1
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Yoo D, Rhie A, Hebbar P, Antonacci F, Logsdon GA, Solar SJ, Antipov D, Pickett BD, Safonova Y, Montinaro F, Luo Y, Malukiewicz J, Storer JM, Lin J, Sequeira AN, Mangan RJ, Hickey G, Anez GM, Balachandran P, Bankevich A, Beck CR, Biddanda A, Borchers M, Bouffard GG, Brannan E, Brooks SY, Carbone L, Carrel L, Chan AP, Crawford J, Diekhans M, Engelbrecht E, Feschotte C, Formenti G, Garcia GH, de Gennaro L, Gilbert D, Green RE, Guarracino A, Gupta I, Haddad D, Han J, Harris RS, Hartley GA, Harvey WT, Hiller M, Hoekzema K, Houck ML, Jeong H, Kamali K, Kellis M, Kille B, Lee C, Lee Y, Lees W, Lewis AP, Li Q, Loftus M, Loh YHE, Loucks H, Ma J, Mao Y, Martinez JFI, Masterson P, McCoy RC, McGrath B, McKinney S, Meyer BS, Miga KH, Mohanty SK, Munson KM, Pal K, Pennell M, Pevzner PA, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Ringeling FR, Rocha JL, Ryder OA, Sacco S, Saha S, Sasaki T, Schatz MC, Schork NJ, Shanks C, Smeds L, Son DR, Steiner C, Sweeten AP, Tassia MG, Thibaud-Nissen F, Torres-González E, Trivedi M, Wei W, Wertz J, Yang M, Zhang P, Zhang S, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Zhao SA, Zhu Y, Jarvis ED, Gerton JL, Rivas-González I, Paten B, Szpiech ZA, Huber CD, Lenz TL, Konkel MK, Yi SV, Canzar S, Watson CT, Sudmant PH, Molloy E, Garrison E, Lowe CB, Ventura M, O'Neill RJ, Koren S, Makova KD, Phillippy AM, Eichler EE. Complete sequencing of ape genomes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.31.605654. [PMID: 39131277 PMCID: PMC11312596 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.31.605654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
We present haplotype-resolved reference genomes and comparative analyses of six ape species, namely: chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, Bornean orangutan, Sumatran orangutan, and siamang. We achieve chromosome-level contiguity with unparalleled sequence accuracy (<1 error in 500,000 base pairs), completely sequencing 215 gapless chromosomes telomere-to-telomere. We resolve challenging regions, such as the major histocompatibility complex and immunoglobulin loci, providing more in-depth evolutionary insights. Comparative analyses, including human, allow us to investigate the evolution and diversity of regions previously uncharacterized or incompletely studied without bias from mapping to the human reference. This includes newly minted gene families within lineage-specific segmental duplications, centromeric DNA, acrocentric chromosomes, and subterminal heterochromatin. This resource should serve as a definitive baseline for all future evolutionary studies of humans and our closest living ape relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- DongAhn Yoo
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Arang Rhie
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Prajna Hebbar
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Francesca Antonacci
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, 70124, Italy
| | - Glennis A Logsdon
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19103, USA
| | - Steven J Solar
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Dmitry Antipov
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Brandon D Pickett
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Yana Safonova
- Computer Science and Engineering Department, Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16801, USA
| | - Francesco Montinaro
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, 70124, Italy
- Institute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Yanting Luo
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Joanna Malukiewicz
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jessica M Storer
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Jiadong Lin
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Abigail N Sequeira
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Riley J Mangan
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
- Genetics Training Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Glenn Hickey
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | | | | | - Anton Bankevich
- Computer Science and Engineering Department, Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16801, USA
| | - Christine R Beck
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Arjun Biddanda
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Matthew Borchers
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Gerard G Bouffard
- NIH Intramural Sequencing Center, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Emry Brannan
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Shelise Y Brooks
- NIH Intramural Sequencing Center, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Lucia Carbone
- Department of Medicine, KCVI, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, OR, USA
- Division of Genetics, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Laura Carrel
- PSU Medical School, Penn State University School of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | - Agnes P Chan
- The Translational Genomics Research Institute, a part of the City of Hope National Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Juyun Crawford
- NIH Intramural Sequencing Center, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mark Diekhans
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Eric Engelbrecht
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Cedric Feschotte
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Giulio Formenti
- Vertebrate Genome Laboratory, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Gage H Garcia
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Luciana de Gennaro
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, 70124, Italy
| | - David Gilbert
- San Diego Biomedical Research Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Andrea Guarracino
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Ishaan Gupta
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Diana Haddad
