Betaine accumulation and betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase in spinach leaves

Glycinebetaine Biosynthesis in Response to Osmotic Stress Depends on Jasmonate Signaling in Watermelon Suspension Cells

Glycinebetaine is an important non-toxic osmoprotectant, which is accumulated in higher plants under various stresses. The biosynthesis of glycinebetaine achieved via is a two-step oxidation from choline and betaine aldehyde, catalyzed by choline monooxygenase (CMO) and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH), respectively. Up-regulated gene expression of BADH and CMO induced by stress is clearly observed, but the signal transduction is poorly understood. Here, glycinebetaine accumulation in response to osmotic stress and growth recovery induced by exogenous glycinebetaine were observed in a watermelon cell line. When tracing back to the genome sequence of watermelon, it shows that there exists only one member of ClCMO or ClBADH corresponding to glycinebetaine biosynthesis. Both genes harbor a CGTCA-motif in their promoter region which is involved in methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-responsiveness. Amongst MeJA, Ethephon, abscisic acid (ABA), and salicylic acid (SA), MeJA was most effective in gene inducing the expression of ClCMO and ClBADH, and the accumulation of glycinebetaine could also reach an amount comparable to that after osmotic stress by mannitol. Moreover, when ibuprofen (IBU), a JA biosynthesis inhibitor, was pre-perfused into the cells before osmotic stress, glycinebetaine accumulation was suppressed significantly. Interestingly, newly grown cells can keep a high content of glycinebetaine when they are sub-cultured from osmotic stressed cells. This study suggests that osmotic stress induced glycinebetaine biosynthesis occurs via JA signal transduction and not only plays a key role in osmotic stress resistance but also contributes to osmotic stress hardening.

Comparative metabolic and ionomic profiling of two cultivars of Stevia rebaudiana Bert. (Bertoni) grown under salinity stress

This study provides a comprehensive investigation on the impact of increasing NaCl concentrations on hydroponically grown Stevia rebaudiana cultivars (Shoutian-2 and Fengtian). Growth parameters including plant height, biomass and physiological responses including osmotic potential were measured. In addition, the levels of steviol glycosides, elements and primary metabolites were measured and statistically evaluated. The cultivar Fengtian grew faster, accumulated less Na⁺ and compatible organic solutes, and more K⁺ in the leaves, as compared to the cv. Shoutian-2. Metabolite analysis identified 81 differentially accumulated metabolites, indicating an alteration in the metabolite phenotype of both cultivars upon exposure to salinity A general increase in many amino acids, amines, sugars and sugar phosphates with a concurrent decrease in most organic acids; including tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates, was observed. In the more salt tolerant cv. Fengtian, the levels of hexose phosphates and metabolites involved in cellular protection increased in response to salinity. These metabolites remained unchanged in the sensitive cv. Shoutian-2. Interestingly, salt treatment notably increased the rebaudioside A concentration by 53% while at the same time stevioside decreased by 38% in Fengtian which has important implications for controlling the relative amounts of reboudioside A and stevioside. The findings of this study leads to the conclusion that mild salinity stress can increase the yield of sweetener compounds, which is dependent on the cultivar and the level of salinity stress.

RNAi-directed downregulation of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (OsBADH1) results in decreased stress tolerance and increased oxidative markers without affecting glycine betaine biosynthesis in rice (Oryza sativa)

As an important osmoprotectant, glycine betaine (GB) plays an essential role in resistance to abiotic stress in a variety of organisms, including rice (Oryza sativa L.). However, GB content is too low to be detectable in rice, although rice genome possesses several orthologs coding for betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) involved in plant GB biosynthesis. Rice BADH1 (OsBADH1) has been shown to be targeted to peroxisome and its overexpression resulted in increased GB biosynthesis and tolerance to abiotic stress. In this study, we demonstrated a pivotal role of OsBADH1 in stress tolerance without altering GB biosynthesis capacity, using the RNA interference (RNAi) technique. OsBADH1 was ubiquitously expressed in different organs, including roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Transgenic rice lines downregulating OsBADH1 exhibited remarkably reduced tolerance to NaCl, drought and cold stresses. The decrease of stress tolerance occurring in the OsBADH1-RNAi repression lines was associated with an elevated level of malondialdehyde content and hydrogen peroxidation. No GB accumulation was detected in transgene-positive and transgene-negative lines derived from heterozygous transgenic T0 plants. Moreover, transgenic OsBADH1-RNAi repression lines showed significantly reduced seed set and yield. In conclusion, the downregulation of OsBADH1, even though not causing any change of GB content, was accounted for the reduction of ability to dehydrogenate the accumulating metabolism-derived aldehydes and subsequently resulted in decreased stress tolerance and crop productivity. These results suggest that OsBADH1 possesses an enzyme activity to catalyze other aldehydes in addition to betaine aldehyde (the precursor of GB) and thus alleviate their toxic effects under abiotic stresses.

