Observation of the spin Peltier effect for magnetic insulators

Spin caloritronics in metallic superlattices

Spin caloritronics, a research field studying on the interconversion between a charge current (Jc) and a heat current (Jq) mediated by a spin current (Js) and/or magnetization (M), has attracted much attention not only for academic interest but also for practical applications. Newly discovered spin-caloritronic phenomena such as the spin Seebeck effect (SSE) have stimulated the renewed interest in the thermoelectric phenomena of a magnet, which have been known for a long time, e.g. the anomalous Nernst effect (ANE). These spin-caloritronic phenomena involving the SSE and the ANE have provided with a new direction for thermoelectric conversion exploitingJsand/orM. Importantly, the symmetry of ANE allows the thermoelectric conversion in the transverse configuration betweenJqandJc. Although the transverse configuration is totally different from the conventional longitudinal configuration based on the Seebeck effect and has many advantages, we are still facing several issues that need to be solved before developing practical applications. The primal issue is the improvement of conversion efficiency. In the case of ANE-based applications, a material with a large anomalous Nernst coefficient (SANE) is the key for solving the issue. This review article introduces the increase ofSANEcan be achieved by forming superlattice structures, which has been demonstrated for several kinds of materials combinations. The overall picture of studies on spin caloritronics is first surveyed. Then, we mention the pioneering work on the transverse thermoelectric conversion in superlattice structures, which was performed using Fe-based metallic superlattices, and show the recent studies for the Ni-based metallic superlattices and the ordered alloy-based metallic superlattices.

A Novel Forked-Finger Electrode-Structured Thermoelectric Module with High Output Power

Thermoelectric harvesting technology is a clean and friendly energy-conversion technology. In the π-type traditional thermoelectric module (TEM), n- and p-type thermoelectric legs are electrically connected in a series to generate large temperature differences in the heat flow direction and to achieve a better module performance. However, damages to one thermoelectric leg could lead to the failure of the thermoelectric system. This work proposes a novel forked-finger electrode-structured thermoelectric module (FFTEM), which enables a simultaneous parallel electrical connection and thermal transfer in a homogeneous material’s thermoelectric leg set. The four thermoelectric legs share a common pair of electrodes, and this parallel structure makes the FFTEM benefit from low internal resistance, a high operating current, and high output power. The internal resistance and output power of the TEM are 4.25 mΩ and 1.766 mW, respectively, at a temperature difference of 40 °C. The internal resistance of the FFTEM is reduced to 0.81 mΩ, and the output power is increased to 13.81 mW. The FFTEM’s maximum output power achieved under temperature-dependent conditions is nine times that of the TEM’s output power. This FFTEM design provides a configuration to obtain a much higher output power, which could benefit future applications of thermoelectric devices.

Spin-thermoelectric effects in a quantum dot hybrid system with magnetic insulator

We investigate spin thermoelectric properties of a hybrid system consisting of a single-level quantum dot attached to magnetic insulator and metal electrodes. Magnetic insulator is assumed to be of ferromagnetic type and is a source of magnons, whereas metallic lead is reservoir of electrons. The temperature gradient set between the magnetic insulator and metallic electrodes induces the spin current flowing through the system. The generated spin current of magnonic (electric) type is converted to electric (magnonic) spin current by means of quantum dot. Expanding spin and heat currents flowing through the system, up to linear order, we introduce basic spin thermoelectric coefficients including spin conductance, spin Seebeck and spin Peltier coefficients and heat conductance. We analyse the spin thermoelectric properties of the system in two cases: in the large ondot Coulomb repulsion limit and when these interactions are finite.

Thermoelectric Polarization Transport in Ferroelectric Ballistic Point Contacts

We formulate a scattering theory of polarization and heat transport through a ballistic ferroelectric point contact. We predict a polarization current under either an electric field or a temperature difference that depends strongly on the direction of the ferroelectric order and can be detected by its magnetic stray field and associated thermovoltage and Peltier effect.

