Internal aluminum block of plant inward K(+) channels

A chloride efflux transporter, BIG RICE GRAIN 1, is involved in mediating grain size and salt tolerance in rice

Grain size is determined by the size and number of cells in the grain. The regulation of grain size is crucial for improving crop yield; however, the genes and molecular mechanisms that control grain size remain elusive. Here, we report that a member of the detoxification efflux carrier /Multidrug and Toxic Compound Extrusion (DTX/MATE) family transporters, BIG RICE GRAIN 1 (BIRG1), negatively influences grain size in rice (Oryza sativa L.). BIRG1 is highly expressed in reproductive organs and roots. In birg1 grain, the outer parenchyma layer cells of spikelet hulls are larger than in wild-type (WT) grains, but the cell number is unaltered. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, BIRG1 exhibits chloride efflux activity. Consistent with this role of BIRG1, the birg1 mutant shows reduced tolerance to salt stress at a toxic chloride level. Moreover, grains from birg1 plants contain a higher level of chloride than those of WT plants when grown under normal paddy field conditions, and the roots of birg1 accumulate more chloride than those of WT under saline conditions. Collectively, the data suggest that BIRG1 in rice functions as a chloride efflux transporter that is involved in mediating grain size and salt tolerance by controlling chloride homeostasis.

The role of solute transporters in aluminum toxicity and tolerance

The prevalence of aluminum ions (Al³⁺ ) under acidic soil conditions inhibits primary root elongation and hinders plant growth and productivity. Al³⁺ alters the membrane potential, displaces critical ions in the apoplast and disrupts intracellular ionic concentrations by targeting membrane-localized solute transporters. Here, we provide an overview of how Al³⁺ affects the activities of several solute transporters especially in the root. High Al³⁺ level impairs the functions of potassium (K⁺ ), calcium (Ca²⁺ ), magnesium (Mg²⁺ ), nitrate (NO₃ ^- ) and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺ ) transporters. We further discuss the role of some key transporters in mediating Al tolerance either by exclusion or sequestration. Anion channels responsible for organic acid efflux modulate the sensitivity to Al³⁺ . The ALUMINUM ACTIVATED MALATE TRANSPORTER (ALMT) and MULTIDRUG AND TOXIC COMPOUND EXTRUSION (MATE) family of transporters exude malate and citrate, respectively, to the rhizosphere to alleviate Al toxicity by Al exclusion. The ABC transporters, aquaporins and H⁺ -ATPases perform vacuolar sequestration of Al³⁺ , leading to aluminum tolerance in plants. Targeting these solute transporters in crop plants can help generating aluminum-tolerant crops in future.

Physiological, Biochemical, and Transcriptomic Responses of Neolamarckia cadamba to Aluminum Stress

Aluminum is the most abundant metal of the Earth's crust accounting for 7% of its mass, and release of toxic Al3+ in acid soils restricts plant growth. Neolamarckia cadamba, a fast-growing tree, only grows in tropical regions with acidic soils. In this study, N. cadamba was treated with high concentrations of aluminum under acidic condition (pH 4.5) to study its physiological, biochemical, and molecular response mechanisms against high aluminum stress. High aluminum concentration resulted in significant inhibition of root growth with time in N. cadamba. The concentration of Al3+ ions in the root tip increased significantly and the distribution of absorbed Al3+ was observed in the root tip after Al stress. Meanwhile, the concentration of Ca, Mg, Mn, and Fe was significantly decreased, but P concentration increased. Aluminum stress increased activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase from micrococcus lysodeiktic (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) in the root tip, while the content of MDA was decreased. Transcriptome analysis showed 37,478 differential expression genes (DEGs) and 4096 GOs terms significantly associated with treatments. The expression of genes regulating aluminum transport and abscisic acid synthesis was significantly upregulated; however, the genes involved in auxin synthesis were downregulated. Of note, the transcripts of several key enzymes affecting lignin monomer synthesis in phenylalanine pathway were upregulated. Our results shed light on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of aluminum stress tolerance in N. cadamba.