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Junmin Han
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Robert S Harris
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Gabrielle A Hartley
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - William T Harvey
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michael Hiller
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Senckenberg Research Institute, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Kendra Hoekzema
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Marlys L Houck
- San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA, 92027-7000, USA
| | - Hyeonsoo Jeong
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kaivan Kamali
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Manolis Kellis
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Bryce Kille
- Department of Computer Science, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Chul Lee
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics of Language, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Youngho Lee
- Laboratory of bioinformatics and population genetics, Interdisciplinary program in bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
| | - William Lees
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
- Bioengineering Program, Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Alexandra P Lewis
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Qiuhui Li
- Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Mark Loftus
- Department of Genetics & Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- Center for Human Genetics, Clemson University, Greenwood, SC, USA
| | - Yong Hwee Eddie Loh
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Hailey Loucks
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Jian Ma
- Ray and Stephanie Lane Computational Biology Department, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, PA, USA
| | - Yafei Mao
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- Center for Genomic Research, International Institutes of Medicine, Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, Zhejiang, China
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University Chongqing Research Institute, Chongqing, China
| | - Juan F I Martinez
- Computer Science and Engineering Department, Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA 16801, USA
| | - Patrick Masterson
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Rajiv C McCoy
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Barbara McGrath
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sean McKinney
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Britta S Meyer
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Karen H Miga
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Saswat K Mohanty
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Katherine M Munson
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Karol Pal
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Matt Pennell
- Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Pavel A Pevzner
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, CA, USA
| | - David Porubsky
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Tamara Potapova
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
| | - Francisca R Ringeling
- Faculty of Informatics and Data Science, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Joana L Rocha
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, USA
| | - Oliver A Ryder
- San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA, 92027-7000, USA
| | - Samuel Sacco
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Swati Saha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Takayo Sasaki
- San Diego Biomedical Research Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Michael C Schatz
- Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Nicholas J Schork
- The Translational Genomics Research Institute, a part of the City of Hope National Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Cole Shanks
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Linnéa Smeds
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Dongmin R Son
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Cynthia Steiner
- San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA, 92027-7000, USA
| | - Alexander P Sweeten
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Michael G Tassia
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Françoise Thibaud-Nissen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | | | - Mihir Trivedi
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Wenjie Wei
- School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, China
- National Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070, Wuhan, China
| | - Julie Wertz
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Muyu Yang
- Ray and Stephanie Lane Computational Biology Department, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, PA, USA
| | - Panpan Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Shilong Zhang
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Ray and Stephanie Lane Computational Biology Department, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, PA, USA
| | - Zhenmiao Zhang
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Sarah A Zhao
- Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Yixin Zhu
- Department of Quantitative and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Erich D Jarvis
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics of Language, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | | | - Iker Rivas-González
- Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Benedict Paten
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
| | - Zachary A Szpiech
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Christian D Huber
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Tobias L Lenz
- Research Unit for Evolutionary Immunogenomics, Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Miriam K Konkel
