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Li Y, Zhang L, Wang L, Li J, Zhao Y, Liu F, Wang Q. Structure and function of type IV IRES in picornaviruses: a systematic review. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1415698. [PMID: 38855772 PMCID: PMC11157119 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1415698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The Picornaviridae is a family of icosahedral viruses with single-stranded, highly diverse positive-sense RNA genomes. Virions consist of a capsid, without envelope, surrounding a core of RNA genome. A typical genome of picornavirus harbors a well-conserved and highly structured RNA element known as the internal ribosome entry site (IRES), functionally essential for viral replication and protein translation. Based on differences in their structures and mechanisms of action, picornaviral IRESs have been categorized into five types: type I, II, III, IV, and V. Compared with the type IV IRES, the others not only are structurally complicated, but also involve multiple initiation factors for triggering protein translation. The type IV IRES, often referred to as hepatitis C virus (HCV)-like IRES due to its structural resemblance to the HCV IRES, exhibits a simpler and more compact structure than those of the other four. The increasing identification of picornaviruses with the type IV IRES suggests that this IRES type seems to reveal strong retention and adaptation in terms of viral evolution. Here, we systematically reviewed structural features and biological functions of the type IV IRES in picornaviruses. A comprehensive understanding of the roles of type IV IRESs will contribute to elucidating the replication mechanism and pathogenesis of picornaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- Qingdao Center for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Qingdao, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Shandong New Hope Liuhe Group Co., Ltd., Qingdao, China
| | - Ling Wang
- University Hospital, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jing Li
- Market Supervision Administration of Huangdao District, Qingdao, China
| | - Yanwei Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Fuxiao Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
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Van Brussel K, Mahar JE, Hall J, Bender H, Ortiz-Baez AS, Chang WS, Holmes EC, Rose K. Gammaretroviruses, novel viruses and pathogenic bacteria in Australian bats with neurological signs, pneumonia and skin lesions. Virology 2023; 586:43-55. [PMID: 37487325 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2023.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
More than 70 bat species are found in mainland Australia. While most studies of bat viromes focus on sampling seemingly healthy individuals, little is known about the viruses and bacteria associated with diseased bats. We performed traditional diagnostic techniques and metatranscriptomic sequencing on tissue samples from 43 Australian bats, comprising three flying fox (Pteropodidae) and two microbat species experiencing a range of disease syndromes, including mass mortality, neurological signs, pneumonia and skin lesions. Of note, we identified the recently discovered Hervey pteropid gammaretrovirus in a bat with lymphoid leukemia, with evidence of replication consistent with an exogenous virus. The possible association of Hervey pteropid gammaretrovirus with lymphoid leukemia clearly merits additional investigation. One novel picornavirus and at least three new astroviruses and bat pegiviruses were also identified in a variety of tissue types, as well as a number of likely bacterial pathogens or opportunistic infections, most notably Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Van Brussel
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jackie E Mahar
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jane Hall
- Australian Registry of Wildlife Health, Taronga Conservation Society Australia, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Hannah Bender
- Australian Registry of Wildlife Health, Taronga Conservation Society Australia, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ayda Susana Ortiz-Baez
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Wei-Shan Chang
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Edward C Holmes
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia.
| | - Karrie Rose
- Australian Registry of Wildlife Health, Taronga Conservation Society Australia, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia.
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Kuhn JH, Sibley SD, Chapman CA, Knowles NJ, Lauck M, Johnson JC, Lawson CC, Lackemeyer MG, Valenta K, Omeja P, Jahrling PB, O’Connor DH, Goldberg TL. Discovery of Lanama Virus, a Distinct Member of Species Kunsagivirus C ( Picornavirales: Picornaviridae), in Wild Vervet Monkeys ( Chlorocebus pygerythrus). Viruses 2020; 12:v12121436. [PMID: 33327396 PMCID: PMC7764893 DOI: 10.3390/v12121436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the discovery and sequence-based molecular characterization of a novel virus, lanama virus (LNMV), in blood samples obtained from two wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), sampled near Lake Nabugabo, Masaka District, Uganda. Sequencing of the complete viral genomes and subsequent phylogenetic analysis identified LNMV as a distinct member of species Kunsagivirus C, in the undercharacterized picornavirid genus Kunsagivirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens H. Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (J.C.J.); (C.C.L.); (M.G.L.); (P.B.J.)