Rice choline monooxygenase (OsCMO) protein functions in enhancing glycine betaine biosynthesis in transgenic tobacco but does not accumulate in rice (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica)

Glycine betaine (GB) is a compatible quaternary amine that enables plants to tolerate abiotic stresses, including salt, drought and cold. In plants, GB is synthesized through two-step of successive oxidations from choline, catalyzed by choline monooxygenase (CMO) and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH), respectively. Rice is considered as a typical non-GB accumulating species, although the entire genome sequencing revealed rice contains orthologs of both CMO and BADH. Several studies unraveled that rice has a functional BADH gene, but whether rice CMO gene (OsCMO) is functional or a pseudogene remains to be elucidated. In the present study, we report the functional characterization of rice CMO gene. The OsCMO gene was isolated from rice cv. Nipponbare (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica) using RT-PCR. Northern blot demonstrated the transcription of OsCMO is enhanced by salt stress. Transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing OsCMO results in increased GB content and elevated tolerance to salt stress. Immunoblotting analysis demonstrates that a functional OsCMO protein with correct size was present in transgenic tobacco but rarely accumulated in wild-type rice plants. Surprisingly, a large amount of truncated proteins derived from OsCMO was induced in the rice seedlings in response to salt stresses. This suggests that it is the lack of a functional OsCMO protein that presumably results in non-GB accumulation in the tested rice plant.

KEY MESSAGE

Expression and transgenic studies demonstrate OsCMO is transcriptionally induced in response to salt stress and functions in increasing glycinebetaine accumulation and enhancing tolerance to salt stress. Immunoblotting analysis suggests that no accumulation of glycinebetaine in the Japonica rice plant presumably results from lack of a functional OsCMO protein.

Betaine synthesis in chenopods: Localization in chloroplasts

PLANTS FROM SEVERAL FAMILIES (CHENOPODIACEAE, GRAMINEAE, COMPOSITAE) ACCUMULATE BETAINE (GLYCINE BETAINE) IN RESPONSE TO SALT OR WATER STRESS VIA THE PATHWAY: choline --> betainal (betaine aldehyde) --> betaine. Betaine accumulation is probably a metabolic adaptation to stress. Intact protoplasts from leaves of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) oxidized [(14)C]choline to betainal and betaine, as did protoplast lysates. Upon differential centrifugation, the [(14)C]choline-oxidizing activity of lysates sedimented with chloroplasts. Chloroplasts purified from protoplast lysates by a Percoll cushion procedure retained strong [(14)C]choline-oxidizing activity (1-3 nmol/mg of chlorophyll per hr), although the proportion of the intermediate, [(14)C]betainal, in the reaction products was usually higher than for protoplasts. Isolated chloroplasts also readily oxidized [(14)C]betainal to betaine (20-100 nmol/mg of chlorophyll per hr). Light increased the oxidation of both [(14)C]choline and [(14)C]betainal by isolated chloroplasts approximately 3-fold; this light-stimulation was abolished by 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU). Similar results were obtained with another chenopod (Beta vulgaris) but not with pea (Pisum sativum), a species that accumulates no betaine. The chloroplast site for betaine synthesis in chenopods contrasts with the mitochondrial site in mammals.

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in plants

Plant betaine aldehyde dehydrogenases (BADHs) have been the target of substantial research, especially during the last 20 years. Initial characterisation of BADH as an enzyme involved in the production of glycine betaine (GB) has led to detailed studies of the role of BADH in the response of plants to abiotic stress in vivo, and the potential for transgenic expression of BADH to improve abiotic stress tolerance. These studies have, in turn, yielded significant information regarding BADH and GB function. Recent research has identified the potential for BADH as an antibiotic-free marker for selection of transgenic plants, and a major role for BADH in 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline-based fragrance associated with jasmine and basmati style aromatic rice varieties.