- Department of Genetics & Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- Center for Human Genetics, Clemson University, Greenwood, SC, USA
| | - Soojin V Yi
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Stefan Canzar
- Faculty of Informatics and Data Science, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Corey T Watson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Peter H Sudmant
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, USA
- Center for Computational Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, USA
| | - Erin Molloy
- Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Erik Garrison
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
| | - Craig B Lowe
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Mario Ventura
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari, Bari, 70124, Italy
| | - Rachel J O'Neill
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
- Departments of Molecular and Cell Biology, UConn Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Sergey Koren
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kateryna D Makova
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Adam M Phillippy
- Genome Informatics Section, Center for Genomics and Data Science Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Evan E Eichler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Yi C, Liu Q, Huang Y, Liu C, Guo X, Fan C, Zhang K, Liu Y, Han F. Non-B-form DNA is associated with centromere stability in newly-formed polyploid wheat. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2024; 67:1479-1488. [PMID: 38639838 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-023-2513-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Non-B-form DNA differs from the classic B-DNA double helix structure and plays a crucial regulatory role in replication and transcription. However, the role of non-B-form DNA in centromeres, especially in polyploid wheat, remains elusive. Here, we systematically analyzed seven non-B-form DNA motif profiles (A-phased DNA repeat, direct repeat, G-quadruplex, inverted repeat, mirror repeat, short tandem repeat, and Z-DNA) in hexaploid wheat. We found that three of these non-B-form DNA motifs were enriched at centromeric regions, especially at the CENH3-binding sites, suggesting that non-B-form DNA may create a favorable loading environment for the CENH3 nucleosome. To investigate the dynamics of centromeric non-B form DNA during the alloploidization process, we analyzed DNA secondary structure using CENH3 ChIP-seq data from newly formed allotetraploid wheat and its two diploid ancestors. We found that newly formed allotetraploid wheat formed more non-B-form DNA in centromeric regions compared with their parents, suggesting that non-B-form DNA is related to the localization of the centromeric regions in newly formed wheat. Furthermore, non-B-form DNA enriched in the centromeric regions was found to preferentially form on young LTR retrotransposons, explaining CENH3's tendency to bind to younger LTR. Collectively, our study describes the landscape of non-B-form DNA in the wheat genome, and sheds light on its potential role in the evolution of polyploid centromeres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congyang Yi
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xianrui Guo
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chaolan Fan
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Kaibiao Zhang
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Fangpu Han
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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3
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Makova KD, Pickett BD, Harris RS, Hartley GA, Cechova M, Pal K, Nurk S, Yoo D, Li Q, Hebbar P, McGrath BC, Antonacci F, Aubel M, Biddanda A, Borchers M, Bornberg-Bauer E, Bouffard GG, Brooks SY, Carbone L, Carrel L, Carroll A, Chang PC, Chin CS, Cook DE, Craig SJC, de Gennaro L, Diekhans M, Dutra A, Garcia GH, Grady PGS, Green RE, Haddad D, Hallast P, Harvey WT, Hickey G, Hillis DA, Hoyt SJ, Jeong H, Kamali K, Pond SLK, LaPolice TM, Lee C, Lewis AP, Loh YHE, Masterson P, McGarvey KM, McCoy RC, Medvedev P, Miga KH, Munson KM, Pak E, Paten B, Pinto BJ, Potapova T, Rhie A, Rocha JL, Ryabov F, Ryder OA, Sacco S, Shafin K, Shepelev VA, Slon V, Solar SJ, Storer JM, Sudmant PH, Sweetalana, Sweeten A, Tassia MG, Thibaud-Nissen F, Ventura M, Wilson MA, Young AC, Zeng H, Zhang X, Szpiech ZA, Huber CD, Gerton JL, Yi SV, Schatz MC, Alexandrov IA, Koren S, O'Neill RJ, Eichler EE, Phillippy AM. The complete sequence and comparative analysis of ape sex chromosomes. Nature 2024; 630:401-411. [PMID: 38811727 PMCID: PMC11168930 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07473-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Apes possess two sex chromosomes-the male-specific Y chromosome and the X chromosome, which is present in both males and females. The Y chromosome is crucial for male reproduction, with deletions being linked to infertility1. The X chromosome is vital for reproduction and cognition2. Variation in mating patterns and brain function among apes suggests corresponding differences in their sex chromosomes. However, owing to their repetitive nature and incomplete reference assemblies, ape sex chromosomes have been challenging to study. Here, using the methodology developed for the telomere-to-telomere (T2T) human genome, we produced gapless assemblies of the X and Y chromosomes for five great apes (bonobo (Pan paniscus), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)) and a lesser ape (the siamang gibbon (Symphalangus syndactylus)), and untangled the intricacies of their evolution. Compared with the X chromosomes, the ape Y chromosomes vary greatly in size and have low alignability and high levels of structural rearrangements-owing to the accumulation of lineage-specific ampliconic regions, palindromes, transposable elements and satellites. Many Y chromosome genes expand in multi-copy families and some evolve under purifying selection. Thus, the Y chromosome exhibits dynamic evolution, whereas the X chromosome is more stable. Mapping short-read sequencing data to these assemblies revealed diversity and selection patterns on sex chromosomes of more than 100 individual great apes. These reference assemblies are expected to inform human evolution and conservation genetics of non-human apes, all of which are endangered species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brandon D Pickett