- Correspondence: (J.H.K.); (T.L.G.); Tel.: +1-301-631-7245 (J.H.K.); +1-608-890-2618 (T.L.G.)
| | - Samuel D. Sibley
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
| | - Colin A. Chapman
- Department of Anthropology, Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA;
- School of Life Sciences, Pietermaritzburg Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville 3209, South Africa
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, School of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
- Makerere University Biological Field Station, P.O. Box 409, Fort Portal, Uganda;
| | - Nick J. Knowles
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK;
| | - Michael Lauck
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.L.); (D.H.O.)
| | - Joshua C. Johnson
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (J.C.J.); (C.C.L.); (M.G.L.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Cristine Campos Lawson
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (J.C.J.); (C.C.L.); (M.G.L.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Matthew G. Lackemeyer
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (J.C.J.); (C.C.L.); (M.G.L.); (P.B.J.)
| | - Kim Valenta
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA;
| | - Patrick Omeja
- Makerere University Biological Field Station, P.O. Box 409, Fort Portal, Uganda;
| | - Peter B. Jahrling
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (J.C.J.); (C.C.L.); (M.G.L.); (P.B.J.)
| | - David H. O’Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (M.L.); (D.H.O.)
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Tony L. Goldberg
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
- Correspondence: (J.H.K.); (T.L.G.); Tel.: +1-301-631-7245 (J.H.K.); +1-608-890-2618 (T.L.G.)
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Comparative Metagenomics of Palearctic and Neotropical Avian Cloacal Viromes Reveal Geographic Bias in Virus Discovery. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8121869. [PMID: 33256173 PMCID: PMC7761369 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Our understanding about viruses carried by wild animals is still scarce. The viral diversity of wildlife may be best described with discovery-driven approaches to the study of viral diversity that broaden research efforts towards non-canonical hosts and remote geographic regions. Birds have been key organisms in the transmission of viruses causing important diseases, and wild birds are threatened by viral spillovers associated with human activities. However, our knowledge of the avian virome may be biased towards poultry and highly pathogenic diseases. We describe and compare the fecal virome of two passerine-dominated bird assemblages sampled in a remote Neotropical rainforest in French Guiana (Nouragues Natural Reserve) and a Mediterranean forest in central Spain (La Herrería). We used metagenomic data to quantify the degree of functional and genetic novelty of viruses recovered by examining if the similarity of the contigs we obtained to reference sequences differed between both locations. In general, contigs from Nouragues were significantly less similar to viruses in databases than contigs from La Herrería using Blastn but not for Blastx, suggesting that pristine regions harbor a yet unknown viral diversity with genetically more singular viruses than more studied areas. Additionally, we describe putative novel viruses of the families Picornaviridae, Reoviridae and Hepeviridae. These results highlight the importance of wild animals and remote regions as sources of novel viruses that substantially broaden the current knowledge of the global diversity of viruses.
