Noncoding RNPs of viral origin

Shaping the host cell environment with viral noncoding RNAs

Just like the cells they infect viruses express different classes of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). Viral ncRNAs come in all shapes and forms, and they usually associate with cellular proteins that are important for their functions. Viral ncRNAs have diverse functions, but they all contribute to the viral control of the cellular environment. Viruses utilize ncRNAs to regulate viral replication, to decide whether they should remain latent or reactivate, to evade the host immune responses, or to promote cellular transformation. In this review we describe the diverse functions played by different classes of ncRNAs expressed by adenoviruses and herpesviruses, how they contribute to the viral infection, and how their study led to insights into RNA-based mechanisms at play in host cells.

Regulation of Protein Kinase R by Epstein-Barr Virus EBER1 RNA

Protein kinase R (PKR) is a key antiviral component of the innate immune pathway and is activated by viral double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs). Adenovirus-associated RNA 1 (VAI) is an abundant, noncoding viral RNA that functions as a decoy by binding PKR but not inducing activation, thereby inhibiting the antiviral response. In VAI, coaxial stacking produces an extended helix that mediates high-affinity PKR binding but is too short to result in activation. Like adenovirus, Epstein-Barr virus produces high concentrations of a noncoding RNA, EBER1. Here, we compare interactions of PKR with VAI and EBER1 and present a structural model of EBER1. Both RNAs function as inhibitors of dsRNA-mediated PKR activation. However, EBER1 weakly activates PKR whereas VAI does not. PKR binds EBER1 more weakly than VAI. Assays at physiological ion concentrations indicate that both RNAs can accommodate two PKR monomers and induce PKR dimerization. A structural model of EBER1 was obtained using constraints derived from chemical structure probing and small-angle X-ray scattering experiments. The central stem of EBER1 coaxially stacks with stem loop 4 and stem loop 1 to form an extended RNA duplex of ∼32 bp that binds PKR and promotes activation. Our observations that EBER1 binds PKR much more weakly than VAI and exhibits weak PKR activation suggest that EBER1 is less well suited to function as an RNA decoy.

Exploration of invasive mechanisms via global ncRNA-associated virus-host crosstalk

Viral infection is a complex pathogenesis and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, an integrated multiple resources analysis was performed and showed that the cellular ncRNAs and proteins targeted by viruses were primarily "hubs" and "bottlenecks" in the human ncRNA/protein-protein interaction. The common proteins targeted by both viral ncRNAs and proteins tended to skew toward higher degrees and betweenness compared with other proteins, showed significant enrichment in the cell death process. Specifically, >800 pairs of human cellular ncRNAs and viral ncRNAs that exhibited a high degree of functional homology were identified, representing potential ncRNA-mediated co-regulation patterns of viral invasion. Additionally, clustering analysis further revealed several distinct viral clusters with obvious functional divergence. Overall, this is the first attempt to systematically explore the invasive mechanism via global ncRNA-associated virus-host crosstalk. Our results provide useful information in comprehensively understanding the viral invasive mechanism.

A Long Non-Coding RNA of Citrus tristeza virus: Role in the Virus Interplay with the Host Immunity

During infection, Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) produces a non-coding subgenomic RNA referred to as low-molecular-weight tristeza 1 (LMT1), which for a long time has been considered as a by-product of the complex CTV replication machinery. In this study, we investigated the role of LMT1 in the virus infection cycle using a CTV variant that does not produce LMT1 (CTV-LMT1d). We showed that lack of LMT1 did not halt virus ability to replicate or form proper virions. However, the mutant virus demonstrated significantly reduced invasiveness and systemic spread in Nicotiana benthamiana as well as an inability to establish infection in citrus. Introduction of CTV-LMT1d into the herbaceous host resulted in elevation of the levels of salicylic acid (SA) and SA-responsive pathogenesis-related genes beyond those upon inoculation with wild-type (WT) virus (CTV-WT). Further analysis showed that the LMT1 RNA produced by CTV-WT or via ectopic expression in the N. benthamiana leaves suppressed SA accumulation and up-regulated an alternative oxidase gene, which appeared to mitigate the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a plant viral long non-coding RNA being involved in counter-acting host response by subverting the SA-mediated plant defense.