Reconfigurable single-material Peltier effect using magnetic-phase junctions

Peltier effects, which produce a heat flux at the junction of two different materials, have been an important technology for heating and cooling by electrical means. Whereas Peltier devices have advantages such as cleanliness, silence, compactness, flexibility, reliability, and efficiency, relatively complicated modular structures are unavoidable, leading to a higher cost than that of commonly used refrigeration technology. Here, we provide a concept of a Peltier device composed of a single magnetic material exhibiting a first-order magnetic transition. Our concept is based on a controllable junction structure consisting of two magnetic phases with opposite Peltier coefficients instead of a semiconductor junction. Using \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\mathrm{Mn}}_{1.96}{\mathrm{Cr}}_{0.04}\mathrm{Sb}$$\end{document}Mn1.96Cr0.04Sb samples with the first-order magnetic transition between ferrimagnetic (FI) and antiferromagnetic (AF) states, we successfully made a stable junction structure of AF/FI/AF by a pulse heating method and achieved a maximum Peltier coefficient of 0.58 mV. Our device concept was further verified by a numerical simulation based on a finite element method. The single-material Peltier effect reported here avoids a complex device design involving material junctions and is importantly reconfigurable.

Quantum Sensing of Thermoelectric Power in Low-Dimensional Materials

Thermoelectric power, has been extensively studied in low-dimensional materials where quantum confinement and spin textures can largely modulate thermopower generation. In addition to classical and macroscopic values, thermopower also varies locally over a wide range of length scales, and is fundamentally linked to electron wave functions and phonon propagation. Various experimental methods for the quantum sensing of localized thermopower have been suggested, particularly based on scanning probe microscopy. Here, critical advances in the quantum sensing of thermopower are introduced, from the atomic to the several-hundred-nanometer scales, including the unique role of low-dimensionality, defects, spins, and relativistic effects for optimized power generation. Investigating the microscopic nature of thermopower in quantum materials can provide insights useful for the design of advanced materials for future thermoelectric applications. Quantum sensing techniques for thermopower can pave the way to practical and novel energy devices for a sustainable society.

Transport phenomena in spin caloritronics

The interconversion between spin, charge, and heat currents is being actively studied from the viewpoints of both fundamental physics and thermoelectric applications in the field of spin caloritronics. This field is a branch of spintronics, which has developed rapidly since the discovery of the thermo-spin conversion phenomenon called the spin Seebeck effect. In spin caloritronics, various thermo-spin conversion phenomena and principles have subsequently been discovered and magneto-thermoelectric effects, thermoelectric effects unique to magnetic materials, have received renewed attention with the advances in physical understanding and thermal/thermoelectric measurement techniques. However, the existence of various thermo-spin and magneto-thermoelectric conversion phenomena with similar names may confuse non-specialists. Thus, in this Review, the basic behaviors, spin-charge-heat current conversion symmetries, and functionalities of spin-caloritronic phenomena are summarized, which will help new entrants to learn fundamental physics, materials science, and application studies in spin caloritronics.

Strong Interfacial Exchange Field in a Heavy Metal/Ferromagnetic Insulator System Determined by Spin Hall Magnetoresistance

Spin-dependent transport at heavy metal/magnetic insulator interfaces is at the origin of many phenomena at the forefront of spintronics research. A proper quantification of the different interfacial spin conductances is crucial for many applications. Here, we report the first measurement of the spin Hall magnetoresistance (SMR) of Pt on a purely ferromagnetic insulator (EuS). We perform SMR measurements in a wide range of temperatures and fit the results by using a microscopic model. From this fitting procedure, we obtain the temperature dependence of the spin conductances (G_s, G_r, and G_i), disentangling the contribution of field-like torque (G_i), damping-like torque (G_r), and spin-flip scattering (G_s). An interfacial exchange field of the order of 1 meV acting upon the conduction electrons of Pt can be estimated from G_i, which is at least three times larger than G_r below the Curie temperature. Our work provides an easy method to quantify this interfacial spin-splitting field, which plays a key role in emerging fields such as superconducting spintronics and caloritronics as well as topological quantum computation.

Generation of charge current from magnetization oscillation via the inverse of voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy effect

It is well known that oscillating magnetization induces charge current in a circuit via Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. New physical phenomena by which magnetization dynamics can produce charge current have gained considerable interest recently. For example, moving magnetization textures, such as domain walls, generates charge current through the spin-motive force. Here, we examine an entirely different effect, which couples magnetization and electric field at the interface between an ultrathin metallic ferromagnet and dielectric. We show that this coupling can convert magnetic energy into electrical energy. This phenomenon is the Onsager reciprocal of the voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy effect. The effect provides a previously unexplored probe to measure the magnetization dynamics of nanomagnets.