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Residues within the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus 3D pol Nuclear Localization Signal Affect Polymerase Fidelity. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.00833-20. [PMID: 32581111 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00833-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many RNA viruses encode a proof-reading deficient, low-fidelity RNA-dependent polymerase (RdRp), which generates genetically diverse populations that can adapt to changing environments and thwart antiviral therapies. 3Dpol, the RdRp of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), is responsible for replication of viral genomes. The 3Dpol N terminus encodes a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence,MRKTKLAPT, important for import of the protein to host nucleus. Previous studies showed that substitutions at residues 18 and 20 of the NLS are defective in proper incorporation of nucleotides and RNA binding. Here, we use a systematic alanine scanning mutagenesis approach to understand the role of individual residues of the NLS in nuclear localization and nucleotide incorporation activities of 3Dpol We identify two residues of 3Dpol NLS, T19 and L21, that are important for the maintenance of enzyme fidelity. The 3Dpol NLS alanine substitutions of T19 and L21 results in aberrant incorporation of nucleoside analogs, conferring a low fidelity phenotype of the enzyme. A molecular dynamics simulation of RNA- and mutagen (RTP)-bound 3Dpol revealed that the T19 residue participates in a hydrogen bond network, including D165 in motif F and R416 at the C terminus of the FMDV 3Dpol and RNA template-primer. Based on these findings and previous studies, we conclude that at least the first six residues of theMRKTKLAPT sequence motif play a vital role in the maintenance of faithful RNA synthesis activity (fidelity) of FMDV 3Dpol, suggesting that the role of the NLS motif in similar viral polymerases needs to be revisited.IMPORTANCE In this study, we employed genetic and molecular dynamics approaches to analyze the role of individual amino acids of the FMDV 3Dpol nuclear localization signal (NLS). The NLS residues were mutated to alanine using a type A full-genome cDNA clone, and the virus progeny was analyzed for defects in growth and in competition with the parental virus. We identified two mutants in 3Dpol, T19A and L21A, that exhibited high rate of mutation, were sensitive to nucleotide analogs, and displayed reduced replicative fitness compared to the parental virus. Using molecular dynamics simulation, we demonstrated that residues T19 and L21 played a role in the structural configuration of the interaction network at the 3Dpol palm subdomain. Cumulatively, our data suggest that the T19 and L21 3Dpol amino acids are important for maintaining the fidelity of the FMDV polymerase and ensuring faithful replication of the FMDV genome.
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Arhab Y, Bulakhov AG, Pestova TV, Hellen CU. Dissemination of Internal Ribosomal Entry Sites (IRES) Between Viruses by Horizontal Gene Transfer. Viruses 2020; 12:E612. [PMID: 32512856 PMCID: PMC7354566 DOI: 10.3390/v12060612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of Picornaviridae and of the Hepacivirus, Pegivirus and Pestivirus genera of Flaviviridae all contain an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) in the 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) of their genomes. Each class of IRES has a conserved structure and promotes 5'-end-independent initiation of translation by a different mechanism. Picornavirus 5'UTRs, including the IRES, evolve independently of other parts of the genome and can move between genomes, most commonly by intratypic recombination. We review accumulating evidence that IRESs are genetic entities that can also move between members of different genera and even between families. Type IV IRESs, first identified in the Hepacivirus genus, have subsequently been identified in over 25 genera of Picornaviridae, juxtaposed against diverse coding sequences. In several genera, members have either type IV IRES or an IRES of type I, II or III. Similarly, in the genus Pegivirus, members contain either a type IV IRES or an unrelated type; both classes of IRES also occur in members of the genus Hepacivirus. IRESs utilize different mechanisms, have different factor requirements and contain determinants of viral growth, pathogenesis and cell type specificity. Their dissemination between viruses by horizontal gene transfer has unexpectedly emerged as an important facet of viral evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Christopher U.T. Hellen
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (Y.A.); (A.G.B.); (T.V.P.)