That is life: communicating RNA networks from viruses and cells in continuous interaction

All the conserved detailed results of evolution stored in DNA must be read, transcribed, and translated via an RNA-mediated process. This is required for the development and growth of each individual cell. Thus, all known living organisms fundamentally depend on these RNA-mediated processes. In most cases, they are interconnected with other RNAs and their associated protein complexes and function in a strictly coordinated hierarchy of temporal and spatial steps (i.e., an RNA network). Clearly, all cellular life as we know it could not function without these key agents of DNA replication, namely rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA. Thus, any definition of life that lacks RNA functions and their networks misses an essential requirement for RNA agents that inherently regulate and coordinate (communicate to) cells, tissues, organs, and organisms. The precellular evolution of RNAs occurred at the core of the emergence of cellular life and the question remained of how both precellular and cellular levels are interconnected historically and functionally. RNA networks and RNA communication can interconnect these levels. With the reemergence of virology in evolution, it became clear that communicating viruses and subviral infectious genetic parasites are bridging these two levels by invading, integrating, coadapting, exapting, and recombining constituent parts in host genomes for cellular requirements in gene regulation and coordination aims. Therefore, a 21st century understanding of life is of an inherently social process based on communicating RNA networks, in which viruses and cells continuously interact.

Detection of Viral RNA Splicing in Diagnostic Virology

This chapter is the first one to introduce the detection of viral RNA splicing as a new tool for clinical diagnosis of virus infections. These include various infections caused by influenza viruses, human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV), human T-cell leukemia viruses (HTLV), Torque teno viruses (TTV), parvoviruses, adenoviruses, hepatitis B virus, polyomaviruses, herpesviruses, and papillomaviruses. Detection of viral RNA splicing for active viral gene expression in a clinical sample is a nucleic acid-based detection. The interpretation of the detected viral RNA splicing results is straightforward without concern for carry-over DNA contamination, because the spliced RNA is smaller than its corresponding DNA template.

Although many methods can be used, a simple method to detect viral RNA splicing is reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In principle, the detection of spliced RNA transcripts by RT-PCR depends on amplicon selection and primer design. The most common approach is the amplification over the intron regions by a set of primers in flanking exons. A larger product than the predicted size of smaller, spliced RNA is in general an unspliced RNA or contaminating viral genomic DNA. A spliced mRNA always gives a smaller RT-PCR product than its unspliced RNA due to removal of intron sequences by RNA splicing. The contaminating viral DNA can be determined by a minus RT amplification (PCR). Alternatively, specific amplification of a spliced RNA can be obtained by using an exon-exon junction primer because the sequence at exon-exon junction is not present in the unspliced RNA nor in viral genomic DNA.

A comprehensive and quantitative exploration of thousands of viral genomes

The complete assembly of viral genomes from metagenomic datasets (short genomic sequences gathered from environmental samples) has proven to be challenging, so there are significant blind spots when we view viral genomes through the lens of metagenomics. One approach to overcoming this problem is to leverage the thousands of complete viral genomes that are publicly available. Here we describe our efforts to assemble a comprehensive resource that provides a quantitative snapshot of viral genomic trends – such as gene density, noncoding percentage, and abundances of functional gene categories – across thousands of viral genomes. We have also developed a coarse-grained method for visualizing viral genome organization for hundreds of genomes at once, and have explored the extent of the overlap between bacterial and bacteriophage gene pools. Existing viral classification systems were developed prior to the sequencing era, so we present our analysis in a way that allows us to assess the utility of the different classification systems for capturing genomic trends.

miRNA-36 inhibits KSHV, EBV, HSV-2 infection of cells via stifling expression of interferon induced transmembrane protein 1 (IFITM1)