Potential of calcium nitrate to mitigate the aluminum toxicity in Phaseolus vulgaris: effects on morphoanatomical traits, mineral nutrition and photosynthesis

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivation occurs mainly in regions with acidic soils, where high aluminum (Al) concentration is a major constraint to crop production. In this study, we evaluated tolerance and sensitivity traits to Al exposure and calcium (Ca) deficiency in bean plants, and determined the efficiency of Ca to mitigate the toxic Al effects. Two bean cultivars (BRS Estilo and Campos Gerais) were grown in three soil conditions: (I) soil liming with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂ and Al unavailable (-Al+Ca); (II) fertilized soil with calcium nitrate [Ca(NO₃)₂·4H₂O] and Al available (+Al+Ca); and (III) soil without Ca addition and Al available (+Al-Ca). At the beginning of the reproductive stage, we evaluated the photosynthetic processes, mineral nutrition, and leaf anatomy and morphological traits of plants. The photosynthetic parameters were good tools for monitor Al sensitivity in bean. +Al+Ca soil treatment mitigated the deleterious effects of Al on growth and mineral nutrition of both bean cultivars. However, Ca did not prevent the toxic effects of Al on leaf anatomy. Al stress and Ca deficiency caused negative effects on nutrient content, photosynthetic activity and leaf anatomy of bean plants. Calcium mitigated Al toxicity, primarily in the Campos Gerais cultivar, showing the potential to improve bean crop productivity in acid soils.

The Ca2+ Channel CNGC19 Regulates Arabidopsis Defense Against Spodoptera Herbivory

Cellular calcium elevation is an important signal used by plants for recognition and signaling of environmental stress. Perception of the generalist insect, Spodoptera litura, by Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) activates cytosolic Ca2+ elevation, which triggers downstream defense. However, not all the Ca2+ channels generating the signal have been identified, nor are their modes of action known. We report on a rapidly activated, leaf vasculature- and plasma membrane-localized, CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDE GATED CHANNEL19 (CNGC19), which activates herbivory-induced Ca2+ flux and plant defense. Loss of CNGC19 function results in decreased herbivory defense. The cngc19 mutant shows aberrant and attenuated intravascular Ca2+ fluxes. CNGC19 is a Ca2+-permeable channel, as hyperpolarization of CNGC19-expressing Xenopus oocytes in the presence of both cyclic adenosine monophosphate and Ca2+ results in Ca2+ influx. Breakdown of Ca2+-based defense in cngc19 mutants leads to a decrease in herbivory-induced jasmonoyl-l-isoleucine biosynthesis and expression of JA responsive genes. The cngc19 mutants are deficient in aliphatic glucosinolate accumulation and hyperaccumulate its precursor, methionine. CNGC19 modulates aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis in tandem with BRANCHED-CHAIN AMINO ACID TRANSAMINASE4, which is involved in the chain elongation pathway of Met-derived glucosinolates. Furthermore, CNGC19 interacts with herbivory-induced CALMODULIN2 in planta. Together, our work reveals a key mechanistic role for the Ca2+ channel CNGC19 in the recognition of herbivory and the activation of defense signaling.

A domestication-associated reduction in K+ -preferring HKT transporter activity underlies maize shoot K+ accumulation and salt tolerance