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Pankovics P, Boros Á, Kiss T, Engelmann P, Reuter G. Genetically highly divergent RNA virus with astrovirus-like (5'-end) and hepevirus-like (3'-end) genome organization in carnivorous birds, European roller (Coracias garrulus). INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 71:215-223. [PMID: 30959207 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Astroviruses (family Astroviridae) and hepeviruses (family Hepeviridae) are small, non-enveloped viruses with genetically diverse +ssRNA genome thought to be enteric pathogens infecting vertebrates including humans. Recently, many novel astro- and hepatitis E virus-like +ssRNA viruses have been described from lower vertebrate species. The non-structural proteins of astro- and hepeviruses are highly diverse, but the structural/capsid proteins represent a common phylogenetic position shed the light of their common origin by inter-viral recombination. In this study, a novel astrovirus/hepevirus-like virus with +ssRNA genome (Er/SZAL5/HUN/2011, MK450332) was serendipitously identified and characterized from 3 (8.5%) out of 35 European roller (Coracias garrulus) faecal samples by RT-PCR in Hungary. The complete genome of Er/SZAL5/HUN/2011 (MK450332) is 8402 nt-long and potentially composed three non-overlapping open reading frames (ORFs): ORF1a (4449 nt/1482aa), ORF1b (1206 nt/401aa) and ORF2 (1491 nt/496aa). The ORF1ab has an astrovirus-like genome organization containing the non-structural conserved elements (TM, CC, NLS, VPg) and enzyme residues (trypsine-like protease, RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase) with low amino acid sequence identity, 15% (ORF1a) and 44% (ORF1b), to astroviruses. Supposedly the ORF2 is a capsid protein but neither the astrovirus-like subgenomic RNA promoter (sgRNA) nor the astrovirus-like capsid characteristics have been identifiable. However, the predicted capsid protein (ORF2) showed 26% identity to the corresponding protein of hepevirus-like novel Rana hepevirus (MH330682). This novel +ssRNA virus strain Er/SZAL5/HUN/2011 with astrovirus-like genome organization in the non-structural genome regions (ORF1a and ORF1b) and Rana hepevirus-related capsid (ORF2) protein represent a potentially recombinant virus species and supports the common origin hypothesis, although, the taxonomic position of the studied virus is still under discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Pankovics
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Ákos Boros
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Kiss
- Hungarian Ornithological and Nature Conservation Society, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Péter Engelmann
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Clinical Center, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Reuter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
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Kloc A, Rai DK, Rieder E. The Roles of Picornavirus Untranslated Regions in Infection and Innate Immunity. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:485. [PMID: 29616004 PMCID: PMC5870040 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral genomes have evolved to maximize their potential of overcoming host defense mechanisms and to induce a variety of disease syndromes. Structurally, a genome of a virus consists of coding and noncoding regions, and both have been shown to contribute to initiation and progression of disease. Accumulated work in picornaviruses has stressed out the importance of the noncoding RNAs, or untranslated 5′- and 3′-regions (UTRs), in both replication and translation of viral genomes. Unsurprisingly, defects in these processes have been reported to cause viral attenuation and affect viral pathogenicity. However, substantial evidence suggests that these untranslated RNAs may influence the outcome of the host innate immune response. This review discusses the involvement of 5′- and 3′-terminus UTRs in induction and regulation of host immunity and its consequences for viral life cycle and virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kloc
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States
| | - Devendra K Rai
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States
| | - Elizabeth Rieder
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States
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Buechler CR, Bailey AL, Lauck M, Heffron A, Johnson JC, Campos Lawson C, Rogers J, Kuhn JH, O'Connor DH. Genome Sequence of a Novel Kunsagivirus ( Picornaviridae: Kunsagivirus) from a Wild Baboon ( Papio cynocephalus). GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2017; 5:e00261-17. [PMID: 28473378 PMCID: PMC5477186 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00261-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The picornaviral genus Kunsagivirus has a single member, kunsagivirus A, which was discovered in migratory bird feces. We report here the discovery of a novel kunsagivirus in wild yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) blood. The genomic sequence of this virus indicates the probable need for the establishment of a second kunsagivirus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor R Buechler
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Adam L Bailey
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Michael Lauck
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Anna Heffron
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Joshua C Johnson
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Cristine Campos Lawson
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Jeffrey Rogers
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Jens H Kuhn