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is etiologically associated with all forms of Kaposi's sarcoma worldwide. Little is currently known about the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in KSHV entry. We recently demonstrated that KSHV induces a plethora of host cell miRNAs during the early stages of infection. In this study, we show the ability of host cell novel miR-36 to specifically inhibit KSHV-induced expression of interferon induced transmembrane protein 1 (IFITM1) to limit virus infection of cells. Transfecting cells with miR-36 mimic specifically lowered IFITM1 expression and thereby significantly dampening KSHV infection. In contrast, inhibition of miR-36 using miR-36 inhibitor had the direct opposite effect on KSHV infection of cells, allowing enhanced viral infection of cells. The effect of miR-36 on KSHV infection of cells was at a post-binding stage of virus entry. The highlight of this work was in deciphering a common theme in the ability of miR-36 to regulate infection of closely related DNA viruses: KSHV, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and herpes simplexvirus-2 (HSV-2). Taken together, we report for the first time the ability of host cell miRNA to regulate internalization of KSHV, EBV, and HSV-2 in hematopoietic and endothelial cells.

Profiling of cellular microRNA responses during the early stages of KSHV infection

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) causes a variety of cancers, including Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman disease (MCD). Host cellular microRNAs (miRNAs) play important post-transcriptional regulatory roles in gene expression and can greatly influence virus-host cell interactions. This study investigated cellular miRNA expression profiles operating in response to early stages of KSHV infection of human Burkitt lymphoma B cells (BJAB). We employed deep sequencing to analyze miRNA expression in KSHV-infected BJAB cells 15 min post infection (PI) and compared this to uninfected BJAB cells. A total of 32 known miRNAs and 28 novel miRNA candidates were differentially expressed in KSHV-infected compared to uninfected BJAB cells. Interestingly, miRNA expression profiles during the early stages of viral infection yielded comparable results when UV-inactivated KSHV was used. The deep sequencing results were further confirmed by performing real-time reverse transcription PCR. The target genes predicted to be regulated by both the known and novel miRNAs are mainly involved in assisting virus entry, inducing critical cell signaling, initiating transcription of immediate early genes, promoting latent infection, and modulating the host immune response. For the first time, we provide insight into the host cellular miRNA expression profiles in response to early stages of KSHV infection of human B cells. Furthermore, this study offers a valuable basis for further investigation on the roles of cellular miRNAs in the KSHV entry process.

Complementation of the human adenovirus type 5 VA RNAI defect by the Vaccinia virus E3L protein and serotype-specific VA RNAIs

Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) encode for multifunctional non-coding virus-associated (VA) RNAs, which function as powerful suppressors of the cellular interferon (IFN) and RNA interference (RNAi) systems. In this study we tested the ability of various plant and animal virus encoded RNAi and IFN suppressor proteins to functionally substitute for the HAdV-5 VA RNAI. Our results revealed that only the Vaccinia virus (VACV) E3L protein was able to substitute for the HAdV-5 VA RNAI functions in virus-infected cells. Interestingly, the E3L protein rescues the translational defect but does not stimulate viral capsid mRNA accumulation observed with VA RNA. We further show that the E3L C-terminal region containing the dsRNA-binding domain is needed to enhance VA RNAI mutant virus replication. Additionally, we show that the HAdV-4 and HAdV-37 VA RNAI are more effective than the HAdV-5 VA RNAI in rescuing virus replication.

Infectious long non-coding RNAs

Long non protein coding RNAs (lncRNAs) constitute a large category of the RNA world, able to regulate different biological processes. In this review we are focusing on infectious lncRNAs, their classification, pathogenesis and impact on the infected organisms. Here they are presented in two separate groups: 'dependent lncRNAs' (comprising satellites RNA, Hepatitis D virus and lncRNAs of viral origin) which need a helper virus and 'independent lncRNAs' (viroids) that can self-replicate. Even though these lncRNA do not encode any protein, their structure and/or sequence comprise all the necessary information to drive specific interactions with host factors and regulate several cellular functions. These new data that have emerged during the last few years concerning lncRNAs modify the way we understand molecular biology's 'central dogma' and give new perspectives for applications and potential therapeutic strategies.