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Monika Cechova
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Karol Pal
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Sergey Nurk
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - DongAhn Yoo
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Qiuhui Li
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Prajna Hebbar
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Erich Bornberg-Bauer
- University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- MPI for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gerard G Bouffard
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shelise Y Brooks
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Lucia Carbone
- Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Hillsboro, OR, USA
| | - Laura Carrel
- Penn State University School of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | | | | | - Chen-Shan Chin
- Foundation of Biological Data Sciences, Belmont, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Mark Diekhans
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Amalia Dutra
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gage H Garcia
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Diana Haddad
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Pille Hallast
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | | | - Glenn Hickey
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - David A Hillis
- University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Hyeonsoo Jeong
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Charles Lee
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | | | - Yong-Hwee E Loh
- University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Patrick Masterson
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kelly M McGarvey
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Karen H Miga
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | - Evgenia Pak
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Benedict Paten
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Arang Rhie
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Joana L Rocha
- University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Fedor Ryabov
- Masters Program in National Research, University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Samuel Sacco
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Steven J Solar
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Sweetalana
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Alex Sweeten
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Françoise Thibaud-Nissen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mario Ventura
- Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Alice C Young
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Xinru Zhang
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Soojin V Yi
- University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Sergey Koren
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Evan E Eichler
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Adam M Phillippy
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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4
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Bartas M, Brázda V, Pečinka P. Special Issue "Bioinformatics of Unusual DNA and RNA Structures". Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5226. [PMID: 38791265 PMCID: PMC11121459 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25105226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Nucleic acids are not only static carriers of genetic information but also play vital roles in controlling cellular lifecycles through their fascinating structural diversity [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bartas
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic;
| | - Václav Brázda
- Institute of Biophysics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Královopolská 135, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic;
| | - Petr Pečinka
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 710 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic;
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5
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Lorenzatti A, Piga EJ, Gismondi M, Binolfi A, Margarit E, Calcaterra N, Armas P. Genetic variations in G-quadruplex forming sequences affect the transcription of human disease-related genes. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:12124-12139. [PMID: 37930868 PMCID: PMC10711447 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Guanine-rich DNA strands can fold into non-canonical four-stranded secondary structures named G-quadruplexes (G4s). G4s folded in proximal promoter regions (PPR) are associated either with positive or negative transcriptional regulation. Given that single nucleotide variants (SNVs) affecting G4 folding (G4-Vars) may alter gene transcription, and that SNVs are associated with the human diseases' onset, we undertook a novel comprehensive study of the G4-Vars genome-wide (G4-variome) to find disease-associated G4-Vars located into PPRs. We developed a bioinformatics strategy to find disease-related SNVs located into PPRs simultaneously overlapping with putative G4-forming sequences (PQSs). We studied five G4-Vars disturbing in vitro the folding and stability of the G4s located into PPRs, which had been formerly associated with sporadic Alzheimer's disease (GRIN2B), a severe familiar coagulopathy (F7), atopic dermatitis (CSF2), myocardial infarction (SIRT1) and deafness (LHFPL5). Results obtained in cultured cells for these five G4-Vars suggest that the changes in the G4s affect the transcription, potentially contributing to the development of the mentioned diseases. Collectively, data reinforce the general idea that G4-Vars may impact on the different susceptibilities to human genetic diseases' onset, and could be novel targets for diagnosis and drug design in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Lorenzatti
