to be dependent on the E6 PDZ-binding motif. Finally, wound healing, a physiological process linked to stemness, is impaired in the K14E6 mice compared to K14E6Δ146-151.

Conclusion

The E6 PDZ-binding motif appears to affect stemness and keratinization during early stages of skin carcinogenesis. As E6 plays a significant role in HPV-induced skin carcinogenesis, the K14E6 versus K14E6Δ146-151 transcriptional profile provides a source of valuable data to uncover novel E6 functions in the skin.

Induction of Tyrosine Phosphorylation of UV-Activated EGFR by the Beta-Human Papillomavirus Type 8 E6 Leads to Papillomatosis

Epidemiological evidence is accumulating that beta-human papillomaviruses (HPV) synergize with UV-light in the development of precancerous actinic keratosis, and cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (cSCC), one of the most common cancers in the Caucasian population. We previously demonstrated the tumorigenic activity of beta-HPV type 8 (HPV8) in the skin of transgenic mice and its cooperation with UV-light. Analysis of underlying mechanisms now showed that in keratinocytes expressing the HPV8E6 protein a transient increase of tyrosine phosphorylated epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in response to UV-irradiation occurred, while EGFR tyrosine phosphorylation, i.e., receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)-activity was hardly affected in empty vector control cells. FACS and immunofluorescences revealed that the EGFR was internalized into early endosomes in response to UV-exposure in both, HPV8E6 positive and in control cells, yet with a higher rate in the presence of HPV8E6. Moreover, only in HPV8E6 expressing keratinocytes the EGFR was further sorted into CD63+ intraluminal vesicles, indicative for trafficking to late endosomes. The latter requires the ubiquitination of the EGFR, and in correlation, we could show that only in HPV8E6 positive keratinocytes the EGFR was ubiquitinated upon UV-exposure. HPV8E6 and tyrosine phosphorylated EGFR directly interacted which was enhanced by UV-irradiation. The treatment of K14-HPV8E6 transgenic mice with Canertinib, an inhibitor of the RTK-activity of the EGFR, suppressed skin papilloma growth in response to UV-irradiation. This confirms the crucial role of the RTK-activity of the EGFR in HPV8E6 and UV-mediated papillomatosis in transgenic mice. Taken together, our results demonstrate that HPV8E6 alters the signaling of the UV-activated EGFR and this is a critical step in papilloma formation in response to UV-light in transgenic mice. Our results provide a molecular basis how a beta-HPV type may support early steps of skin tumor formation in cooperation with UV-light.

The pathogenesis of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in organ transplant recipients

The pathogenesis of keratinocyte carcinoma following organ transplantation is multifactorial, and recent evidence suggests a complex and often synergistic interplay between the carcinogenic effects of ultraviolet radiation, compromised immune surveillance, direct pro- and anticarcinogenic effects of drugs, oncogenic viruses (in particular, beta-genus human papillomaviruses) and host genetic susceptibility factors. We present an overview of those factors for which there is currently the most convincing evidence and highlight important gaps in our knowledge. In particular, a clear understanding of the interdependence and relative contributions of these co-factors is currently lacking, yet has important implications for rational development of clinically relevant biomarkers and targeted strategies for treatment and prevention of post-transplant keratinocyte cancers.

HPV8 Field Cancerization in a Transgenic Mouse Model Is due to Lrig1+ Keratinocyte Stem Cell Expansion

β-Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause near ubiquitous latent skin infection within long-lived hair follicle (HF) keratinocyte stem cells. In patients with epidermodysplasia verruciformis, β-HPV viral replication is associated with skin keratosis and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. To determine the role of HF keratinocyte stem cells in β-HPV-induced skin carcinogenesis, we utilized a transgenic mouse model in which the keratin 14 promoter drives expression of the entire HPV8 early region (HPV8tg). HPV8tg mice developed thicker skin in comparison with wild-type littermates consistent with a hyperproliferative epidermis. HF keratinocyte proliferation was evident within the Lrig1+ keratinocyte stem cell population (69 vs. 55%, P < 0.01, n = 7), and not in the CD34+, LGR5+, and LGR6+ keratinocyte stem cell populations. This was associated with a 2.8-fold expansion in Lrig1+ keratinocytes and 3.8-fold increased colony-forming efficiency. Consistent with this, we observed nuclear p63 expression throughout this population and the HF infundibulum and adjoining interfollicular epidermis, associated with a switch from p63 transcriptional activation isoforms to ΔNp63 isoforms in HPV8tg skin. Epidermodysplasia verruciformis keratosis and in some cases actinic keratoses demonstrated similar histology associated with β-HPV reactivation and nuclear p63 expression within the HF infundibulum and perifollicular epidermis. These findings would suggest that β-HPV field cancerization arises from the HF junctional zone and predispose to squamous cell carcinoma.

Immunopathogenesis of HPV-Associated Cancers and Prospects for Immunotherapy

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a causative factor for various cancers of the anogenital region and oropharynx, and is supposed to play an important cofactor role for skin carcinogenesis. Evasion from immunosurveillance favors viral persistence. However, there is evidence that the mere presence of oncogenic HPV is not sufficient for malignant progression and that additional tumor-promoting steps are required. Recent studies have demonstrated that HPV-transformed cells actively promote chronic stromal inflammation and conspire with cells in the local microenvironment to promote carcinogenesis. This review highlights the complex interplay between HPV-infected cells and the local immune microenvironment during oncogenic HPV infection, persistence, and malignant progression, and discusses new prospects for diagnosis and immunotherapy of HPV-associated cancers.

Molecular Mechanisms of Human Papillomavirus Induced Skin Carcinogenesis

Infection of the cutaneous skin with human papillomaviruses (HPV) of genus betapapillomavirus (βHPV) is associated with the development of premalignant actinic keratoses and squamous cell carcinoma. Due to the higher viral loads of βHPVs in actinic keratoses than in cancerous lesions, it is currently discussed that these viruses play a carcinogenic role in cancer initiation. In vitro assays performed to characterize the cell transforming activities of high-risk HPV types of genus alphapapillomavirus have markedly contributed to the present knowledge on their oncogenic functions. However, these assays failed to detect oncogenic functions of βHPV early proteins. They were not suitable for investigations aiming to study the interactive role of βHPV positive epidermis with mesenchymal cells and the extracellular matrix. This review focuses on βHPV gene functions with special focus on oncogenic mechanisms that may be relevant for skin cancer development.