Chromatinization of the KSHV Genome During the KSHV Life Cycle

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) belongs to the gamma herpesvirus family and is the causative agent of various lymphoproliferative diseases in humans. KSHV, like other herpesviruses, establishes life-long latent infection with the expression of a limited number of viral genes. Expression of these genes is tightly regulated by both the viral and cellular factors. Recent advancements in identifying the expression profiles of viral transcripts, using tilling arrays and next generation sequencing have identified additional coding and non-coding transcripts in the KSHV genome. Determining the functions of these transcripts will provide a better understanding of the mechanisms utilized by KSHV in altering cellular pathways involved in promoting cell growth and tumorigenesis. Replication of the viral genome is critical in maintaining the existing copies of the viral episomes during both latent and lytic phases of the viral life cycle. The replication of the viral episome is facilitated by viral components responsible for recruiting chromatin modifying enzymes and replication factors for altering the chromatin complexity and replication initiation functions, respectively. Importantly, chromatin modification of the viral genome plays a crucial role in determining whether the viral genome will persist as latent episome or undergo lytic reactivation. Additionally, chromatinization of the incoming virion DNA, which lacks chromatin structure, in the target cells during primary infection, helps in establishing latent infection. Here, we discuss the recent advancements on our understating of KSHV genome chromatinization and the consequences of chromatin modifications on viral life cycle.

RNA sociology: group behavioral motifs of RNA consortia

RNA sociology investigates the behavioral motifs of RNA consortia from the social science perspective. Besides the self-folding of RNAs into single stem loop structures, group building of such stem loops results in a variety of essential agents that are highly active in regulatory processes in cellular and non-cellular life. RNA stem loop self-folding and group building do not depend solely on sequence syntax; more important are their contextual (functional) needs. Also, evolutionary processes seem to occur through RNA stem loop consortia that may act as a complement. This means the whole entity functions only if all participating parts are coordinated, although the complementary building parts originally evolved for different functions. If complementary groups, such as rRNAs and tRNAs, are placed together in selective pressure contexts, new evolutionary features may emerge. Evolution initiated by competent agents in natural genome editing clearly contrasts with statistical error replication narratives.

Flaviviral RNAs: weapons and targets in the war between virus and host

Flaviviruses are a genus of (+)ssRNA (positive ssRNA) enveloped viruses that replicate in the cytoplasm of cells of diverse species from arthropods to mammals. Many are important human pathogens such as DENV-1-4 (dengue virus types 1-4), WNV (West Nile virus), YFV (yellow fever virus), JEV (Japanese encephalitis virus) and TBEV (tick-borne encephalitis). Given their RNA genomes it is not surprising that flaviviral life cycles revolve around critical RNA transactions. It is these we highlight in the present article. First, we summarize the mechanisms governing flaviviral replication and the central role of conserved RNA elements and viral protein-RNA interactions in RNA synthesis, translation and packaging. Secondly, we focus on how host RNA-binding proteins both benefit and inhibit flaviviral replication at different stages of their life cycle in mammalian hosts. Thirdly, we cover recent studies on viral non-coding RNAs produced in flavivirus-infected cells and how these RNAs affect various aspects of cellular RNA metabolism. Together, the article puts into perspective the central role of flaviviral RNAs in modulating both viral and cellular functions.

A conserved RNA polymerase III promoter required for gammaherpesvirus TMER transcription and microRNA processing

Canonical RNA polymerase III (pol III) type 2 promoters contain a single A and B box and are well documented for their role in tRNA and SINE transcription in eukaryotic cells. The genome of Murid herpesvirus 4 (MuHV-4) contains eight polycistronic tRNA-microRNA encoded RNA (TMER) genes that are transcribed from a RNA pol III type 2-like promoter containing triplicated A box elements. Here, we demonstrate that the triplicated A box sequences are required in their entirety to produce functional MuHV-4 miRNAs. We also identify that these RNA pol III type 2-like promoters are conserved in eukaryotic genomes. Human and mouse predicted tRNA genes containing these promoters also show enrichment of alternative RNA pol III transcription termination sequences and are predicted to give rise to longer tRNA primary transcripts.