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S2000EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Ernesto J Piga
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S2000EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Mauro Gismondi
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Suipacha 531, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Andrés Binolfi
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S2000EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
- Plataforma Argentina de Biología Estructural y Metabolómica (PLABEM), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S200EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Ezequiel Margarit
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Suipacha 531, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Nora B Calcaterra
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S2000EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Pablo Armas
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario (UNR), Ocampo y Esmeralda, Rosario S2000EZP, Santa Fe, Argentina
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6
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Makova KD, Pickett BD, Harris RS, Hartley GA, Cechova M, Pal K, Nurk S, Yoo D, Li Q, Hebbar P, McGrath BC, Antonacci F, Aubel M, Biddanda A, Borchers M, Bomberg E, Bouffard GG, Brooks SY, Carbone L, Carrel L, Carroll A, Chang PC, Chin CS, Cook DE, Craig SJ, de Gennaro L, Diekhans M, Dutra A, Garcia GH, Grady PG, Green RE, Haddad D, Hallast P, Harvey WT, Hickey G, Hillis DA, Hoyt SJ, Jeong H, Kamali K, Kosakovsky Pond SL, LaPolice TM, Lee C, Lewis AP, Loh YHE, Masterson P, McCoy RC, Medvedev P, Miga KH, Munson KM, Pak E, Paten B, Pinto BJ, Potapova T, Rhie A, Rocha JL, Ryabov F, Ryder OA, Sacco S, Shafin K, Shepelev VA, Slon V, Solar SJ, Storer JM, Sudmant PH, Sweetalana, Sweeten A, Tassia MG, Thibaud-Nissen F, Ventura M, Wilson MA, Young AC, Zeng H, Zhang X, Szpiech ZA, Huber CD, Gerton JL, Yi SV, Schatz MC, Alexandrov IA, Koren S, O’Neill RJ, Eichler E, Phillippy AM. The Complete Sequence and Comparative Analysis of Ape Sex Chromosomes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.30.569198. [PMID: 38077089 PMCID: PMC10705393 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.30.569198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Apes possess two sex chromosomes-the male-specific Y and the X shared by males and females. The Y chromosome is crucial for male reproduction, with deletions linked to infertility. The X chromosome carries genes vital for reproduction and cognition. Variation in mating patterns and brain function among great apes suggests corresponding differences in their sex chromosome structure and evolution. However, due to their highly repetitive nature and incomplete reference assemblies, ape sex chromosomes have been challenging to study. Here, using the state-of-the-art experimental and computational methods developed for the telomere-to-telomere (T2T) human genome, we produced gapless, complete assemblies of the X and Y chromosomes for five great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, Bornean and Sumatran orangutans) and a lesser ape, the siamang gibbon. These assemblies completely resolved ampliconic, palindromic, and satellite sequences, including the entire centromeres, allowing us to untangle the intricacies of ape sex chromosome evolution. We found that, compared to the X, ape Y chromosomes vary greatly in size and have low alignability and high levels of structural rearrangements. This divergence on the Y arises from the accumulation of lineage-specific ampliconic regions and palindromes (which are shared more broadly among species on the X) and from the abundance of transposable elements and satellites (which have a lower representation on the X). Our analysis of Y chromosome genes revealed lineage-specific expansions of multi-copy gene families and signatures of purifying selection. In summary, the Y exhibits dynamic evolution, while the X is more stable. Finally, mapping short-read sequencing data from >100 great ape individuals revealed the patterns of diversity and selection on their sex chromosomes, demonstrating the utility of these reference assemblies for studies of great ape evolution. These complete sex chromosome assemblies are expected to further inform conservation genetics of nonhuman apes, all of which are endangered species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brandon D. Pickett
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Monika Cechova
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Karol Pal
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Sergey Nurk
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - DongAhn Yoo
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Qiuhui Li
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Prajna Hebbar
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Erich Bomberg
- University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- MPI for Developmental Biology, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gerard G. Bouffard
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shelise Y. Brooks
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Lucia Carbone
- Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Hillsboro, OR, USA
| | - Laura Carrel
- Penn State University School of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
| | | | | | - Chen-Shan Chin
- Foundation of Biological Data Sciences, Belmont, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Mark Diekhans
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Amalia Dutra
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gage H. Garcia