- Integrated Research Facility at Fort Detrick, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - David H O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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Yinda CK, Zell R, Deboutte W, Zeller M, Conceição-Neto N, Heylen E, Maes P, Knowles NJ, Ghogomu SM, Van Ranst M, Matthijnssens J. Highly diverse population of Picornaviridae and other members of the Picornavirales, in Cameroonian fruit bats. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:249. [PMID: 28335731 PMCID: PMC5364608 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3632-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The order Picornavirales represents a diverse group of positive-stranded RNA viruses with small non-enveloped icosahedral virions. Recently, bats have been identified as an important reservoir of several highly pathogenic human viruses. Since many members of the Picornaviridae family cause a wide range of diseases in humans and animals, this study aimed to characterize members of the order Picornavirales in fruit bat populations located in the Southwest region of Cameroon. These bat populations are frequently in close contact with humans due to hunting, selling and eating practices, which provides ample opportunity for interspecies transmissions. RESULTS Fecal samples from 87 fruit bats (Eidolon helvum and Epomophorus gambianus), were combined into 25 pools and analyzed using viral metagenomics. In total, Picornavirales reads were found in 19 pools, and (near) complete genomes of 11 picorna-like viruses were obtained from 7 of these pools. The picorna-like viruses possessed varied genomic organizations (monocistronic or dicistronic), and arrangements of gene cassettes. Some of the viruses belonged to established families, including the Picornaviridae, whereas others clustered distantly from known viruses and most likely represent novel genera and families. Phylogenetic and nucleotide composition analyses suggested that mammals were the likely host species of bat sapelovirus, bat kunsagivirus and bat crohivirus, whereas the remaining viruses (named bat iflavirus, bat posalivirus, bat fisalivirus, bat cripavirus, bat felisavirus, bat dicibavirus and bat badiciviruses 1 and 2) were most likely diet-derived. CONCLUSION The existence of a vast genetic variability of picorna-like viruses in fruit bats may increase the probability of spillover infections to humans especially when humans and bats have direct contact as the case in this study site. However, further screening for these viruses in humans will fully indicate their zoonotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claude Kwe Yinda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Roland Zell
- Department of Virology and Antiviral Therapy, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Ward Deboutte
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark Zeller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nádia Conceição-Neto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elisabeth Heylen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Piet Maes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nick J. Knowles
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF UK
| | - Stephen Mbigha Ghogomu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biotechnology Unit, Molecular and cell biology laboratory, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - Marc Van Ranst
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory for Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jelle Matthijnssens
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, KU Leuven - University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Abstract
Taxonomical classification of newly discovered viruses and reclassification of previously discovered viruses provide an important foundation for detailing biological differences of scientific and clinical interest. The development of molecular analytical methods has enabled finer levels and more precise levels of classification. Periodically, there is need to refresh the literature and common understanding of current taxonomic classification, which we attempt to do here in addressing changes in human and animal viruses of medical significance between 2012 and 2015.
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Detection of a mammalian-like astrovirus in bird, European roller (Coracias garrulus). INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 34:114-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Asnani M, Kumar P, Hellen CUT. Widespread distribution and structural diversity of Type IV IRESs in members of Picornaviridae. Virology 2015; 478:61-74. [PMID: 25726971 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Picornavirus genomes contain internal ribosomal entry sites (IRESs) that promote end-independent translation initiation. Five structural classes of picornavirus IRES have been identified, but numerous IRESs remain unclassified. Here, previously unrecognized Type IV IRESs were identified in members of three proposed picornavirus genera (Limnipivirus, Pasivirus, Rafivirus) and four recognized genera (Kobuvirus, Megrivirus, Sapelovirus, Parechovirus). These IRESs are ~230-420 nucleotides long, reflecting heterogeneity outside a common structural core. Closer analysis yielded insights into evolutionary processes that have shaped contemporary IRESs. The presence of related IRESs in diverse genera supports the hypothesis that they are heritable genetic elements that spread by horizontal gene transfer. Recombination likely also accounts for the exchange of some peripheral subdomains, suggesting that IRES evolution involves incremental addition of elements to a pre-existing core. Nucleotide conservation is concentrated in ribosome-binding sites, and at the junction of helical domains, likely to ensure orientation of subdomains in an active conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukta Asnani
- Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - Parimal Kumar
- Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - Christopher U T Hellen
- Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA.
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Chan JFW, To KKW, Chen H, Yuen KY. Cross-species transmission and emergence of novel viruses from birds. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 10:63-9. [PMID: 25644327 PMCID: PMC7102742 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 12/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The role of birds in cross-species transmission and emergence of novel viruses such as avian influenza A viruses are discussed. The novel avian viruses identified between 2012 and 2014 are summarized. The concept of ‘pathogen augmentation’ is introduced.
