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Rivi V, Batabyal A, Benatti C, Sarti P, Blom JMC, Tascedda F, Lukowiak K. A translational and multidisciplinary approach to studying the Garcia effect, a higher form of learning with deep evolutionary roots. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb247325. [PMID: 38639079 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.247325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Animals, including humans, learn and remember to avoid a novel food when its ingestion is followed, hours later, by sickness - a phenomenon initially identified during World War II as a potential means of pest control. In the 1960s, John Garcia (for whom the effect is now named) demonstrated that this form of conditioned taste aversion had broader implications, showing that it is a rapid but long-lasting taste-specific food aversion with a fundamental role in the evolution of behaviour. From the mid-1970s onward, the principles of the Garcia effect were translated to humans, showing its role in different clinical conditions (e.g. side-effects linked to chemotherapy). However, in the last two decades, the number of studies on the Garcia effect has undergone a considerable decline. Since its discovery in rodents, this form of learning was thought to be exclusive to mammals; however, we recently provided the first demonstration that a Garcia effect can be formed in an invertebrate model organism, the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Thus, in this Commentary, after reviewing the experiments that led to the first characterization of the Garcia effect in rodents, we describe the recent evidence for the Garcia effect in L. stagnalis, which may pave the way for future studies in other invertebrates and mammals. This article aims to inspire future translational and ecological studies that characterize the conserved mechanisms underlying this form of learning with deep evolutionary roots, which can be used to address a range of different biological questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Rivi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Anuradha Batabyal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 1N4
- Department of Physical and Natural Sciences, FLAME University, Pune - 412115, Maharashtra, India
| | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Pierfrancesco Sarti
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Johanna Maria Catharina Blom
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Fabio Tascedda
- Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
- CIB, Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie, 34148 Trieste, Italy
| | - Ken Lukowiak
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 1N4
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Ponte G, Chiandetti C, Edelman DB, Imperadore P, Pieroni EM, Fiorito G. Cephalopod Behavior: From Neural Plasticity to Consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 15:787139. [PMID: 35495582 PMCID: PMC9039538 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.787139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is only in recent decades that subjective experience - or consciousness - has become a legitimate object of scientific inquiry. As such, it represents perhaps the greatest challenge facing neuroscience today. Subsumed within this challenge is the study of subjective experience in non-human animals: a particularly difficult endeavor that becomes even more so, as one crosses the great evolutionary divide between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla. Here, we explore the possibility of consciousness in one group of invertebrates: cephalopod molluscs. We believe such a review is timely, particularly considering cephalopods' impressive learning and memory abilities, rich behavioral repertoire, and the relative complexity of their nervous systems and sensory capabilities. Indeed, in some cephalopods, these abilities are so sophisticated that they are comparable to those of some higher vertebrates. Following the criteria and framework outlined for the identification of hallmarks of consciousness in non-mammalian species, here we propose that cephalopods - particularly the octopus - provide a unique test case among invertebrates for examining the properties and conditions that, at the very least, afford a basal faculty of consciousness. These include, among others: (i) discriminatory and anticipatory behaviors indicating a strong link between perception and memory recall; (ii) the presence of neural substrates representing functional analogs of thalamus and cortex; (iii) the neurophysiological dynamics resembling the functional signatures of conscious states in mammals. We highlight the current lack of evidence as well as potentially informative areas that warrant further investigation to support the view expressed here. Finally, we identify future research directions for the study of consciousness in these tantalizing animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Ponte
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - David B. Edelman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
- Association for Cephalopod Research ‘CephRes' a non-profit Organization, Naples, Italy
| | - Pamela Imperadore
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Graziano Fiorito
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
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3