Spin current as a probe of quantum materials

Spin current historically referred to the flow of electrons carrying spin information, in particular since the discovery of giant magnetoresistance in the 1980s. Recently, it has been found that spin current can also be mediated by spin-triplet supercurrent, superconducting quasiparticles, spinons, magnons, spin superfluidity and so on. Here, we review key progress concerning the developing research direction utilizing spin current as a probe of quantum materials. We focus on spin-triplet superconductivity and spin dynamics in the ferromagnet/superconductor heterostructures, quantum spin liquids, magnetic phase transitions, magnon-polarons, magnon-polaritons, magnon Bose-Einstein condensates and spin superfluidity. The unique characteristics of spin current as a probe will be fruitful for future investigation of spin-dependent properties and the identification of new quantum materials.

Magneto-optical painting of heat current

Active control of heat flow is crucial for the thermal management of increasingly complex electronic and spintronic devices. In addition to conventional heat transport engineering, spin caloritronics has received extensive attention as a heat control principle owing to its high controllability and unique thermal energy conversion symmetry. Here we demonstrate that the direction of heat currents generated by spin-caloritronic phenomena can be changed simply by illuminating magnetic materials with visible light. The optical control of heat currents is realized through a combination of the spin-driven thermoelectric conversion called an anomalous Ettingshausen effect and all-optical helicity-dependent switching of magnetization. This approach enables not only pinpoint manipulation and flexible design of the heat current distribution by patterning the illuminating light but also on/off control of the resulting temperature modulation by tuning the light polarization. These versatile heat control functionalities will open up a pathway for nanoscale thermal energy engineering.

Spin caloritronics offers advantages for the thermal management of spintronic devices. Here, the authors demonstrate that the direction of heat currents generated by spin-caloritronic phenomena can be changed by illuminating magnetic materials with visible light.

Strain-induced switching of heat current direction generated by magneto-thermoelectric effects

Since the charge current plays a major role in information processing and Joule heating is inevitable in electronic devices, thermal management, i.e., designing heat flows, is required. Here, we report that strain application can change a direction of a heat current generated by magneto-thermoelectric effects. For demonstration, we used metallic magnets in a thin-film form, wherein the anomalous Ettingshausen effect mainly determines the direction of the heat flow. Strain application can alter the magnetization direction owing to the magnetoelastic effect. As a result, the heat current, which is in the direction of the cross product of the charge current and the magnetization vector, can be switched or rotated simply by applying a tensile strain to the metallic magnets. We demonstrate 180° switching and 90° rotation of the heat currents in an in-plane magnetized Ni sample on a rigid sapphire substrate and a perpendicularly magnetized TbFeCo film on a flexible substrate, respectively. An active thermography technique was used to capture the strain-induced change in the heat current direction. The method presented here provides a novel method for controlling thermal energy in electronic devices.

Influence of the magnon-phonon relaxation in the magnon transport under thermal gradient in yttrium iron garnet

We investigate the influence of the magnon-phonon relaxation processes in the magnon transport under thermal gradient in the ferrimagnetic insulator yttrium iron garnet (YIG). Based on the Boltzmann equation we calculate the magnon contribution in the thermal conductivity in YIG and the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect in YIG/Pt films, including the influence of the magnon relaxation to the lattice through a phenomenological damping parameter. Our results are in good agreement with reported experimental data showing that besides the magnon-magnon relaxation processes, the magnon-phonon relaxation plays an important role in the thermal properties in YIG films.

Experimental proof of the reciprocal relation between spin Peltier and spin Seebeck effects in a bulk YIG/Pt bilayer

We verify for the first time the reciprocal relation between the spin Peltier and spin Seebeck effects in a bulk YIG/Pt bilayer. Both experiments are performed on the same YIG/Pt device by a setup able to accurately determine heat currents and to separate the spin Peltier heat from the Joule heat background. The sample-specific value for the characteristics of both effects measured on the present YIG/Pt bilayer is (6.2 ± 0.4) × 10⁻³ KA⁻¹. In the paper we also discuss the relation of both effects with the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of YIG and Pt and we envisage possible strategies to optimize spin Peltier refrigeration.