Birds, the only living member of the Dinosauria clade, are flying warm-blooded vertebrates displaying high species biodiversity, roosting and migratory behavior, and a unique adaptive immune system. Birds provide the natural reservoir for numerous viral species and therefore gene source for evolution, emergence and dissemination of novel viruses. The intrusions of human into natural habitats of wild birds, the domestication of wild birds as pets or racing birds, and the increasing poultry consumption by human have facilitated avian viruses to cross species barriers to cause zoonosis. Recently, a novel adenovirus was exclusively found in birds causing an outbreak of Chlamydophila psittaci infection among birds and humans. Instead of being the primary cause of an outbreak by jumping directly from bird to human, a novel avian virus can be an augmenter of another zoonotic agent causing the outbreak. A comprehensive avian virome will improve our understanding of birds’ evolutionary dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Fuk-Woo Chan
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, and Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Kelvin Kai-Wang To
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, and Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Honglin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, and Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, and Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
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15
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Kempf BJ, Barton DJ. Picornavirus RNA polyadenylation by 3D(pol), the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Virus Res 2015; 206:3-11. [PMID: 25559071 PMCID: PMC4801031 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Picornaviral RdRPs are responsible for the polyadenylation of viral RNA. Reiterative transcription mechanisms occur during replication of poly(A) tails. Conserved RdRP structures influence the size of poly(A) tails. Common features of picornavirus RdRPs and telomerase reverse transcriptase. Poly(A) tails are a telomere of picornavirus RNA genomes.
Poly(A) tails are functionally important features of all picornavirus RNA genomes. Some viruses have genomes with relatively short poly(A) tails (encephalomyocarditis virus) whereas others have genomes with longer poly(A) tails (polioviruses and rhinoviruses). Here we review the polyadenylation of picornavirus RNA as it relates to the structure and function of 3Dpol. Poliovirus 3Dpol uses template-dependent reiterative transcription mechanisms as it replicates the poly(A) tails of viral RNA (Steil et al., 2010). These mechanisms are analogous to those involved in the polyadenylation of vesicular stomatitis virus and influenza virus mRNAs. 3Dpol residues intimately associated with viral RNA templates and products regulate the size of poly(A) tails in viral RNA (Kempf et al., 2013). Consistent with their ancient evolutionary origins, picornavirus 3Dpol and telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) share structural and functional features. Structurally, both 3Dpol and TERT assume a “right-hand” conformation with thumb, palm and fingers domains encircling templates and products. Functionally, both 3Dpol and TERT use template-dependent reiterative transcription mechanisms to synthesize repetitive sequences: poly(A) tails in the case of picornavirus RNA genomes and DNA telomeres in the case of eukaryotic chromosomes. Thus, picornaviruses and their eukaryotic hosts (humans and animals) maintain the 3′ ends of their respective genomes via evolutionarily related mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Kempf
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, United States
| | - David J Barton
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, United States.
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16
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Boros Á, Pankovics P, Reuter G. Avian picornaviruses: molecular evolution, genome diversity and unusual genome features of a rapidly expanding group of viruses in birds. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2014; 28:151-66. [PMID: 25278047 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Picornaviridae is one of the most diverse families of viruses infecting vertebrate species. In contrast to the relative small number of mammal species compared to other vertebrates, the abundance of mammal-infecting picornaviruses was significantly overrepresented among the presently known picornaviruses. Therefore most of the current knowledge about the genome diversity/organization patterns and common genome features were based on the analysis of mammal-infecting picornaviruses. Beside the well known reservoir role of birds in case of several emerging viral pathogens, little is known about the diversity of picornaviruses circulating among birds, although in the last decade the number of known avian picornavirus species with complete genome was increased from one to at least 15. However, little is known about the geographic distribution, host spectrum or pathogenic potential of the recently described picornaviruses of birds. Despite the low number of known avian picornaviruses, the phylogenetic and genome organization diversity of these viruses were remarkable. Beside the common L-4-3-4 and 4-3-4 genome layouts unusual genome patterns (3-4-4; 3-5-4, 3-6-4; 3-8-4) with variable, multicistronic 2A genome regions were found among avian picornaviruses. The phylogenetic and genomic analysis revealed the presence of several conserved structures at the untranslated regions among phylogenetically distant avian and non-avian picornaviruses as well as at least five different avian picornavirus phylogenetic clusters located in every main picornavirus lineage with characteristic genome layouts which suggests the complex evolution history of these viruses. Based on the remarkable genetic diversity of the few known avian picornaviruses, the emergence of further divergent picornaviruses causing challenges in the current taxonomy and also in the understanding of the evolution and genome organization of picornaviruses will be strongly expected. In this review we would like to summarize the current knowledge about the taxonomy, pathogenic potential, phylogenetic/genomic diversity and evolutional relationship of avian picornaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ákos Boros
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Pankovics
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Gábor Reuter
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Pécs, Hungary.