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | - Diana Haddad
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Pille Hallast
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | | | - Glenn Hickey
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - David A. Hillis
- University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Hyeonsoo Jeong
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Charles Lee
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | | | | | - Patrick Masterson
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Karen H. Miga
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | - Evgenia Pak
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Benedict Paten
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Arang Rhie
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Fedor Ryabov
- Masters Program in National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Samuel Sacco
- University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Steven J. Solar
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Sweetalana
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Alex Sweeten
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Françoise Thibaud-Nissen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Alice C. Young
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Xinru Zhang
- Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Soojin V. Yi
- University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Sergey Koren
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Evan Eichler
- University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Adam M. Phillippy
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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7
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Matos-Rodrigues G, Hisey JA, Nussenzweig A, Mirkin SM. Detection of alternative DNA structures and its implications for human disease. Mol Cell 2023; 83:3622-3641. [PMID: 37863029 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Around 3% of the genome consists of simple DNA repeats that are prone to forming alternative (non-B) DNA structures, such as hairpins, cruciforms, triplexes (H-DNA), four-stranded guanine quadruplexes (G4-DNA), and others, as well as composite RNA:DNA structures (e.g., R-loops, G-loops, and H-loops). These DNA structures are dynamic and favored by the unwinding of duplex DNA. For many years, the association of alternative DNA structures with genome function was limited by the lack of methods to detect them in vivo. Here, we review the recent advancements in the field and present state-of-the-art technologies and methods to study alternative DNA structures. We discuss the limitations of these methods as well as how they are beginning to provide insights into causal relationships between alternative DNA structures, genome function and stability, and human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia A Hisey
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - André Nussenzweig
- Laboratory of Genome Integrity, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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8
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Rhie A, Nurk S, Cechova M, Hoyt SJ, Taylor DJ, Altemose N, Hook PW, Koren S, Rautiainen M, Alexandrov IA, Allen J, Asri M, Bzikadze AV, Chen NC, Chin CS, Diekhans M, Flicek P, Formenti G, Fungtammasan A, Garcia Giron C, Garrison E, Gershman A, Gerton JL, Grady PGS, Guarracino A, Haggerty L, Halabian R, Hansen NF, Harris R, Hartley GA, Harvey WT, Haukness M, Heinz J, Hourlier T, Hubley RM, Hunt SE, Hwang S, Jain M, Kesharwani RK, Lewis AP, Li H, Logsdon GA, Lucas JK, Makalowski W, Markovic C, Martin FJ, Mc Cartney AM, McCoy RC, McDaniel J, McNulty BM, Medvedev P, Mikheenko A, Munson KM, Murphy TD, Olsen HE, Olson ND, Paulin LF, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Ryabov F, Salzberg SL, Sauria MEG, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shepelev VA, Shumate A, Storer JM, Surapaneni L, Taravella Oill AM, Thibaud-Nissen F, Timp W, Tomaszkiewicz M, Vollger MR, Walenz BP, Watwood AC, Weissensteiner MH, Wenger AM, Wilson MA, Zarate S, Zhu Y, Zook JM, Eichler EE, O'Neill RJ, Schatz MC, Miga KH, Makova KD, Phillippy AM. The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome. Nature 2023; 621:344-354. [PMID: 37612512 PMCID: PMC10752217 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
The human Y chromosome has been notoriously difficult to sequence and assemble because of its complex repeat structure that includes long palindromes, tandem repeats and segmental duplications1-3. As a result, more than half of the Y chromosome is missing from the GRCh38 reference sequence and it remains the last human chromosome to be finished4,5. Here, the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium presents the complete 62,460,029-base-pair sequence of a human Y chromosome from the HG002 genome (T2T-Y) that corrects multiple errors in GRCh38-Y and adds over 30 million base pairs of sequence to the reference, showing the complete ampliconic structures of gene families TSPY, DAZ and RBMY; 41 additional protein-coding genes, mostly from the TSPY family; and an alternating pattern of human satellite 1 and 3 blocks in the heterochromatic Yq12 region. We have combined T2T-Y with a previous assembly of the CHM13 genome4 and mapped available population variation, clinical variants and functional genomics data to produce a complete and comprehensive reference sequence for all 24 human chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arang Rhie
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sergey Nurk
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Oxford Nanopore Technologies Inc., Oxford, UK
| | - Monika Cechova
- Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Savannah J Hoyt
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Dylan J Taylor
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nicolas Altemose
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Paul W Hook