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The effect of unexpected rewards on decision making in cuttlefish. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2514. [PMID: 35169192 PMCID: PMC8847567 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06443-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite numerous studies demonstrating the cognitive ability of cephalopods, there is currently no study showing an emotion-like behavior in this group of animals. To examine whether cuttlefish have different internal states, we developed a behavioral paradigm to assess if prior surprised events are able to alter the choice made by cuttlefish. By presenting unexpected food rewards to cuttlefish before the test, we investigated whether the reaction time of choosing between two shrimps, an intuitive response toward the prey without previous learning, at three different levels of discriminative tests (easy, difficult, and ambiguous), are different compared to the one without an unexpected reward. This behavioral paradigm serves to demonstrate whether cuttlefish are aware of ambiguous situations, and their choice outcome and reaction time are dependent of their internal states. The results show that the response latency was significantly shortened in the difficult and ambiguous tests when choosing from two shrimps that are either moderately different in size or similar sizes, respectively, when cuttlefish have received unexpected rewards before the test. These results were compared with tests during which the cuttlefish did not receive any reward in advance. Furthermore, this shortening of latency did not result in a difference in choice outcome during the difficult and ambiguous tests. Interestingly, even when cuttlefish have obtained the expected food rewards or simply made tentacular strike without prey capture each time before test, these prior experiences were sufficient to shorten the response latency in the difficult and ambiguous tests. However, different from the result of unexpected rewards, food consumption alone or prey capture failure did affect the choice outcome during the simple and difficult tests. Taken together, our findings suggest that pre-test treatments of unexpected and expected rewards or simply unsuccessful visual attack seem to induce cuttlefish to adopt different foraging behaviors. This context dependent decision making suggests that cuttlefish’s foraging strategies are influenced by the previously surprised event and their internal states. It also shows a speed-accuracy tradeoff in difficult and ambiguous situations when foraging for prey. This observation may lead to a future investigation of the presence of emotional state in cephalopods.
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Potential evidence of peripheral learning and memory in the arms of dwarf cuttlefish, Sepia bandensis. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021; 207:575-594. [PMID: 34121131 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-021-01499-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
CREB (cAMP response element-binding) transcription factors are conserved markers of memory formation in the brain and peripheral circuits. We provide immunohistochemical evidence of CREB phosphorylation in the dwarf cuttlefish, Sepia bandensis, following the inaccessible prey (IP) memory experiment. During the IP experiment, cuttlefish are shown prey enclosed in a transparent tube, and tentacle strikes against the tube decrease over time as the cuttlefish learns the prey is inaccessible. The cues driving IP learning are unclear but may include sensory inputs from arms touching the tube. The neural activity marker, anti-phospho-CREB (anti-pCREB) was used to determine whether IP training stimulated cuttlefish arm sensory neurons. pCREB immunoreactivity occurred along the oral surface of the arms, including the suckers and epithelial folds surrounding the suckers. pCREB increased in the epithelial folds and suckers of trained cuttlefish. We found differential pCREB immunoreactivity along the distal-proximal axis of trained arms, with pCREB concentrated distally. Unequal CREB phosphorylation occurred among the 4 trained arm pairs, with arm pairs 1 and 2 containing more pCREB. The resulting patterns of pCREB in trained arms suggest that the arms obtain cues that may be salient for learning and memory of the IP experiment.
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Sampaio E, Ramos CS, Bernardino BLM, Bleunven M, Augustin ML, Moura É, Lopes VM, Rosa R. Neurally underdeveloped cuttlefish newborns exhibit social learning. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:23-32. [PMID: 32651650 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01411-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Learning can occur through self-experience with the environment, or through the observation of others. The latter allows for adaptive behaviour without trial-and-error, thus maximizing individual fitness. Perhaps given their mostly solitary lifestyle, cuttlefish have seldomly been tested under observational learning scenarios. Here we used a multi-treatment design to disentangle if and how neurally immature cuttlefish Sepia officinalis hatchlings (up to 5 days) incorporate social information into their decision-making, when performing a task where inhibition of predatory behaviour is learned. In the classical social learning treatment using pre-trained demonstrators, observers did not register any predatory behaviour. In the inhibition by social learning treatment, using naïve (or sham) demonstrators, more observers than demonstrators learned the task, while also reaching learning criterion in fewer trials, and performing less number of attacks per trial. Moreover, the performance of demonstrator-observer pairs was highly correlated, indicating that the mere presence of conspecifics did not explain our results by itself. Additionally, observers always reported higher latency time to attack during trials, a trend that was reversed in the positive controls. Lastly, pre-exposure to the stimulus did not improve learning rates. Our findings reveal the vicarious capacity of these invertebrate newborns to learn modulation (inhibition) of predatory behaviour, potentially through emulation (i.e. affordance learning). Despite ongoing changes on neural organization during early ontogeny, cognitively demanding forms of learning are already present in cuttlefish newborns, facilitating behavioural adaptation at a critical life stage, and potentially improving individual fitness in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Sampaio
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal.
