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Xiao C, Wei J, Zhang GW, Tao C, Huang JJ, Shen L, Wickersham IR, Tao HW, Zhang LI. Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons in pontine central gray mediate opposing valence-specific behaviors through a global network. Neuron 2023; 111:1486-1503.e7. [PMID: 36893756 PMCID: PMC10164086 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Extracting the valence of environmental cues is critical for animals' survival. How valence in sensory signals is encoded and transformed to produce distinct behavioral responses remains not well understood. Here, we report that the mouse pontine central gray (PCG) contributes to encoding both negative and positive valences. PCG glutamatergic neurons were activated selectively by aversive, but not reward, stimuli, whereas its GABAergic neurons were preferentially activated by reward signals. The optogenetic activation of these two populations resulted in avoidance and preference behavior, respectively, and was sufficient to induce conditioned place aversion/preference. Suppression of them reduced sensory-induced aversive and appetitive behaviors, respectively. These two functionally opponent populations, receiving a broad range of inputs from overlapping yet distinct sources, broadcast valence-specific information to a distributed brain network with distinguishable downstream effectors. Thus, PCG serves as a critical hub to process positive and negative valences of incoming sensory signals and drive valence-specific behaviors with distinct circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuiyu Xiao
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jinxing Wei
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Guang-Wei Zhang
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Can Tao
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Junxiang J Huang
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Graduate Program in Biological and Biomedical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Li Shen
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Ian R Wickersham
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Huizhong W Tao
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Center for Neural Circuits and Sensory Processing Disorders, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Li I Zhang
- Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; Center for Neural Circuits and Sensory Processing Disorders, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Efficient spatially targeted gene editing using a near-infrared activatable protein-conjugated nanoparticle for brain applications. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4135. [PMID: 35840564 PMCID: PMC9287341 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31791-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatial control of gene expression is critical to modulate cellular functions and deconstruct the function of individual genes in biological processes. Light-responsive gene-editing formulations have been recently developed; however, they have shown limited applicability in vivo due to poor tissue penetration, limited cellular transfection and the difficulty in evaluating the activity of the edited cells. Here, we report a formulation composed of upconversion nanoparticles conjugated with Cre recombinase enzyme through a photocleavable linker, and a lysosomotropic agent that facilitates endolysosomal escape. This formulation allows in vitro spatial control in gene editing after activation with near-infrared light. We further demonstrate the potential of this formulation in vivo through three different paradigms: (i) gene editing in neurogenic niches, (ii) gene editing in the ventral tegmental area to facilitate monitoring of edited cells by precise optogenetic control of reward and reinforcement, and (iii) gene editing in a localized brain region via a noninvasive administration route (i.e., intranasal). Spatial control of gene expression allows precise control over biological processes. Here, the authors develop an efficient light-responsive formulation based on upconversion nanoparticles, and demonstrate on-demand genetic manipulation in deep brain tissue.
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3
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Jais A, Paeger L, Sotelo-Hitschfeld T, Bremser S, Prinzensteiner M, Klemm P, Mykytiuk V, Widdershooven PJM, Vesting AJ, Grzelka K, Minère M, Cremer AL, Xu J, Korotkova T, Lowell BB, Zeilhofer HU, Backes H, Fenselau H, Wunderlich FT, Kloppenburg P, Brüning JC. PNOC ARC Neurons Promote Hyperphagia and Obesity upon High-Fat-Diet Feeding. Neuron 2020; 106:1009-1025.e10. [PMID: 32302532 PMCID: PMC7303947 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Calorie-rich diets induce hyperphagia and promote obesity, although the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. We find that short-term high-fat-diet (HFD) feeding of mice activates prepronociceptin (PNOC)-expressing neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC). PNOCARC neurons represent a previously unrecognized GABAergic population of ARC neurons distinct from well-defined feeding regulatory AgRP or POMC neurons. PNOCARC neurons arborize densely in the ARC and provide inhibitory synaptic input to nearby anorexigenic POMC neurons. Optogenetic activation of PNOCARC neurons in the ARC and their projections to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis promotes feeding. Selective ablation of these cells promotes the activation of POMC neurons upon HFD exposure, reduces feeding, and protects from obesity, but it does not affect food intake or body weight under normal chow consumption. We characterize PNOCARC neurons as a novel ARC neuron population activated upon palatable food consumption to promote hyperphagia. Acute high-fat-diet feeding activates PNOC neurons in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) GABAergic PNOCARC neurons inhibit anorexigenic POMC neurons Optogenetic activation of PNOCARC neurons promotes feeding Ablation of PNOCARC neurons protects from obesity
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Jais
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Lars Paeger
- Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Institute for Zoology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tamara Sotelo-Hitschfeld
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stephan Bremser
- Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Institute for Zoology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Melanie Prinzensteiner
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Paul Klemm
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Vasyl Mykytiuk
- Neuronal Circuits and Behaviour Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Pia J M Widdershooven
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Anna Juliane Vesting
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Obesity and Cancer Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Katarzyna Grzelka
- Synaptic Transmission in Energy Homeostasis Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Marielle Minère
- Synaptic Transmission in Energy Homeostasis Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Anna Lena Cremer
- Multimodal Imaging of Brain Metabolism Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Jie Xu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Tatiana Korotkova
- Neuronal Circuits and Behaviour Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Bradford B Lowell
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Hanns Ulrich Zeilhofer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Heiko Backes
- Multimodal Imaging of Brain Metabolism Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Henning Fenselau
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Synaptic Transmission in Energy Homeostasis Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - F Thomas Wunderlich
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Obesity and Cancer Group, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Peter Kloppenburg
- Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Institute for Zoology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
| | - Jens C Brüning
- Department of Neuronal Control of Metabolism, Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Strasse 50, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Preventive Medicine (CEDP), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 26, 50924 Cologne, Germany; Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated Diseases (CECAD) and Center of Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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Abstract
Pain-related diseases are the top leading causes of life disability. Identifying brain regions involved in persistent neuronal changes will provide new insights for developing efficient chronic pain treatment. Here, we showed that anterior nucleus of paraventricular thalamus (PVA) plays an essential role in the development of mechanical hyperalgesia in neuropathic and inflammatory pain models in mice. Increase in c-Fos, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and hyperexcitability of PVA neurons were detected in hyperalgesic mice. Direct activation of PVA neurons using optogenetics and pharmacological approaches were sufficient to induce persistent mechanical hyperalgesia in naive animals. Conversely, inhibition of PVA neuronal activity using DREADDs (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs) or inactivation of PVA extracellular signal-regulated kinase at the critical time window blunted mechanical hyperalgesia in chronic pain models. At the circuitry level, PVA received innervation from central nucleus of amygdala, a known pain-associated locus. As a result, activation of right central nucleus of amygdala with blue light was enough to induce persistent mechanical hyperalgesia. These findings support the idea that targeting PVA can be a potential therapeutic strategy for pain relief.
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Peixoto HM, Cruz RMS, Moulin TC, Leão RN. Modeling the Effect of Temperature on Membrane Response of Light Stimulation in Optogenetically-Targeted Neurons. Front Comput Neurosci 2020; 14:5. [PMID: 32116619 PMCID: PMC7010719 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2020.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Optogenetics is revolutionizing Neuroscience, but an often neglected effect of light stimulation of the brain is the generation of heat. In extreme cases, light-generated heat kills neurons, but mild temperature changes alter neuronal function. To date, most in vivo experiments rely on light stimulation of neural tissue using fiber-coupled lasers of various wavelengths. Brain tissue is irradiated with high light power that can be deleterious to neuronal function. Furthermore, absorbed light generates heat that can lead to permanent tissue damage and affect neuronal excitability. Thus, light alone can generate effects in neuronal function that are unrelated to the genuine "optogenetic effect." In this work, we perform a theoretical analysis to investigate the effects of heat transfer in rodent brain tissue for standard optogenetic protocols. More precisely, we first use the Kubelka-Munk model for light propagation in brain tissue to observe the absorption phenomenon. Then, we model the optothermal effect considering the common laser wavelengths (473 and 593 nm) used in optogenetic experiments approaching the time/space numerical solution of Pennes' bio-heat equation with the Finite Element Method. Finally, we then modeled channelrhodopsin-2 in a single and spontaneous-firing neuron to explore the effect of heat in light stimulated neurons. We found that, at commonly used light intensities, laser radiation considerably increases the temperature in the surrounding tissue. This effect alters action potential size and shape and causes an increase in spontaneous firing frequency in a neuron model. However, the shortening of activation time constants generated by heat in the single firing neuron model produces action potential failures in response to light stimulation. We also found changes in the power spectrum density and a reduction in the time required for synchronization in an interneuron network model of gamma oscillations. Our findings indicate that light stimulation with intensities used in optogenetic experiments may affect neuronal function not only by direct excitation of light sensitive ion channels and/or pumps but also by generating heat. This approach serves as a guide to design optogenetic experiments that minimize the role of tissue heating in the experimental outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helton M. Peixoto
- School of Science and Technology (ECT), Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, Brazil
- Neurodynamics Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