Long ncRNAs expressed during human cytomegalovirus infections

ABSTRACT: 

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) has a tremendous coding capacity within its dsDNA genome that has allowed it to coevolve with its host. Transcription of the virus genome is not limited to protein-coding genes; in fact, most of the transcription from the HCMV genome during lytic replication generates viral ncRNAs that are not translated into protein. Four long ncRNAs (RNA5.0, RNA4.9, RNA1.2 and RNA2.7) account for the majority of HCMV transcription during lytic replication. Here, we review the expression and function of these long ncRNAs in the context of virus replication and pathogenesis. Long ncRNAs may contribute to HCMV evasion of the host response and manipulate cellular and viral programs to successfully persist throughout the lifetime of its host.

Alternative capture of noncoding RNAs or protein-coding genes by herpesviruses to alter host T cell function

In marmoset T cells transformed by Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS), a viral U-rich noncoding (nc) RNA, HSUR 1, specifically mediates degradation of host microRNA-27 (miR-27). High-throughput sequencing of RNA after crosslinking immunoprecipitation (HITS-CLIP) identified mRNAs targeted by miR-27 as enriched in the T cell receptor (TCR) signaling pathway, including GRB2. Accordingly, transfection of miR-27 into human T cells attenuates TCR-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and induction of CD69. MiR-27 also robustly regulates SEMA7A and IFN-γ, key modulators and effectors of T cell function. Knockdown or ectopic expression of HSUR 1 alters levels of these proteins in virally transformed cells. Two other T-lymphotropic γ-herpesviruses, AlHV-1 and OvHV-2, do not produce a noncoding RNA to downregulate miR-27 but instead encode homologs of miR-27 target genes. Thus, oncogenic γ-herpesviruses have evolved diverse strategies to converge on common targets in host T cells.

RNA structures that resist degradation by Xrn1 produce a pathogenic Dengue virus RNA

Dengue virus is a growing global health threat. Dengue and other flaviviruses commandeer the host cell’s RNA degradation machinery to generate the small flaviviral RNA (sfRNA), a noncoding RNA that induces cytopathicity and pathogenesis. Host cell exonuclease Xrn1 likely loads on the 5′ end of viral genomic RNA and degrades processively through ∼10 kB of RNA, halting near the 3′ end of the viral RNA. The surviving RNA is the sfRNA. We interrogated the architecture of the complete Dengue 2 sfRNA, identifying five independently-folded RNA structures, two of which quantitatively confer Xrn1 resistance. We developed an assay for real-time monitoring of Xrn1 resistance that we used with mutagenesis and RNA folding experiments to show that Xrn1-resistant RNAs adopt a specific fold organized around a three-way junction. Disrupting the junction’s fold eliminates the buildup of disease-related sfRNAs in human cells infected with a flavivirus, directly linking RNA structure to sfRNA production.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01892.001

More than 40% of people around the globe are at risk of being bitten by mosquitoes infected with the virus that causes Dengue fever. Every year, more than 100 million of these individuals are infected. Many develop severe headaches, pain, and fever, but some develop a life-threatening condition where tiny blood vessels in the body begin to leak. If not treated quickly, this more severe manifestation of the illness can lead to death.

There are currently no specific therapies or vaccines against Dengue or many other closely related viruses such as West Nile and Japanese Encephalitis. These viruses use instructions encoded in a single strand of RNA to take over an infected cell and to reproduce. The viruses also exploit an enzyme that cells use to destroy RNA to instead produce short stretches of RNA called sfRNAs that, among other things, may help the virus to avoid the immune system of its host. Understanding exactly how Dengue and other viruses thwart this enzyme—which is called Xrn1—may help scientists develop treatments or vaccines for these diseases.