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78464, Konstanz, Germany.
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Catarina S Ramos
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Bruna L M Bernardino
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Maela Bleunven
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Marta L Augustin
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Érica Moura
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Vanessa M Lopes
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Rui Rosa
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
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6
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Schnell AK, Amodio P, Boeckle M, Clayton NS. How intelligent is a cephalopod? Lessons from comparative cognition. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 96:162-178. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Piero Amodio
- Department of Psychology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn Naples Italy
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of Psychology University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
- Department of Cognitive Biology University of Vienna Vienna Austria
- Karl Landsteiner University of Health Science Krems an der Donau Austria
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7
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Montalbano G, Bertolucci C, Lucon-Xiccato T. Measures of inhibitory control correlate between different tasks but do not predict problem-solving success in a fish, Poecilia reticulata. INTELLIGENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2020.101486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Bertolucci C. Guppies show rapid and lasting inhibition of foraging behaviour. Behav Processes 2019; 164:91-99. [PMID: 31002840 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To cope with the variable environment, animals are continuously required to learn novel behaviours or, in certain cases, to inhibit automatic and previously learned behaviours. Traditionally, inhibition has been regarded as cognitively demanding and studied mostly in primates, other mammals and birds, using laboratory tasks, such as the cylinder task. Recent studies have also revealed that fish show high levels of inhibition in the cylinder task. However, conclusions on such results are undermined by evidence that the cylinder task may be inappropriate to compare such phylogenetically distant species. Here, we studied whether a fish, the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, could learn to inhibit behaviour using a different paradigm, which exploited spontaneous foraging behaviour and overcame some drawbacks that characterised the cylinder task. We exposed guppies to live brine shrimp nauplii, Artemia salina, enclosed within a transparent tube. Initially, the guppies attempted to attack the prey but over time showed a rapid decrease of the attacks. Control tests seemed to exclude the possibility that this behavioural trend was due to response to novelty or habituation, and suggested that the guppies were learning to inhibit the foraging behaviour. Memory tests indicated that guppies retained the inhibition of foraging behaviour for at least 24 h. Our study seems to indicate that teleost fish display rapid and durable inhibition of spontaneous foraging behaviour; this may be related to previous evidence, from the cylinder task, supporting efficient behavioural inhibition in this taxon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Cristiano Bertolucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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9
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Huang YH, Lin HJ, Lin LY, Chiao CC. Do cuttlefish have fraction number sense? Anim Cogn 2019; 22:163-168. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-01232-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 12/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Yasumuro H, Ikeda Y. Environmental enrichment affects the ontogeny of learning, memory, and depth perception of the pharaoh cuttlefish Sepia pharaonis. ZOOLOGY 2018; 128:27-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Lopes VM, Sampaio E, Roumbedakis K, Tanaka NK, Carulla L, Gambús G, Woo T, Martins CPP, Penicaud V, Gibbings C, Eberle J, Tedesco P, Fernández I, Rodríguez-González T, Imperadore P, Ponte G, Fiorito G. Cephalopod biology and care, a COST FA1301 (CephsInAction) training school: anaesthesia and scientific procedures. INVERTEBRATE NEUROSCIENCE 2018. [PMID: 28620831 DOI: 10.1007/s10158-017-0200-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cephalopods are the sole invertebrates included in the list of regulated species following the Directive 2010/63/EU. According to the Directive, achieving competence through adequate training is a requisite for people having a role in the different functions (article 23) as such carrying out procedures on animals, designing procedures and projects, taking care of animals, killing animals. Cephalopod Biology