Maize was domesticated from Balsas teosinte c. 10 000 yr ago. Previous studies have suggested that increased tolerance to environmental stress occurred during maize domestication. However, the underlying genetic basis remains largely unknown. We used a maize (W22)-teosinte recombinant inbred line (RIL) to investigate the salt wild-type tolerance aspects of maize domestication. We revealed that ZmHKT2 is a major QTL that regulates K⁺ homeostasis in saline soils. ZmHKT2 encodes a K⁺ -preferring HKT family transporter and probably reduces shoot K⁺ content by removing K⁺ ions from root-to-shoot flowing xylem sap, ZmHKT2 deficiency increases xylem sap and shoot K⁺ concentrations, and increases salt tolerance. A coding sequence polymorphism in the ZmHKT2^W22 allele (SNP389-G) confers an amino acid variant ZmHKT2 that increases xylem sap K⁺ concentration, thereby increasing shoot K⁺ content and salt tolerance. Additional analyses showed that SNP389-G first existed in teosinte (allele frequency 56% in assayed accessions), then swept through the maize population (allele frequency 98%), and that SNP389-G probably underwent positive selection during maize domestication. We conclude that a domestication-associated reduction in K⁺ transport activity in ZmHKT2 underlies maize shoot K⁺ content and salt tolerance, and propose that CRISPR-based editing of ZmHKT2 might provide a feasible strategy for improving maize salt tolerance.

Ion Flux in Roots of Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook) under Aluminum Stress

Chinese fir is a tall, fast-growing species that is unique to southern China. In Chinese fir plantations, successive plantings have led to a decline in soil fertility, and aluminum toxicity is thought to be one of the main reasons for this decline. In this study, Non-invasive Micro-test Technology was used to study the effect of aluminum stress on the absorption of 4 different ions in the roots of the Chinese fir clone FS01. The results are as follows: with increased aluminum concentration and longer periods of aluminum stress, the H⁺ ion flow gradually changed from influx into efflux; there was a large variation in the K⁺ efflux, which gradually decreased with increasing duration of aluminum stress; and 1 h of aluminum stress uniformly resulted in Ca²⁺ influx, but it changed from influx to efflux after a longer period of aluminum stress. Changes in the different concentrations of aluminum had the largest influence on Mg²⁺.

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and cation use efficiency in stands of regenerating tropical dry forest

Plants on infertile soils exhibit physiological and morphological traits that support conservative internal nutrient cycling. However, potential trade-offs among use efficiencies for N, P, and cations are not well explored in species-rich habitats where multiple elements may limit plant production. We examined uptake efficiency and use efficiency of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Al, and Na in plots of regenerating tropical dry forests spanning a gradient of soil fertility. Our aim was to determine whether plant responses to multiple elements are correlated, or whether there are trade-offs among exploitation strategies across stands varying in community composition, soil quality, and successional stage. For all elements, both uptake efficiency and use efficiency decreased as availability of the corresponding element increased. Plant responses to N, Na, and Al were uncoupled from uptake and use efficiencies for P and essential base cations, which were tightly correlated. N and P use efficiencies were associated with shifts in plant species composition along the soil fertility gradient, and there was also a trend towards increasing N use efficiency with stand age. N uptake efficiency was positively correlated with the abundance of tree species that associate with ectomycorrhizal fungi. Taken together, our results suggest that successional processes and local species composition interact to regulate plant responses to availability of multiple resources. Successional tropical dry forests appear to employ different strategies to maximize response to N vs. P and K.

Salicylic acid alleviates aluminum toxicity in rice seedlings better than magnesium and calcium by reducing aluminum uptake, suppressing oxidative damage and increasing antioxidative defense

Aluminum toxicity is a major constraint to crop production in acid soils. The present study was undertaken to examine the comparative ameliorating effects of salicylic acid, Ca and Mg on Al toxicity in rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedlings grown in hydroponics. Al treatment (0.5 mM AlCl3) caused decrease in plant vigour, loss of root plasma membrane integrity, increased contents of O 2 (∙-) , H2O2, lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyls and decline in the level of protein thiol. Al treatment caused significant changes in activity of antioxidative enzymes in rice seedlings. Exogenously added salicylic acid (60 μM), Ca (1 mM) and Mg (0.25 mM) significantly alleviated Al toxicity effects in the seedlings marked by restoration of growth, suppression of Al uptake, restoration of root plasma membrane integrity and decline in O 2 (∙-) , H2O2, lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl contents. Salicylic acid, Ca and Mg suppressed Al-induced increase in SOD, GPX and APX activities while it elevated Al-induced decline in CAT activity. By histochemical staining of O 2 (∙-) using NBT and H2O2 using DAB, it was further confirmed that added salicylic acid, Ca or Mg decreased Al-induced accumulation of O 2 (∙-) and H2O2 in the leaf tissues. Results indicate that exogenously added salicylic acid, Ca or Mg alleviates Al toxicity in rice seedlings by suppressing Al uptake, restoring root membrane integrity, reducing ROS level and ROS induced oxidative damage and regulating the level of antioxidative enzyme activities. Further salicylic appears to be superior to Mg and Ca in alleviating Al toxicity effects in rice plants.