Chapman et al. have now shown that Dengue virus RNA contains a number of RNA elements that prevent it being completely degraded by the Xrn1 enzyme. In particular, a junction formed by three RNA helixes is critical for stopping the enzyme in its tracks, leaving the disease-associated sfRNA behind. A single mutation in the Dengue RNA disrupts the structure of the three-helix junction and allows the enzyme to completely destroy the RNA. A similar mutation was also made in the West Nile virus RNA and when human cells were infected with the mutated West Nile virus, the short sfRNAs were not produced. Treatments or vaccines targeting this structure may therefore help reduce illness associated with Dengue and related viruses.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01892.002

Dual analysis of the murine cytomegalovirus and host cell transcriptomes reveal new aspects of the virus-host cell interface

Major gaps in our knowledge of pathogen genes and how these gene products interact with host gene products to cause disease represent a major obstacle to progress in vaccine and antiviral drug development for the herpesviruses. To begin to bridge these gaps, we conducted a dual analysis of Murine Cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and host cell transcriptomes during lytic infection. We analyzed the MCMV transcriptome during lytic infection using both classical cDNA cloning and sequencing of viral transcripts and next generation sequencing of transcripts (RNA-Seq). We also investigated the host transcriptome using RNA-Seq combined with differential gene expression analysis, biological pathway analysis, and gene ontology analysis. We identify numerous novel spliced and unspliced transcripts of MCMV. Unexpectedly, the most abundantly transcribed viral genes are of unknown function. We found that the most abundant viral transcript, recently identified as a noncoding RNA regulating cellular microRNAs, also codes for a novel protein. To our knowledge, this is the first viral transcript that functions both as a noncoding RNA and an mRNA. We also report that lytic infection elicits a profound cellular response in fibroblasts. Highly upregulated and induced host genes included those involved in inflammation and immunity, but also many unexpected transcription factors and host genes related to development and differentiation. Many top downregulated and repressed genes are associated with functions whose roles in infection are obscure, including host long intergenic noncoding RNAs, antisense RNAs or small nucleolar RNAs. Correspondingly, many differentially expressed genes cluster in biological pathways that may shed new light on cytomegalovirus pathogenesis. Together, these findings provide new insights into the molecular warfare at the virus-host interface and suggest new areas of research to advance the understanding and treatment of cytomegalovirus-associated diseases.

Influenza B virus has global ordered RNA structure in (+) and (-) strands but relatively less stable predicted RNA folding free energy than allowed by the encoded protein sequence

Background

Influenza A virus contributes to seasonal epidemics and pandemics and contains Global Ordered RNA structure (GORS) in the nucleoprotein (NP), non-structural (NS), PB2, and M segments. A related virus, influenza B, is also a major annual public health threat, but unlike influenza A is very selective to human hosts. This study extends the search for GORS to influenza B.

Findings

A survey of all available influenza B sequences reveals GORS in the (+) and (−)RNAs of the NP, NS, PB2, and PB1 gene segments. The results are similar to influenza A, except GORS is observed for the M1 segment of influenza A but not for PB1. In general, the folding free energies of human-specific influenza B RNA segments are less stable than allowable by the encoded amino acid sequence. This is consistent with findings in influenza A, where human-specific influenza RNA folds are less stable than avian and swine strains.

Conclusions

These results reveal fundamental molecular similarities and differences between Influenza A and B and suggest a rational basis for choosing segments to target with therapeutics and for viral attenuation for live vaccines by altering RNA folding stability.

A remarkable career in science-Joseph G. Gall

A festive group of ∼150 current and former students, postdoctoral and other associates, and colleagues gathered during the weekend of April 12-14, 2013 to celebrate Joe Gall's 85th birthday. The gathering, hosted by the Carnegie Institution for Science, Department of Embryology (Allan Spradling, Director) and organized by a group of Joe's current and former students (Zehra Nizami, Alison Singer, Ji-Long Liu, Virginia Zakian, Susan Gerbi), was held in Baltimore, MD. Dinners and symposia extending over 3 days celebrated Joe's scientific findings over the years, together with those of his former students, postdoctoral fellows, and other associates (see program at https://sites.google.com/site/gallsymposium2013/ ).