and Care Training Program is specifically designed to comply with the requirements of the "working document on the development of a common education and training framework to fulfil the requirements under the Directive 2010/63/EU". The training event occurred at the ICM-CSIC in Barcelona (Spain) where people coming from Europe, America and Asia were instructed on how to cope with regulations for the use of cephalopod molluscs for scientific purposes. The training encompasses discussion on the guidelines for the use and care of animals and their welfare with particular reference to procedures that may be of interest for neuroscience. Intensive discussion has been carried out during the training sessions with focus on behavioural studies and paradigms, welfare assessment, levels of severity of scientific procedures, animal care, handling, transport, individual identification and marking, substance administration, anaesthesia, analgesia and humane killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa M Lopes
- MARE - Marine Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- IPMA - Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, Avenida Brasília, 1449-006, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Sampaio
- MARE - Marine Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Katina Roumbedakis
- AQUOS - Sanidade de Organismos Aquáticos, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Nobuaki K Tanaka
- Creative Research Institution, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
| | - Lucía Carulla
- L'Aquàrium de Barcelona, Aspro Ocio S.A, Moll d'Espanya del Port Vell S/N, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Guillermo Gambús
- ICM-CSIC - Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Theodosia Woo
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Max-von-Laue-Straße 4, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Catarina P P Martins
- ICM-CSIC - Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Virginie Penicaud
- LIENSs - Littoral Environnement et Sociétés, Université de La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, 17000, La Rochelle, France
| | | | - Jessica Eberle
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Max-von-Laue-Straße 4, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Perla Tedesco
- Sezione Biologia ed Evoluzione degli Organismi Marini, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento, CoNISMa, Lecce, Italy
| | - Isabel Fernández
- Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA), IU-ECOAQUA, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Crta. Taliarte s/n, 35214, Telde, Spain
| | - Tania Rodríguez-González
- IMIDA - Instituto Murciano de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario, Estación de Acuicultura Marina, Carretera del puerto s/n, Puerto de San Pedro del Pinatar, 30740, San Pedro del Pinatar, Murcia, Spain
| | | | - Giovanna Ponte
- Sezione Biologia ed Evoluzione degli Organismi Marini, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy
- Association for Cephalopod Research - CephRes, Naples, Italy
| | - Graziano Fiorito
- Sezione Biologia ed Evoluzione degli Organismi Marini, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Naples, Italy.
- Association for Cephalopod Research - CephRes, Naples, Italy.
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12
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Butler-Struben HM, Brophy SM, Johnson NA, Crook RJ. In Vivo Recording of Neural and Behavioral Correlates of Anesthesia Induction, Reversal, and Euthanasia in Cephalopod Molluscs. Front Physiol 2018. [PMID: 29515454 PMCID: PMC5826266 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cephalopod molluscs are among the most behaviorally and neurologically complex invertebrates. As they are now included in research animal welfare regulations in many countries, humane and effective anesthesia is required during invasive procedures. However, currently there is no evidence that agents believed to act as anesthetics produce effects beyond immobility. In this study we demonstrate, for the first time, that two of the most commonly used agents in cephalopod general anesthesia, magnesium chloride and ethanol, are capable of producing strong and reversible blockade of afferent and efferent neural signal; thus they are genuine anesthetics, rather than simply sedating agents that render animals immobile but not insensible. Additionally, we demonstrate that injected magnesium chloride and lidocaine are effective local anesthetic agents. This represents a considerable advance for cephalopod welfare. Using a reversible, minimally invasive recording procedure, we measured activity in the pallial nerve of cuttlefish (Sepia bandensis) and octopus (Abdopus aculeatus, Octopus bocki), during induction and reversal for five putative general anesthetic and two local anesthetic agents. We describe the temporal relationship between loss of behavioral responses (immobility), loss of efferent neural signal (loss of “consciousness”) and loss of afferent neural signal (anesthesia) for general anesthesia, and loss of afferent signal