Enzymatic characterization of peroxisomal and cytosolic betaine aldehyde dehydrogenases in barley

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH; EC 1.2.1.8) is an important enzyme that catalyzes the last step in the synthesis of glycine betaine, a compatible solute accumulated by many plants under various abiotic stresses. In barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), we reported previously the existence of two BADH genes (BBD1 and BBD2) and their corresponding proteins, peroxisomal BADH (BBD1) and cytosolic BADH (BBD2). To investigate their enzymatic properties, we expressed them in Escherichia coli and purified both proteins. Enzymatic analysis indicated that the affinity of BBD2 for betaine aldehyde was reasonable as other plant BADHs, but BBD1 showed extremely low affinity for betaine aldehyde with apparent K(m) of 18.9 microM and 19.9 mM, respectively. In addition, V(max)/K(m) with betaine aldehyde of BBD2 was about 2000-fold higher than that of BBD1, suggesting that BBD2 plays a main role in glycine betaine synthesis in barley plants. However, BBD1 catalyzed the oxidation of omega-aminoaldehydes such as 4-aminobutyraldehyde and 3-aminopropionaldehyde as efficiently as BBD2. We also found that both BBDs oxidized 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde and 3-N-trimethylaminopropionaldehyde.

An unusual posttranscriptional processing in two betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase loci of cereal crops directed by short, direct repeats in response to stress conditions

Various abilities to synthesize and accumulate glycine betaine (GB) are crucial for angiosperms to develop salt and drought tolerances. In higher plants, GB is synthesized by a two-step oxidation of choline via an intermediate form of betaine aldehyde, and catalyzed by choline monooxygenase and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH). In this study, numerous truncated and/or recombinant transcripts of two BADH homologs resulting from an unusual posttranscriptional processing were detected in rice (Oryza sativa) and other cereal crops, including maize (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare). The observed events took place at the 5' exonic region, and led to the insertion of exogenous gene sequences and a variety of deletions that resulted in the removal of translation initiation codon, loss of functional domain, and frame-shifts with premature termination by introducing stop codon. By contrast, the BADH transcripts from dicotyledonous species, such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea), Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), had correctly processed mRNA. This suggests the differentiation of posttranscriptional processing in BADH genes potentially contributes to the variation of GB-synthesizing capacities among various plant species. In addition, comprehensive sequence analyses demonstrated that extensive sequence similarities (named as short, direct repeats) are of paired presence surrounding the junctions of both the deletion and/or insertion sites in the unusual BADH transcripts. The site selection for the deletion/insertion was altered in response to the stress conditions. This indicates that the sequence elements of short, direct repeats are probably required for the recognition of the deletion/insertion sites.

Isolation of cDNA and enzymatic properties of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from Zoysia tenuifolia

We isolated cDNAs encoding betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8) from the salt-tolerant Poaceae, Zoysia tenuifolia by polymerase chain reactions. Zoysia betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 (ZBD1) is 1892bp long and codes for 507 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence of ZBD1 is 88% similar to the sequence of rice BADH. Ten cDNA clones were isolated from a cDNA Library of salt-treated Z. tenuifolia by using the ZBD1 fragment as a probe. The proteins coded in some clones were more homologous to BBD2, the cytosolic BADH of barley, than to ZBD1. To investigate their enzymatic properties, ZBD1 and spinach BADH were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. The optimal pH of ZBD1 was 9.5, which was more alkaline than that of spinach BADH. ZBD1 was less tolerant to NaCl than spinach BADH. ZBD1 showed not only BADH activity but also aminoaldehyde dehydrogenase activity. The Km values of ZBD1 for betaine aldehyde, 4-aminobutyraldehyde (AB-ald), and 3-aminopropionaldehyde (AP-ald) were 291, 49, and 4.0 microM, respectively. ZBD1 showed higher specific activities for AB-ald and AP-ald than did spinach BADH.