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Pankovics P, Boros Á, Kiss T, Reuter G. Identification and complete genome analysis of kobuvirus in faecal samples of European roller (Coracias garrulus): for the first time in a bird. Arch Virol 2014; 160:345-51. [PMID: 25195063 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2228-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The genus Kobuvirus (Picornaviridae) consists of three species, Aichivirus A (e.g., Aichi virus, which infects humans), Aichivirus B and Aichivirus C. Kobuvirus have not been detected in non-mammal species including birds. In this study, a novel kobuvirus was identified in 3 (17 %) out of 18 faecal samples collected from European rollers (Coracias garrulus) in Hungary. The complete genome sequence of strain SZAL6-KoV/2011/HUN (KJ934637), which was determined using a novel 5'/3' RACE method (dsRNA-RACE) involving a double-stranded (ds)RNA intermediate, has a type-V IRES at the 5' end and a cis-acting element (CRE) in the 3C gene and encodes L and 2A(H-box/NC) proteins, but it does not contain the sequence forming a "barbell-like" secondary RNA structure in the 3'UTR. SZAL6-KoV/2011/HUN has 72 %, 73 %, and 81 % amino acid sequence identity to the P1, P2, and P3 protein, respectively, of Aichi virus. Evolutionary analysis showed that SZAL6-KoV/2011/HUN shares a common ancestor with other kobuviruses but belongs to a more ancient lineage in the species Aichivirus A. Investigation of the known kobuviruses in different animals and discovery of novel kobuviruses in potential host species helps to clarify the evolutionary connection and zoonotic potential of kobuviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Pankovics
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Szabadság út 7, 7623, Pécs, Hungary
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18
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Liao Q, Zheng L, Yuan Y, Shi J, Zhang D. Genomic characterization of a novel picornavirus in Pekin ducks. Vet Microbiol 2014; 172:78-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Reuter G, Boros A, Kiss T, Delwart E, Pankovics P. Complete genome characterization of mosavirus (family Picornaviridae) identified in droppings of a European roller (Coracias garrulus) in Hungary. Arch Virol 2014; 159:2723-9. [PMID: 24824348 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2113-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mosavirus (mosavirus A1, M-7/2010/USA, JF973687), a novel picornavirus, was found in a canyon mouse (Peromyscus crinitus) in the USA in 2010. It represents a novel species (Mosavirus A) in a novel genus (Mosavirus) in the family Picornaviridae. In this study, the first complete genome sequence of another mosavirus, SZAL6-MoV/2011/HUN (KF958461), was determined from one out of 18 fecal samples from an Afro-Palearctic migratory bird, the European roller (Coracias garrulus). The complete genome of SZAL6-MoV/2011/HUN is 8385 nt long (from poly(C) tract to poly(A) tail), contains a 646-nt-long 5'UTR that forms a type II IRES, and encodes a potential 2550-aa-long polyprotein precursor including an aphthovirus-like L(pro)-proteinase, a small aphthovirus-like 2A(NPG↓P), and two 3B(VPg) proteins. SZAL6-MoV/2011/HUN has 67 %, 74 %, and 76 % aa sequence identity in the P1, P2, and P3 region, respectively, to M-7/2010/USA and represents a second mosavirus type, mosavirus A2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Reuter
- Regional Laboratory of Virology, National Reference Laboratory of Gastroenteric Viruses, ÁNTSZ Regional Institute of State Public Health Service, Szabadság út 7, Pecs, 7623, Hungary,