Combinatorial investigation of spin-orbit materials using spin Peltier effect

Conversion between spin and charge currents is essential in spintronics, since it enables spin-orbit-torque magnetization switching, spin-current-driven thermoelectric generation, and nano-scale thermal energy control. To realize efficient spin-charge conversion, a variety of mechanisms, including spin Hall effects, Rashba-Edelstein effects, and spin-momentum locking in topological insulators, have been investigated and more comprehensive material exploration is necessary. Here we demonstrate high-throughput screening of spin-charge conversion materials by means of the spin Peltier effect (SPE). This is enabled by combining recently-developed SPE-imaging techniques with combinatorial materials science; using a composition-spread alloy film formed on a magnetic insulator, we observe the SPE-induced temperature change due to the spin Hall effect and obtain a continuous mapping of its composition dependence from the single sample. The distribution of the SPE signals reflects local spin-charge conversion capability in the alloy owing to unique heat-generation nature of the SPE. This combinatorial approach will accelerate materials research towards high-performance spintronic devices.

Precise Determination of the Temperature Gradients in Laser-irradiated Ultrathin Magnetic Layers for the Analysis of Thermal Spin Current

We investigated the temperature distribution induced by laser irradiation of ultrathin magnetic films by applying a finite element method (FEM) to the finite difference time domain (FDTD) representation for the analysis of thermal induced spin currents. The dependency of the thermal gradient (∇T) of ultrathin magnetic films on material parameters, including the reflectivity and absorption coefficient were evaluated by examining optical effects, which indicates that reflectance (R) and the apparent absorption coefficient (α^*) play important roles in the calculation of ∇T for ultrathin layers. The experimental and calculated values of R and α^* for the ultrathin magnetic layers irradiated by laser-driven heat sources estimated using the combined FDTD and FEM method are in good agreement for the amorphous CoFeB and crystalline Co layers of thicknesses ranging from 3~20 nm. Our results demonstrate that the optical parameters are crucial for the estimation of the temperature gradient induced by laser illumination for the study of thermally generated spin currents and related phenomena.

Observation of the spin Nernst effect

The observation of the spin Hall effect triggered intense research on pure spin current transport. With the spin Hall effect, the spin Seebeck effect and the spin Peltier effect already observed, our picture of pure spin current transport is almost complete. The only missing piece is the spin Nernst (-Ettingshausen) effect, which so far has been discussed only on theoretical grounds. Here, we report the observation of the spin Nernst effect. By applying a longitudinal temperature gradient, we generate a pure transverse spin current in a Pt thin film. For readout, we exploit the magnetization-orientation-dependent spin transfer to an adjacent yttrium iron garnet layer, converting the spin Nernst current in Pt into a controlled change of the longitudinal and transverse thermopower voltage. Our experiments show that the spin Nernst and the spin Hall effect in Pt are of comparable magnitude, but differ in sign, as corroborated by first-principles calculations.

Interface-Induced Phenomena in Magnetism

This article reviews static and dynamic interfacial effects in magnetism, focusing on interfacially-driven magnetic effects and phenomena associated with spin-orbit coupling and intrinsic symmetry breaking at interfaces. It provides a historical background and literature survey, but focuses on recent progress, identifying the most exciting new scientific results and pointing to promising future research directions. It starts with an introduction and overview of how basic magnetic properties are affected by interfaces, then turns to a discussion of charge and spin transport through and near interfaces and how these can be used to control the properties of the magnetic layer. Important concepts include spin accumulation, spin currents, spin transfer torque, and spin pumping. An overview is provided to the current state of knowledge and existing review literature on interfacial effects such as exchange bias, exchange spring magnets, spin Hall effect, oxide heterostructures, and topological insulators. The article highlights recent discoveries of interface-induced magnetism and non-collinear spin textures, non-linear dynamics including spin torque transfer and magnetization reversal induced by interfaces, and interfacial effects in ultrafast magnetization processes.