Abscisic acid is involved in the water stress-induced betaine accumulation in pear leaves

ABA exogenously applied to the leaves of the whole plants of pear (Pyrus bretschneideri Redh. cv. Suly grafted on Pyrus betulaefolia Rehd.) significantly increased the betaine concentrations in the leaves when the plants were well watered. The plants subjected to 'drought plus ABA' treatment had significantly higher betaine concentrations in their leaves than those given drought treatment alone. The 'drought plus ABA' treatment increased the amount of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8) and its activity in the leaves more than did the drought treatment alone. The experiments with detached leaves showed that ABA treatment significantly increased the concentration of betaine, activity of BADH and apparent amount of BADH in non-dehydrated leaves, and enhanced the accumulation of betaine, activity of BADH and apparent amount of BADH in dehydrated leaves. These effects of ABA were both time- and dose-dependent. Two ABA isomers, (-)-cis, trans-ABA and 2-trans, 4-trans-ABA, had no effect on the betaine accumulation in the leaves, showing that the ABA-induced effects are specific. These data demonstrate that ABA is involved in the drought-induced betaine accumulation in the pear leaves.

Abscisic acid is involved in the water stress-induced betaine accumulation in pear leaves

ABA exogenously applied to the leaves of the whole plants of pear (Pyrus bretschneideri Redh. cv. Suly grafted on Pyrus betulaefolia Rehd.) significantly increased the betaine concentrations in the leaves when the plants were well watered. The plants subjected to 'drought plus ABA' treatment had significantly higher betaine concentrations in their leaves than those given drought treatment alone. The 'drought plus ABA' treatment increased the amount of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8) and its activity in the leaves more than did the drought treatment alone. The experiments with detached leaves showed that ABA treatment significantly increased the concentration of betaine, activity of BADH and apparent amount of BADH in non-dehydrated leaves, and enhanced the accumulation of betaine, activity of BADH and apparent amount of BADH in dehydrated leaves. These effects of ABA were both time- and dose-dependent. Two ABA isomers, (-)-cis, trans-ABA and 2-trans, 4-trans-ABA, had no effect on the betaine accumulation in the leaves, showing that the ABA-induced effects are specific. These data demonstrate that ABA is involved in the drought-induced betaine accumulation in the pear leaves.

Steady-state kinetic mechanism of the NADP+- and NAD+-dependent reactions catalysed by betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) catalyses the irreversible oxidation of betaine aldehyde to glycine betaine with the concomitant reduction of NAD(P)(+) to NADP(H). In Pseudomonas aeruginosa this reaction is a compulsory step in the assimilation of carbon and nitrogen when bacteria are growing in choline or choline precursors. The kinetic mechanisms of the NAD(+)- and NADP(+)-dependent reactions were examined by steady-state kinetic methods and by dinucleotide binding experiments. The double-reciprocal patterns obtained for initial velocity with NAD(P)(+) and for product and dead-end inhibition establish that both mechanisms are steady-state random. However, quantitative analysis of the inhibitions, and comparison with binding data, suggest a preferred route of addition of substrates and release of products in which NAD(P)(+) binds first and NAD(P)H leaves last, particularly in the NADP(+)-dependent reaction. Abortive binding of the dinucleotides, or their analogue ADP, in the betaine aldehyde site was inferred from total substrate inhibition by the dinucleotides, and parabolic inhibition by NADH and ADP. A weak partial uncompetitive substrate inhibition by the aldehyde was observed only in the NADP(+)-dependent reaction. The kinetics of P. aeruginosa BADH is very similar to that of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, suggesting that both enzymes fulfil a similar amphibolic metabolic role when the bacteria grow in choline and when they grow in glucose.

Overproduction of spinach betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase in Escherichia coli. Structural and functional properties of wild-type, mutants and E. coli enzymes

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) catalyzes the last step in the synthesis of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine from choline. Although betaine aldehyde has been thought to be a specific substrate for BADH, recent studies have shown that human and sugar beet BADHs also catalyze the oxidation of omega-aminoaldehydes. To characterize the kinetic and stability properties of spinach BADH, five kinds of expression vectors encoding full length, mature, E103Q, E103K, and chimera BADHs were constructed. These enzymes together with Escherichia coli BADH were expressed in E. coli and purified. The affinities for betaine aldehyde were similar in the spinach and E. coli BADHs, whereas those for omega-aminoaldehydes were higher in spinach BADH than in E. coli BADH. A chimera BADH in which part of the Rossmann type fold in the spinach BADH was replaced with that of E. coli BADH, showed properties which resembled spinach BADH more than E. coli BADH. The spinach E103K mutant was almost inactive, whereas the E103Q mutant showed a similar activity for the oxidation of betaine aldehyde to that of wild type BADH, but a lower affinity for omega-aminoaldehydes. All spinach BADHs were dimers whereas E. coli BADH was a tetramer. E. coli BADH was more stable at high temperature than spinach BADHs. The E103Q mutant was most labile to high temperature. These properties are discussed in relation to the structure of spinach BADH.