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Wang X, Liu N, Wang F, Ning K, Li Y, Zhang D. Genetic characterization of a novel duck-origin picornavirus with six 2A proteins. J Gen Virol 2014; 95:1289-1296. [PMID: 24659102 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.063313-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel virus was detected from diseased ducks and completely determined. The virus was shown to have a picornavirus-like genome layout. Interestingly, the genome contained a total of up to six 2As, including four 2As (2A1-2A4) each having an NPGP motif, an AIG1-like 2A5, and a parechovirus-like 2A6. The 5'UTR was predicted to possess a hepacivirus/pestivirus-like internal ribosome entry site (IRES). However, the subdomain IIIe consisted of a 3 nt stem and five unpaired bases, distinct from those found in all other HP-like IRESs. The virus was most closely related to duck hepatitis A virus, with amino acid identities of 37.7 %, 39 % and 43.7 % in the P1, P2 and P3 regions, respectively. Based on these investigations, together with phylogenetic analyses, the virus could be considered as the founding member of a novel picornavirus genus that we tentatively named 'Aalivirus', with 'Aalivirus A' as the type species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Ning Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Fumin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Kang Ning
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Yanbo Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
| | - Dabing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian, Beijing 100193, PR China
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Barbknecht M, Sepsenwol S, Leis E, Tuttle-Lau M, Gaikowski M, Knowles NJ, Lasee B, Hoffman MA. Characterization of a new picornavirus isolated from the freshwater fish Lepomis macrochirus. J Gen Virol 2013; 95:601-613. [PMID: 24337169 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.061960-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The freshwater fish Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) is common to North American waters, and important both ecologically and as a sport fish. In 2001 an unknown virus was isolated from bluegills following a bluegill fish kill. This virus was identified as a picornavirus [termed bluegill picornavirus (BGPV)] and a diagnostic reverse transcriptase PCR was developed. A survey of bluegills in Wisconsin waters showed the presence of BGPV in 5 of 17 waters sampled, suggesting the virus is widespread in bluegill populations. Experimental infections of bluegills confirmed that BGPV can cause morbidity and mortality in bluegills. Molecular characterization of BGPV revealed several distinct genome characteristics, the most unusual of which is the presence of a short poly(C) tract in the 3' UTR. Additionally, the genome encodes a polyprotein lacking a leader peptide and a VP0 maturation cleavage site, and is predicted to encode two distinct 2A proteins. Sequence comparison showed that the virus is most closely related to a phylogenetic cluster of picornaviruses that includes the genera Aquamavirus, Avihepatovirus and Parechovirus. However, it is distinct enough, for example sharing only about 38% sequence identity to the parechoviruses in the 3D region, that it may represent a new genus in the family Picornaviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Barbknecht
- Department of Microbiology, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, 1725 State Street, La Crosse, WI, 54601, USA
| | - Sol Sepsenwol
- Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 2100 Main Street, Stevens Point, WI, 54481, USA
| | - Eric Leis
- US Fish and Wildlife Service, La Crosse Fish Health Center, 555 Lester Avenue, Onalaska, WI, 54650, USA
| | - Maren Tuttle-Lau
- US Geological Survey-Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Road, La Crosse, WI, 54603, USA.,US Fish and Wildlife Service, La Crosse Fish Health Center, 555 Lester Avenue, Onalaska, WI, 54650, USA
| | - Mark Gaikowski
- US Geological Survey-Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center, 2630 Fanta Reed Road, La Crosse, WI, 54603, USA
| | - Nick J Knowles
- Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Becky Lasee
- US Fish and Wildlife Service, La Crosse Fish Health Center, 555 Lester Avenue, Onalaska, WI, 54650, USA
| | - Michael A Hoffman
- Department of Microbiology, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, 1725 State Street, La Crosse, WI, 54601, USA
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