for local anesthesia. Both ethanol and magnesium chloride were effective as bath-applied general anesthetics, causing immobility, complete loss of behavioral responsiveness and complete loss of afferent and efferent neural signal. Cold seawater, diethyl ether, and MS-222 (tricaine) were ineffective. Subcutaneous injection of either lidocaine or magnesium chloride blocked behavioral and neural responses to pinch in the injected area, and we conclude that both are effective local anesthetic agents for cephalopods. Lastly, we demonstrate that a standard euthanasia protocol—immersion in isotonic magnesium chloride followed by surgical decerebration—produced no behavioral response and no neural activity during surgical euthanasia. Based on these data, we conclude that both magnesium chloride and ethanol can function as general anesthetic agents, and lidocaine and magnesium chloride can function as local anesthetic agents for cephalopod molluscs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samantha M Brophy
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Nasira A Johnson
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Robyn J Crook
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, United States
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13
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Yang TI, Chiao CC. Number sense and state-dependent valuation in cuttlefish. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.1379. [PMID: 27559063 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying the amount of prey available is an important part of an animal's foraging behaviour. The risk-sensitive foraging theory predicts that an organism's foraging decisions with regard to food rewards depending upon its satiation level. However, the precise interaction between optimal risk-tolerance and satiation level remains unclear. In this study, we examined, firstly, whether cuttlefish, with one of the most highly evolved nervous system among the invertebrates, have number sense, and secondly, whether their valuation of food reward is satiation state dependent. When food such as live shrimps is present, without training, cuttlefish turn toward the prey and initiate seizure behaviour. Using this visual attack behaviour as a measure, cuttlefish showed a preference for a larger quantity when faced with two-alternative forced choice tasks (1 versus 2, 2 versus 3, 3 versus 4 and 4 versus 5). However, cuttlefish preferred the small quantity when the choice was between one live and two dead shrimps. More importantly, when the choice was between one large live shrimp and two small live shrimps (a prey size and quantity trade-off), the cuttlefish chose the large single shrimp when they felt hunger, but chose the two smaller prey when they were satiated. These results demonstrate that cuttlefish are capable of number discrimination and that their choice of prey number depends on the quality of the prey and on their appetite state. The findings also suggest that cuttlefish integrate both internal and external information when making a foraging decision and that the cost of obtaining food is inversely correlated with their satiation level, a phenomenon similar to the observation that metabolic state alters economic decision making under risk among humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsang-I Yang
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chuan-Chin Chiao
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
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14
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Zepeda EA, Veline RJ, Crook RJ. Rapid Associative Learning and Stable Long-Term Memory in the Squid Euprymna scolopes. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2017; 232:212-218. [PMID: 28898600 DOI: 10.1086/693461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Learning and memory in cephalopod molluscs have received intensive study because of cephalopods' complex behavioral repertoire and relatively accessible nervous systems. While most of this research has been conducted using octopus and cuttlefish species, there has been relatively little work on squid. Euprymna scolopes Berry, 1913, a sepiolid squid, is a promising model for further exploration of cephalopod cognition. These small squid have been studied in detail for their symbiotic relationship with bioluminescent bacteria, and their short generation time and successful captive breeding through multiple generations make them appealing models for neurobiological research. However, little is known about their behavior or cognitive ability. Using the well-established "prawn-in-the-tube" assay of learning and memory, we show that within a single 10-min trial E. scolopes learns to inhibit its predatory behavior, and after three trials it can retain this memory for at least 12 d. Rapid learning and very long-term retention were apparent under two different training schedules. To our knowledge, this study is the first demonstration of learning and memory in this species as well as the first demonstration of associative learning in any squid.