Efficient heterologous antigen gene delivery and expression by a replication-attenuated BoHV-4-based vaccine vector

Bovine Herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4) is a gammaherpesvirus belonging to the Rhadinovirus genus and due to its biological characteristics has been proposed as a vaccine vector for veterinary vaccines. Because viral vector-associated risk is a major concern for viral vector applications, attenuation is a desirable feature. Therefore, efforts are directed toward the development of highly attenuated viral vectors. BoHV-4 naturally exhibits limited pathogenicity and a further attenuation, in terms of replication, was obtained by disrupting the late gene encoding the 1.7-kb polyadenylated RNA (L1.7). An L1.7 deleted mutant BoHV-4 (BoHV-4-A-KanaGalKΔL1.7), as well as its revertant (BoHV-4-A-Rev), was generated by homologous recombination from the genome of a BoHV-4 isolate (BoHV-4-A) cloned as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). BoHV-4-A-KanaGalKΔL1.7 showed attenuation in terms of competence to reconstitute infectious virus, viral replication, and plaque size when compared to BoHV-4-A, BoHV-4-A-Rev, and BoHV-4-A-KanaGalKΔTK, a recombinant control virus where the KanaGalK selectable marker was inserted into the thymidine kinase open reading frame. The capability of BoHV-4-A-KanaGalKΔL1.7 to deliver and express a heterologous antigen was investigated by replacing the KanaGalK cassette with a vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVg) expression cassette to generate BoHV-4-A-EF1αVSVgΔL1.7. BoHV-4-A-EF1αVSVgΔL1.7 infected cells robustly expressed VSVg, thus confirming that the replication deficiency resulting from L1.7 disruption did not prevent heterologous gene delivery and expression. Although further work is needed to identify the specific function of the BoHV-4 L1.7 gene, the L1.7 gene may represent an ideal targeting locus for the integration of a heterologous antigen expression cassette, resulting in attenuation of the viral vector.

AUF1/hnRNP D is a novel protein partner of the EBER1 noncoding RNA of Epstein-Barr virus

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected cells express two noncoding RNAs called EBV-encoded RNA (EBER) 1 and EBER2. Despite their high abundance in the nucleus (about 10(6) copies), the molecular function of these noncoding RNAs has remained elusive. Here, we report that the insertion into EBER1 of an RNA aptamer that binds the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein allows the isolation of EBER1 and associated protein partners. By combining MS2-mediated selection with stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) and analysis by mass spectrometry, we identified AUF1 (AU-rich element binding factor 1)/hnRNP D (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein D) as an interacting protein of EBER1. AUF1 exists as four isoforms generated by alternative splicing and is best known for its role in destabilizing mRNAs upon binding to AU-rich elements (AREs) in their 3' untranslated region (UTR). Using UV crosslinking, we demonstrate that predominantly the p40 isoform of AUF1 interacts with EBER1 in vivo. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays show that EBER1 can compete for the binding of the AUF1 p40 isoform to ARE-containing RNA. Given the high abundance of EBER1 in EBV-positive cells, EBER1 may disturb the normal homeostasis between AUF1 and ARE-containing mRNAs or compete with other AUF1-interacting targets in cells latently infected by EBV.

The RNA worlds in context

There are two RNA worlds. The first is the primordial RNA world, a hypothetical era when RNA served as both information and function, both genotype and phenotype. The second RNA world is that of today's biological systems, where RNA plays active roles in catalyzing biochemical reactions, in translating mRNA into proteins, in regulating gene expression, and in the constant battle between infectious agents trying to subvert host defense systems and host cells protecting themselves from infection. This second RNA world is not at all hypothetical, and although we do not have all the answers about how it works, we have the tools to continue our interrogation of this world and refine our understanding. The fun comes when we try to use our secure knowledge of the modern RNA world to infer what the primordial RNA world might have looked like.