Picosecond Spin Seebeck Effect

We report time-resolved magneto-optic Kerr effect measurements of the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect in normal metal/Y_{3}Fe_{5}O_{12} bilayers driven by an interfacial temperature difference between electrons and magnons. The measured time evolution of spin accumulation induced by laser excitation indicates transfer of angular momentum across normal metal/Y_{3}Fe_{5}O_{12} interfaces on a picosecond time scale, too short for contributions from a bulk temperature gradient in an yttrium iron garnet. The product of spin-mixing conductance and the interfacial spin Seebeck coefficient determined is of the order of 10^{8}  A m^{-2} K^{-1}.

Thermal imaging of spin Peltier effect

The Peltier effect modulates the temperature of a junction comprising two different conductors in response to charge currents across the junction, which is used in solid-state heat pumps and temperature controllers in electronics. Recently, in spintronics, a spin counterpart of the Peltier effect was observed. The ‘spin Peltier effect' modulates the temperature of a magnetic junction in response to spin currents. Here we report thermal imaging of the spin Peltier effect; using active thermography technique, we visualize the temperature modulation induced by spin currents injected into a magnetic insulator from an adjacent metal. The thermal images reveal characteristic distribution of spin-current-induced heat sources, resulting in the temperature change confined only in the vicinity of the metal/insulator interface. This finding allows us to estimate the actual magnitude of the temperature modulation induced by the spin Peltier effect, which is more than one order of magnitude greater than previously believed.

The spin Peltier effect produces a temperature difference along the direction of a spin current. Here, the authors use an active thermography technique to visualize the temperature modulation induced by a spin current injected into a magnetic insulator from an adjacent metal.

Large Unidirectional Magnetoresistance in a Magnetic Topological Insulator

We report current-direction dependent or unidirectional magnetoresistance (UMR) in magnetic or nonmagnetic topological insulator (TI) heterostructures, Cr_{x}(Bi_{1-y}Sb_{y})_{2-x}Te_{3}/(Bi_{1-y}Sb_{y})_{2}Te_{3}, that is several orders of magnitude larger than in other reported systems. From the magnetic field and temperature dependence, the UMR is identified to originate from the asymmetric scattering of electrons by magnons. In particular, the large magnitude of UMR is an outcome of spin-momentum locking and a small Fermi wave number at the surface of TI. In fact, the UMR is maximized around the Dirac point with the minimal Fermi wave number.

Newtype single-layer magnetic semiconductor in transition-metal dichalcogenides VX2 (X = S, Se and Te)

We present a newtype 2-dimensional (2D) magnetic semiconductor based on transition-metal dichalcogenides VX2 (X = S, Se and Te) via first-principles calculations. The obtained indirect band gaps of monolayer VS2, VSe2, and VTe2 given from the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) are respectively 0.05, 0.22, and 0.20 eV, all with integer magnetic moments of 1.0 μB. The GGA plus on-site Coulomb interaction U (GGA + U) enhances the exchange splittings and raises the energy gap up to 0.38~0.65 eV. By adopting the GW approximation, we obtain converged G0W0 gaps of 1.3, 1.2, and 0.7 eV for VS2, VSe2, and VTe2 monolayers, respectively. They agree very well with our calculated HSE gaps of 1.1, 1.2, and 0.6 eV, respectively. The gap sizes as well as the metal-insulator transitions are tunable by applying the in-plane strain and/or changing the number of stacking layers. The Monte Carlo simulations illustrate very high Curie-temperatures of 292, 472, and 553 K for VS2, VSe2, and VTe2 monolayers, respectively. They are nearly or well beyond the room temperature. Combining the semiconducting energy gap, the 100% spin polarized valence and conduction bands, the room temperature TC, and the in-plane magnetic anisotropy together in a single layer VX2, this newtype 2D magnetic semiconductor shows great potential in future spintronics.

Magnons and Phonons Optically Driven out of Local Equilibrium in a Magnetic Insulator

The coupling and possible nonequilibrium between magnons and other energy carriers have been used to explain several recently discovered thermally driven spin transport and energy conversion phenomena. Here, we report experiments in which local nonequilibrium between magnons and phonons in a single crystalline bulk magnetic insulator, Y_{3}Fe_{5}O_{12}, has been created optically within a focused laser spot and probed directly via micro-Brillouin light scattering. Through analyzing the deviation in the magnon number density from the local equilibrium value, we obtain the diffusion length of thermal magnons. By explicitly establishing and observing local nonequilibrium between magnons and phonons, our studies represent an important step toward a quantitative understanding of various spin-heat coupling phenomena.