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O'Brien CE, Mezrai N, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L. Behavioral development in embryonic and early juvenile cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis). Dev Psychobiol 2016; 59:145-160. [PMID: 27714785 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Though a mollusc, the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis possesses a sophisticated brain, advanced sensory systems, and a large behavioral repertoire. Cuttlefish provide a unique perspective on animal behavior due to their phylogenic distance from more traditional (vertebrate) models. S. officinalis is well-suited to addressing questions of behavioral ontogeny. As embryos, they can perceive and learn from their environment and experience no direct parental care. A marked progression in learning and behavior is observed during late embryonic and early juvenile development. This improvement is concomitant with expansion and maturation of the vertical lobe, the cephalopod analog of the mammalian hippocampus. This review synthesizes existing knowledge regarding embryonic and juvenile development in this species in an effort to better understand cuttlefish behavior and animal behavior in general. It will serve as a guide to future researchers and encourage greater awareness of the utility of this species to behavioral science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E O'Brien
- Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité Comportementale (GMPc EA 4259), Université de Caen-Normandie, Caen, France
| | - Nawel Mezrai
- Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité Comportementale (GMPc EA 4259), Université de Caen-Normandie, Caen, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Darmaillacq
- Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité Comportementale (GMPc EA 4259), Université de Caen-Normandie, Caen, France
| | - Ludovic Dickel
- Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité Comportementale (GMPc EA 4259), Université de Caen-Normandie, Caen, France
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Fiorito G, Affuso A, Basil J, Cole A, de Girolamo P, D'Angelo L, Dickel L, Gestal C, Grasso F, Kuba M, Mark F, Melillo D, Osorio D, Perkins K, Ponte G, Shashar N, Smith D, Smith J, Andrews PLR. Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Cephalopods in Research -A consensus based on an initiative by CephRes, FELASA and the Boyd Group. Lab Anim 2016; 49:1-90. [PMID: 26354955 DOI: 10.1177/0023677215580006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This paper is the result of an international initiative and is a first attempt to develop guidelines for the care and welfare of cephalopods (i.e. nautilus, cuttlefish, squid and octopus) following the inclusion of this Class of ∼700 known living invertebrate species in Directive 2010/63/EU. It aims to provide information for investigators, animal care committees, facility managers and animal care staff which will assist in improving both the care given to cephalopods, and the manner in which experimental procedures are carried out. Topics covered include: implications of the Directive for cephalopod research; project application requirements and the authorisation process; the application of the 3Rs principles; the need for harm-benefit assessment and severity classification. Guidelines and species-specific requirements are provided on: i. supply, capture and transport; ii. environmental characteristics and design of facilities (e.g. water quality control, lighting requirements, vibration/noise sensitivity); iii. accommodation and care (including tank design), animal handling, feeding and environmental enrichment; iv. assessment of health and welfare (e.g. monitoring biomarkers, physical and behavioural signs); v. approaches to severity assessment; vi. disease (causes, prevention and treatment); vii. scientific procedures, general anaesthesia and analgesia, methods of humane killing and confirmation of death. Sections covering risk assessment for operators and education and training requirements for carers, researchers and veterinarians are also included. Detailed aspects of care and welfare requirements for the main laboratory species currently used are summarised in Appendices. Knowledge gaps are highlighted to prompt research to enhance the evidence base for future revision of these guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziano Fiorito
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Andrea Affuso
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy Animal Model Facility - BIOGEM S.C.A.R.L., Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
| | - Jennifer Basil
- Biology Department, Brooklyn College - CUNY Graduate Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Alison Cole
- Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
| | - Paolo de Girolamo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions - University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy AISAL - Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da Laboratorio, Milano, Italy
| | - Livia D'Angelo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions - University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy AISAL - Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da Laboratorio, Milano, Italy
| | - Ludovic Dickel
- Groupe mémoire et Plasticité comportementale, University of Caen Basse-Normandy, Caen, France