- Developmental Genetics Unit, Neurodynamics Lab, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rossana M. S. Cruz
- Electrical Engineering Department, Federal Institute of Paraiba (IFPB), Joao Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Thiago C. Moulin
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Richardson N. Leão
- Neurodynamics Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
- Developmental Genetics Unit, Neurodynamics Lab, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala, Sweden
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Okamura Y, Kawanabe A, Kawai T. Voltage-Sensing Phosphatases: Biophysics, Physiology, and Molecular Engineering. Physiol Rev 2019; 98:2097-2131. [PMID: 30067160 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00056.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Voltage-sensing phosphatase (VSP) contains a voltage sensor domain (VSD) similar to that in voltage-gated ion channels, and a phosphoinositide phosphatase region similar to phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN). The VSP gene is conserved from unicellular organisms to higher vertebrates. Membrane depolarization induces electrical driven conformational rearrangement in the VSD, which is translated into catalytic enzyme activity. Biophysical and structural characterization has revealed details of the mechanisms underlying the molecular functions of VSP. Coupling between the VSD and the enzyme is tight, such that enzyme activity is tuned in a graded fashion to the membrane voltage. Upon VSP activation, multiple species of phosphoinositides are simultaneously altered, and the profile of enzyme activity depends on the history of the membrane potential. VSPs have been the obvious candidate link between membrane potential and phosphoinositide regulation. However, patterns of voltage change regulating VSP in native cells remain largely unknown. This review addresses the current understanding of the biophysical biochemical properties of VSP and provides new insight into the proposed functions of VSP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Okamura
- Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Integrative Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan ; and Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan
| | - Akira Kawanabe
- Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Integrative Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan ; and Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan
| | - Takafumi Kawai
- Department of Physiology, Laboratory of Integrative Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan ; and Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University , Osaka , Japan
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Eban-Rothschild A, Rothschild G, Giardino WJ, Jones JR, de Lecea L. VTA dopaminergic neurons regulate ethologically relevant sleep-wake behaviors. Nat Neurosci 2016; 19:1356-66. [PMID: 27595385 PMCID: PMC5519826 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 369] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dopaminergic ventral tegmental area (VTA) neurons are critically involved in a variety of behaviors that rely on heightened arousal, but whether they directly and causally control the generation and maintenance of wakefulness is unknown. We recorded calcium activity using fiber photometry in freely behaving mice and found arousal-state-dependent alterations in VTA dopaminergic neurons. We used chemogenetic and optogenetic manipulations together with polysomnographic recordings to demonstrate that VTA dopaminergic neurons are necessary for arousal and that their inhibition suppresses wakefulness, even in the face of ethologically relevant salient stimuli. Nevertheless, before inducing sleep, inhibition of VTA dopaminergic neurons promoted goal-directed and sleep-related nesting behavior. Optogenetic stimulation, in contrast, initiated and maintained wakefulness and suppressed sleep and sleep-related nesting behavior. We further found that different projections of VTA dopaminergic neurons differentially modulate arousal. Collectively, our findings uncover a fundamental role for VTA dopaminergic circuitry in the maintenance of the awake state and ethologically relevant sleep-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada Eban-Rothschild
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Gideon Rothschild
- Department of Physiology and Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - William J Giardino
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Jeff R Jones
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Luis de Lecea
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Namburi P, Al-Hasani R, Calhoon GG, Bruchas MR, Tye KM. Architectural Representation of Valence in the Limbic System. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:1697-715. [PMID: 26647973 PMCID: PMC4869057 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In order to thrive, animals must be able to recognize aversive and appetitive stimuli within the environment and subsequently initiate appropriate behavioral responses. This assignment of positive or negative valence to a stimulus is a key feature of emotional processing, the neural substrates of which have been a topic of study for several decades. Until recently, the result of this work has been the identification of specific brain regions, such as the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and nucleus accumbens (NAc), as important to valence encoding. The advent of modern tools in neuroscience has allowed further dissection of these regions to identify specific populations of neurons signaling the valence of environmental stimuli. In this review, we focus upon recent work examining the mechanisms of valence encoding, and provide a model for the systematic investigation of valence within anatomically-, genetically-, and functionally defined populations of neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praneeth Namburi
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ream Al-Hasani
- Division of Basic Research, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Gwendolyn G Calhoon
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michael R Bruchas
- Division of Basic Research, Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
- Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kay M Tye
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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