Nanoscale solid-state cooling: a review

The recent developments in nanoscale solid-state cooling are reviewed. This includes both theoretical and experimental studies of different physical concepts, as well as nanostructured material design and device configurations. We primarily focus on thermoelectric, thermionic and thermo-magnetic coolers. Particular emphasis is given to the concepts based on metal-semiconductor superlattices, graded materials, non-equilibrium thermoelectric devices, Thomson coolers, and photon assisted Peltier coolers as promising methods for efficient solid-state cooling. Thermomagnetic effects such as magneto-Peltier and Nernst-Ettingshausen cooling are briefly described and recent advances and future trends in these areas are reviewed. The ongoing progress in solid-state cooling concepts such as spin-calorimetrics, electrocalorics, non-equilibrium/nonlinear Peltier devices, superconducting junctions and two-dimensional materials are also elucidated and practical achievements are reviewed. We explain the thermoreflectance thermal imaging microscopy and the transient Harman method as two unique techniques developed for characterization of thermoelectric microrefrigerators. The future prospects for solid-state cooling are briefly summarized.

Spin Funneling for Enhanced Spin Injection into Ferromagnets

It is well-established that high spin-orbit coupling (SOC) materials convert a charge current density into a spin current density which can be used to switch a magnet efficiently and there is increasing interest in identifying materials with large spin Hall angle for lower switching current. Using experimentally benchmarked models, we show that composite structures can be designed using existing spin Hall materials such that the effective spin Hall angle is larger by an order of magnitude. The basic idea is to funnel spins from a large area of spin Hall material into a small area of ferromagnet using a normal metal with large spin diffusion length and low resistivity like Cu or Al. We show that this approach is increasingly effective as magnets get smaller. We avoid unwanted charge current shunting by the low resistive NM layer utilizing the newly discovered phenomenon of pure spin conduction in ferromagnetic insulators via magnon diffusion. We provide a spin circuit model for magnon diffusion in FMI that is benchmarked against recent experiments and theory.

Theory of spin Hall magnetoresistance (SMR) and related phenomena

We review the so-called spin Hall magnetoresistance (SMR) in bilayers of a magnetic insulator and a metal, in which spin currents are generated in the normal metal by the spin Hall effect. The associated angular momentum transfer to the ferromagnetic layer and thereby the electrical resistance is modulated by the angle between the applied current and the magnetization direction. The SMR provides a convenient tool to non-invasively measure the magnetization direction and spin-transfer torque to an insulator. We introduce the minimal theoretical instruments to calculate the SMR, i.e. spin diffusion theory and quantum mechanical boundary conditions. This leads to a small set of parameters that can be fitted to experiments. We discuss the limitations of the theory as well as alternative mechanisms such as the ferromagnetic proximity effect and Rashba spin-orbit torques, and point out new developments.

Magneto-optical investigation of spin-orbit torques in metallic and insulating magnetic heterostructures

Manipulating magnetism by electric current is of great interest for both fundamental and technological reasons. Much effort has been dedicated to spin–orbit torques (SOTs) in metallic structures, while quantitative investigation of analogous phenomena in magnetic insulators remains challenging due to their low electrical conductivity. Here we address this challenge by exploiting the interaction of light with magnetic order, to directly measure SOTs in both metallic and insulating structures. The equivalency of optical and transport measurements is established by investigating a heavy-metal/ferromagnetic-metal device (Ta/CoFeB/MgO). Subsequently, SOTs are measured optically in the contrasting case of a magnetic-insulator/heavy-metal (YIG/Pt) heterostructure, where analogous transport measurements are not viable. We observe a large anti-damping torque in the YIG/Pt system, revealing its promise for spintronic device applications. Moreover, our results demonstrate that SOT physics is directly accessible by optical means in a range of materials, where transport measurements may not be possible.

The study of spin orbit torques in insulating materials via conventional transport methods is restricted due to low electrical conductivity. Here, the authors use magneto-optical methods to measure spin orbit torques in ferromagnetic-insulator/heavy-metal heterostructures.