| | - Camino Gestal
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo, Spain
| | - Frank Grasso
- BioMimetic and Cognitive Robotics, Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College - CUNY, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Michael Kuba
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Felix Mark
- Integrative Ecophysiology, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Daniela Melillo
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniel Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
| | - Kerry Perkins
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
| | | | - Nadav Shashar
- Department of Life Sciences, Eilat Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer, Sheva, Israel
| | - David Smith
- FELASA, Federation for Laboratory Animal Science Associations
| | | | - Paul L R Andrews
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK Association for Cephalopod Research 'CephRes', Italy
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Polese G, Bertapelle C, Di Cosmo A. Olfactory organ of Octopus vulgaris: morphology, plasticity, turnover and sensory characterization. Biol Open 2016; 5:611-9. [PMID: 27069253 PMCID: PMC4874359 DOI: 10.1242/bio.017764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The cephalopod olfactory organ was described for the first time in 1844 by von Kölliker, who was attracted to the pair of small pits of ciliated cells on each side of the head, below the eyes close to the mantle edge, in both octopuses and squids. Several functional studies have been conducted on decapods but very little is known about octopods. The morphology of the octopus olfactory system has been studied, but only to a limited extent on post-hatching specimens, and the only paper on adult octopus gives a minimal description of the olfactory organ. Here, we describe the detailed morphology of young male and female Octopus vulgaris olfactory epithelium, and using a combination of classical morphology and 3D reconstruction techniques, we propose a new classification for O. vulgaris olfactory sensory neurons. Furthermore, using specific markers such as olfactory marker protein (OMP) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) we have been able to identify and differentially localize both mature olfactory sensory neurons and olfactory sensory neurons involved in epithelium turnover. Taken together, our data suggest that the O. vulgaris olfactory organ is extremely plastic, capable of changing its shape and also proliferating its cells in older specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Polese
- Department of Biology, University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, NA 80126, Italy
| | - Carla Bertapelle
- Department of Biology, University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, NA 80126, Italy
| | - Anna Di Cosmo
- Department of Biology, University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, NA 80126, Italy
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Fiorito G, Affuso A, Anderson DB, Basil J, Bonnaud L, Botta G, Cole A, D'Angelo L, De Girolamo P, Dennison N, Dickel L, Di Cosmo A, Di Cristo C, Gestal C, Fonseca R, Grasso F, Kristiansen T, Kuba M, Maffucci F, Manciocco A, Mark FC, Melillo D, Osorio D, Palumbo A, Perkins K, Ponte G, Raspa M, Shashar N, Smith J, Smith D, Sykes A, Villanueva R, Tublitz N, Zullo L, Andrews P. Cephalopods in neuroscience: regulations, research and the 3Rs. INVERTEBRATE NEUROSCIENCE 2014; 14:13-36. [PMID: 24385049 PMCID: PMC3938841 DOI: 10.1007/s10158-013-0165-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cephalopods have been utilised in neuroscience research for more than 100 years particularly because of their phenotypic plasticity, complex and centralised nervous system, tractability for studies of learning and cellular mechanisms of memory (e.g. long-term potentiation) and anatomical features facilitating physiological studies (e.g. squid giant axon and synapse). On 1 January 2013, research using any of the about 700 extant species of "live cephalopods" became regulated within the European Union by Directive 2010/63/EU on the "Protection of Animals used for Scientific Purposes", giving cephalopods the same EU legal protection as previously afforded only to vertebrates. The Directive has a number of implications, particularly for neuroscience research. These include: (1) projects will need justification, authorisation from local competent authorities, and be subject to review including a harm-benefit assessment and adherence to the 3Rs principles (Replacement, Refinement and Reduction). (2) To support project evaluation and compliance with the new EU law, guidelines specific to cephalopods will need to be developed, covering capture, transport, handling, housing, care, maintenance, health monitoring, humane anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia. (3) Objective criteria need to be developed to identify signs of pain, suffering, distress and lasting harm particularly in the context of their induction by an experimental procedure. Despite diversity of views existing on some of these topics, this paper reviews the above topics and describes the approaches being taken by the cephalopod research community (represented by the authorship) to produce "guidelines" and the potential contribution of neuroscience research to cephalopod welfare.