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sergey Koren
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mikko Rautiainen
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ivan A Alexandrov
- Federal Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Center for Algorithmic Biotechnology, Saint Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
- Department of Anatomy and Anthropology and Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel
| | - Jamie Allen
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mobin Asri
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Andrey V Bzikadze
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Nae-Chyun Chen
- Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Chen-Shan Chin
- GeneDX Holdings Corp, Stamford, CT, USA
- Foundation of Biological Data Science, Belmont, CA, USA
| | - Mark Diekhans
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Paul Flicek
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Carlos Garcia Giron
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Erik Garrison
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Ariel Gershman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jennifer L Gerton
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
- University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Patrick G S Grady
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Andrea Guarracino
- Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
- Genomics Research Centre, Human Technopole, Milan, Italy
| | - Leanne Haggerty
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Reza Halabian
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Nancy F Hansen
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
- Cancer Genetics and Comparative Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Robert Harris
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Gabrielle A Hartley
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - William T Harvey
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Marina Haukness
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Jakob Heinz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Thibaut Hourlier
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Sarah E Hunt
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Stephen Hwang
- XDBio Program, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Miten Jain
- Department of Bioengineering, Department of Physics, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rupesh K Kesharwani
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Alexandra P Lewis
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Heng Li
- Department of Data Sciences, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Glennis A Logsdon
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Julian K Lucas
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Wojciech Makalowski
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christopher Markovic
- Genome Technology Access Center at the McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Fergal J Martin
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Ann M Mc Cartney
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rajiv C McCoy
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jennifer McDaniel
- Biosystems and Biomaterials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Brandy M McNulty
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Paul Medvedev
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Alla Mikheenko
- Center for Algorithmic Biotechnology, Saint Petersburg State University, St Petersburg, Russia
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK
| | - Katherine M Munson
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Terence D Murphy
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Hugh E Olsen
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Nathan D Olson
- Biosystems and Biomaterials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Luis F Paulin
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, USA
| | - David Porubsky
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Tamara Potapova
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Fedor Ryabov
- Masters Program in National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Steven L Salzberg
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Computer Science, and Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Fritz J Sedlazeck
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | | - Alaina Shumate
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Likhitha Surapaneni
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Angela M Taravella Oill
- Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Françoise Thibaud-Nissen
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Winston Timp
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marta Tomaszkiewicz
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
| | - Mitchell R Vollger
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Brian P Walenz
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Allison C Watwood
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | | | - Melissa A Wilson
- Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Samantha Zarate
- Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yiming Zhu
- Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Justin M Zook
- Biosystems and Biomaterials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | - Evan E Eichler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Rachel J O'Neill
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Michael C Schatz
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Karen H Miga
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- UC Santa Cruz Genomics Institute, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Kateryna D Makova
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Adam M Phillippy
- Genome Informatics Section, Computational and Statistical Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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