Thermal Transport and Nonequilibrium Temperature Drop Across a Magnetic Tunnel Junction

In the field of spin caloritronics, spin-dependent transport phenomena are observed in a number of current experiments where a temperature gradient across a nanostructured interface is applied. The interpretation of these experiments is not clear as both phonons and electrons may contribute to thermal transport. Therefore, it still remains an open question how the temperature drop across a magnetic nanostructured interface arises microscopically. We answer this question for the case of a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) where the tunneling magneto-Seebeck effect occurs. Our explanation may be extended to other types of nanostructured interfaces. We explicitly calculate phonon and electron thermal conductance across Fe/MgO/Fe MTJs in an ab initio approach using a Green function method. Furthermore, we are able to calculate the electron and phonon temperature profile across the Fe/MgO/Fe MTJ by estimating the electron-phonon interaction in the Fe leads. Our results show that there is an electron-phonon temperature imbalance at the Fe-MgO interfaces. As a consequence, a revision of the interpretation of current experimental measurements may be necessary.

Optimum design of a nanoscale spin-Seebeck power device

A theoretical model of a nanoscale spin-Seebeck power device (SSPD) is proposed based on the longitudinal spin-Seebeck effect in bilayers made of a ferromagnetic insulator and a normal metal. Expressions for the power output and thermal efficiency of the SSPD are derived analytically. The performance characteristics of the nanoscale SSPD are analyzed using numerical simulation. The maximum power output density and efficiency are calculated numerically. The effect of the spin Hall angle on the performance characteristics of the SSPD is analyzed. The choice of materials and the structure of the device are discussed. The optimum criteria of some key parameters of the SSPD, such as the power output density, efficiency, thickness of the normal metal, and the load resistance, are given. The results obtained here could provide a theoretical basis for the optimal design and operation of nanoscale SSPDs.

Nanogram calorimetry using microscale suspended SiNx platforms fabricated via focused ion beam patterning

Comprehensive characterization of thermal properties in nanoscale heterostructures requires microscale thermally isolated platforms combined with sensitive thermometry in order to measure small heat accumulations. Amorphous SiNx membranes are often used for these measurements due to their low thermal conductivity and compatibility with standard fabrication techniques. The total thermal conductance of such SiNx membranes is typically microwatts per kelvin or higher. Here, we further reduce this thermal coupling to 120 nW/K by using a focused ion beam (FIB) to remove large portions of commercially available amorphous SiNx membranes, leaving a 100 μm × 100 μm square platform suspended by 10 μm wide by 325 μm long support legs. We demonstrate the capability of these platforms by measuring the heat capacity of a 6.2 ng Au sample and show that it matches well with established specific heat of bulk Au.

Paramagnetic spin pumping

We have demonstrated spin pumping from a paramagnetic state of an insulator La2NiMnO6 into a Pt film. Single-crystalline films of La2NiMnO6 which exhibit a ferromagnetic order at TC≈270  K were grown by pulsed laser deposition. The inverse spin Hall voltage induced by spin-current injection has been observed in the Pt layer not only in the ferromagnetic phase of La2NiMnO6, but also in a wide temperature range above TC. The efficient spin pumping in the paramagnetic phase is ascribable to ferromagnetic correlation, not to ferromagnetic order.

Thermodynamic bounds and general properties of optimal efficiency and power in linear responses

We study the optimal exergy efficiency and power for thermodynamic systems with an Onsager-type "current-force" relationship describing the linear response to external influences. We derive, in analytic forms, the maximum efficiency and optimal efficiency for maximum power for a thermodynamic machine described by a N×N symmetric Onsager matrix with arbitrary integer N. The figure of merit is expressed in terms of the largest eigenvalue of the "coupling matrix" which is solely determined by the Onsager matrix. Some simple but general relationships between the power and efficiency at the conditions for (i) maximum efficiency and (ii) optimal efficiency for maximum power are obtained. We show how the second law of thermodynamics bounds the optimal efficiency and the Onsager matrix and relate those bounds together. The maximum power theorem (Jacobi's Law) is generalized to all thermodynamic machines with a symmetric Onsager matrix in the linear-response regime. We also discuss systems with an asymmetric Onsager matrix (such as systems under magnetic field) for a particular situation and we show that the reversible limit of efficiency can be reached at finite output power. Cooperative effects are found to improve the figure of merit significantly in systems with multiply cross-correlated responses. Application to example systems demonstrates that the theory is helpful in guiding the search for high performance materials and structures in energy researches.