Kinetic study of porcine kidney betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase

Porcine kidney betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.8) kinetic properties were determined at low substrate concentrations. The double-reciprocal plots of initial velocity versus substrate concentration are linear and intersect at the left of the 1/v axis and showed substrate inhibition with betaine aldehyde. Studies of inhibition by NADH and dead-end analogs showed that NADH is a mixed inhibitor against NAD(+) and betaine aldehyde. AMP is competitive with respect to NAD(+) and mixed with betaine aldehyde. Choline is competitive against betaine aldehyde and uncompetitive with respect to NAD(+). The kinetic behavior is consistent with an Iso-Ordered Bi-Bi Steady-State mechanism.

Purification and characterization of osmoregulatory betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase of Escherichia coli

The osmoregulatory NAD-dependent betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (betaine aldehyde:NAD oxidoreductase, EC 1.2.1.8), of Escherichia coli, was purified to apparent homogeneity from an over-producing strain carrying the structural gene for the enzyme (betB) on the plasmid vector pBR322. Purification was achieved by ammonium sulfate fractionation of disrupted cells, followed by affinity chromatography on 5'-AMP Sepharose, gel-filtration and ion-exchange chromatography. The amino acid composition was determined. The dehydrogenase was found to be a tetramer with identical 55 kDa subunits. Both NAD and NADP could be used as cofactor for the dehydrogenase, but NAD was preferred. The dehydrogenase was highly specific for betaine aldehyde. None of the analogs tested functioned as a substrate, but several inhibited the enzyme competitively. The enzyme was not activated by salts at concentrations encountered during osmotic upshock, but it was salt tolerant, retaining 50% of maximal activity at 1.2 M K+. It is inferred that salt tolerance is an essential property for an enzyme participating in the cellular synthesis of an osmoprotectant.

Molecular cloning of a plant betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme implicated in adaptation to salinity and drought

Many plants, as well as other organisms, accumulate betaine (N,N,N-trimethylglycine) as a nontoxic or protective osmolyte under saline or dry conditions. In plants, the last step in betaine synthesis is catalyzed by betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8), a nuclear-encoded chloroplastic enzyme. A cDNA clone for BADH (1812 base pairs) was selected from a lambda gt10 cDNA library derived from leaves of salt-stressed spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). The library was screened with oligonucleotide probes corresponding to amino acid sequences of two peptides prepared from purified BADH. The authenticity of the clone was confirmed by nucleotide sequence analysis; this analysis demonstrated the presence of a 1491-base-pair open reading frame that contained sequences encoding 12 peptide fragments of BADH. The clone hybridized to a 1.9-kilobase mRNA from spinach leaves; this mRNA was more abundant in salt-stressed plants, consistent with the known salt induction of BADH activity. The amino acid sequence deduced from the BADH cDNA sequence showed substantial similarities to those for nonspecific aldehyde dehydrogenases (EC 1.2.1.3 and EC 1.2.1.5) from several sources, including absolute conservation of a decapeptide in the probable active site. Comparison of deduced and determined amino acid sequences indicated that the transit peptide may comprise only 7 or 8 residues, which is atypically short for precursors to stromal proteins.

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase from spinach leaves: purification, in vitro translation of the mRNA, and regulation by salinity

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) leaves contain a nuclear-encoded chloroplastic betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.8) which is induced several-fold by salinization. Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase was purified 2400-fold to homogeneity with an overall yield of 14%. The procedure included fractional precipitation with ammonium sulfate, followed by ion-exchange, hydrophobic interaction, and hydroxyapatite chromatography in open columns, and ion-exchange and hydrophobic interaction chromatography in a fast-protein liquid chromatography system. The betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase had a pI of 5.65, and a broad pH optimum between 7.5 and 9.5. The Km values for NAD+ and NADP+ were 20 and 320 microM, respectively; the Vmax of the reaction with NADP+ was 75% of that with NAD+. The native enzyme is a dimer with subunits of Mr 63,000. Highly specific antiserum was raised against the native enzyme, and was used in conjunction with cell-free translation of leaf poly(A)+ RNA to show (a) that betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase is synthesized as a precursor of Mr 1200 higher than the mature polypeptide, and (b) that both chronic salt stress and salt shock provoke a several-fold increase in the level of translatable message for the enzyme.

Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphism in spinach: genetic and biochemical characterization

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) has a major chloroplastic isozyme of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) and a minor cytosolic one. Among a diverse collection of spinach accessions, three electrophoretic banding patterns of chloroplastic BADH were found: two were single banded and one was triple banded. Genetic analysis of these patterns indicated that chloroplastic BADH is encoded by a single, nuclear gene with two alleles, designated slow (S) and fast (F), and that products of these alleles can hybridize to form either homodimers or a heterodimer. The S allele was by far the most common among the accessions examined. Native and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the SS and FF homodimers differ in charge but not molecular weight.

Betaine aldehyde oxidation by spinach chloroplasts

Chenopods synthesize betaine by a two-step oxidation of choline: choline --> betaine aldehyde --> betaine. Both oxidation reactions are carried out by isolated spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) chloroplasts in darkness and are promoted by light. The mechanism of betaine aldehyde oxidation was investigated with subcellular fractions from spinach leaf protoplasts. The chloroplast stromal fraction contained a specific pyridine nucleotide-dependent betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (about 150 to 250 nanomoles per milligram chlorophyll per hour) which migrated as one isozyme on native polyacrylamide gels stained for enzyme activity. The cytosol fraction contained a minor isozyme of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase. Leaves of pea (Pisum sativum L.), a species that lacks betaine, had no betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase isozymes. The specific activity of betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase rose three-fold in spinach plants grown at 300 millimolar NaCl; both isozymes contributed to the increase. Stimulation of betaine aldehyde oxidation in illuminated spinach chloroplasts was due to a thylakoid activity which was sensitive to catalase; this activity occurred in pea as well as spinach, and so appears to be artifactual. We conclude that in vivo, betaine aldehyde is oxidized in both darkness and light by the dehydrogenase isozymes, although some flux via a light-dependent, H(2)O(2)-mediated reaction cannot be ruled out.

C Tracer Evidence for Synthesis of Choline and Betaine via Phosphoryl Base Intermediates in Salinized Sugarbeet Leaves

Like other chenopods, sugarbeets (Beta vulgaris L. cv Great Western D-2) accumulate glycine betaine when salinized; this may be an adaptive response to stress. The pathway of betaine synthesis in leaves of salinized (150-200 millimolar NaCl) sugarbeet plants was investigated by supplying [(14)C]formate, phosphoryl[(14)C]monomethylethanolamine ([(14)C][unk] MME) or phosphoryl[(14)C]choline ([(14)C][unk] choline) to leaf discs and following (14)C incorporation into prospective intermediates. The (14)C kinetic data were used to develop a computer model of the betaine pathway.When [(14)C]formate was fed, [unk] MME, phosphoryldimethylethanolamine ([unk] DME) and [unk] choline were the most prominent methylated products at short labeling times, after which (14)C appeared in free choline and in betaine. Phosphatidylcholine labeled more slowly than [unk] choline, choline, and betaine, and behaved as a minor end product. Very little (14)C entered the free methylethanolamines. When [(14)C][unk] MME was supplied, a small amount was hydrolyzed to the free base but the major fate was conversion to [unk] DME, [unk] choline, free choline, and betaine; label also accumulated slowly in phosphatidylcholine. Label from supplied [(14)C][unk] choline entered choline and betaine rapidly, while phosphatidylcholine labeled only slowly and to a small extent.These results are consistent with the pathway [unk] MME -->[unk] DME --> [unk] choline --> choline --> --> betaine, with a minor side branch leading from [unk] choline into phosphatidylcholine. This contrasts markedly (a) with the pathway of stress-induced choline and betaine synthesis in barley, in which phosphatidylcholine apparently acts as an intermediate (Hitz, Rhodes, Hanson 1981, Plant Physiol 68: 814-822); (b) with choline biogenesis in mammalian liver and microorganisms. Computer modeling of the experimental data pointed strongly to regulation at the [unk] choline --> choline step, and also indicated that the rate of [unk] choline synthesis is subject to feedback inhibition by [unk] choline.