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Di Poi C, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L, Boulouard M, Bellanger C. Effects of perinatal exposure to waterborne fluoxetine on memory processing in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2013; 132-133:84-91. [PMID: 23474317 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/09/2013] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Recent ecotoxicological studies highlight the increasing presence of pharmaceuticals discharged in the aquatic environment. Amongst them is the antidepressant fluoxetine (FLX), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, primarily indicated for treatment of depression. The effect of chronic exposure to FLX on memory processing in 1-month-old cuttlefish Sepia officinalis was evaluated. Three groups of new-borns were reared in different conditions: one control group (no FLX) and two groups exposed to environmental concentrations of FLX (1 and 100ng/L) from 15 days pre-hatching to 1 month post-hatching. Acquisition and retention performances were assessed using the 'prawn-in-the-tube' procedure. Perinatal exposure to fluoxetine led to significant changes in memory processing of the animals. The lowest observed effect concentration of this antidepressant on learning and retention was 1ng/L which is under the range of environmental contamination. Cuttlefish exposed at low FLX concentration had impaired acquisition capabilities and animals exposed at high FLX concentration displayed a deficit of memory retention compared to the control group that had nonimpaired initial acquisition and retention performances. The results subsequently suggested that FLX-induced changes in cognitive capacities could potentially lead to inappropriate predatory behaviors in the natural environment. The study provides the basis for future studies on how pharmaceutical contaminants disrupt cognition in ecologically and economically relevant marine invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Di Poi
- Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité comportementale, EA 4259, 14032 Caen cedex, France
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21
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Dickel L, Darmaillacq AS, Jozet-Alves C, Bellanger C. Learning, Memory, and Brain Plasticity in Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-415823-8.00025-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
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Cartron L, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L. The "prawn-in-the-tube" procedure: what do cuttlefish learn and memorize? Behav Brain Res 2012. [PMID: 23178535 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
For several decades the "prawn-in-the-tube" procedure has been extensively used in the exploration of behavioral plasticity and its neural correlates in cuttlefish. Although the nature of the task has been characterized, the effect of reinforcement and the extent of different cues cuttlefish can use to solve and memorize the task remain unclear. To determine whether cuttlefish learned to inhibit predatory behavior because of pain incurred when the tentacles hit the glass tube, the shrimp prey (typically attacked with a tentacle strike) was replaced by crabs (normally caught by a jumping strategy, using all eight arms together, which is thought less likely to be painful). We showed that the cuttlefish is still capable of learning inhibition of predatory behavior when it adopts another catching strategy, which suggests that pain from the tentacles hitting the tube has little effect on the learning process. The two latest experiments have shown that cuttlefish do not learn to inhibit predatory behavior towards a specific type of prey, but rather learn and memorize visual (light polarization) and tactile information from the glass tube. The "prawn-in-the-tube" procedure is a powerful and user-friendly tool in the investigation of the processing and retention of multisensory information in invertebrates. Our recent findings now open up new areas of investigation into the neural correlates of learning and memory processes in cuttlefish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lelia Cartron
- Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Groupe Mémoire et Plasticité comportementale, EA 4259, F-14032 Caen cedex, France
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Can cuttlefish learn by observing others? Anim Cogn 2012; 16:313-20. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-012-0573-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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24
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Repeated exposure and handling effects on the escape response of fence lizards to encounters with invasive fire ants. Anim Behav 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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25
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Bardou I, Leprince J, Chichery R, Vaudry H, Agin V. Vasopressin/oxytocin-related peptides influence long-term memory of a passive avoidance task in the cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 93:240-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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26
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Distribution of oxytocin-like and vasopressin-like immunoreactivities within the central nervous system of the cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis. Cell Tissue Res 2009; 336:249-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-009-0763-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Accepted: 01/14/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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27
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Does kainic acid induce partial brain lesion in an invertebrate model: Sepia officinalis? Comparison with electrolytic lesion. Brain Res 2008; 1238:44-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2008] [Revised: 07/15/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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28
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Short-distance navigation in cephalopods: a review and synthesis. Cogn Process 2007; 9:239-47. [PMID: 17932698 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-007-0192-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2007] [Revised: 09/19/2007] [Accepted: 09/21/2007] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper provides a short overview of the scientific knowledge concerning short-distance navigation in cephalopods. Studies in laboratory controlled conditions and observations in the field provide converging evidence that cephalopods use visual cues to navigate and demonstrate spatial memory. A recent study also provides the first evidence for the neural substrates underlying spatial abilities in cuttlefish. The functions of spatial cognition in cephalopods are discussed from an evolutionary standpoint.
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