Determination of stress responses induced by aluminum in maize (Zea mays)

To assess the alternative responses to aluminum toxicity, maize (Zea mays L. cv Karadeniz yıldızı) roots were exposed to different concentrations of AlCl3 (150, 300 and 450 μM). Aluminum reduced the root elongation by 39.6% in 150 μM, 44.1% in 300 μM, 50.1% in 450 μM AlCl3 after 96 h period. To correlate the root elongation with the alternative stress responses including aluminum accumulation, lipid peroxidation, mitotic abnormalities, reduction of starch content, intracellular Ca2+ accumulation, callose formation, lignin deposition and peroxidase activity, cytochemical and biochemical tests were performed. The results indicated that aluminum accumulation and lipid peroxidation were observed more densely on the root cap and the outer cortex cells. In addition to morphological deformations, cytochemical analysis displayed cellular deformations. Furthermore, mitotic abnormalities were observed such as c-mitosis, micronuclei, bi- and trinucleated cells in aluminum treated root tips. Aluminum treatment induced starch reduction, callose formation, lignin accumulation and intracellular Ca2+ increase. Moreover, the peroxidase activity increased significantly by 3, 4.4 and 7.7 times higher than in that of control after 96 h, respectively. In conclusion, aluminum is significantly stressful in maize culminating in morphological and cellular alterations.

Aluminum toxicity and Ca depletion may enhance cell death of tobacco cells via similar syndrome

The main objective of this work is to find out whether aluminum (Al) toxicity and Ca depletion cause cell death of tobacco cells via similar sequence of events. Tobacco cell suspension culture exhibited maximum fresh weight in the presence of a wide range of Ca concentrations between 0.1-1.0 mM whereas higher concentrations (>1.0-5.0 mM) gradually lowered cell fresh weight. However, this decrease in fresh weight does not imply a negative impact on cell viability since cell growth recommenced in fresh MS medium with rates mostly higher than those of low Ca. In addition, high Ca seems to be crucial for survival of Al-treated cells. On the other side, tobacco cells exhibited extreme sensitivity to complete deprivation of Ca. Without Ca, cells could not survive for 18 h and substantially lost their growth capability. Evans blue uptake proved membrane damage of Ca-depleted same as Al-treated cells; relative to maintained membrane intactness of calcium-supplemented (control) ones. Percentage of membrane damage and the growth capability (survival) of tobacco cells exhibited a clear negative correlation.Alterations in growth (fresh weight per aliquot) could not be ascribed neither to cell number nor to decreased dry matter allocation (dry weight/fresh weight percentage) but was mainly due to decreased cellular water content. In this context, Ca-depleted cells lost about half their original water content while 100 microM Al-treated ones retained most of it (ca 87%). This represented the single difference between the two treatments (discussed in the text). Nevertheless, such high water content of the Al-treated cells seems physiologically useless since it did not result in improved viability. Similarities, however, included negligible levels of growth capability, maximum levels of membrane damage, and comparable amounts of NO(3) (-) efflux. As well, both types of treatments led to a sharp decline in osmotic potential that is, in turn, needed for water influx. The above-mentioned sequence of events, induced by Al application looks, to a great extent, similar to Ca depletion syndrome leading finally to cell death of tobacco cells.

Single mutations convert an outward K+ channel into an inward K+ channel

Shaker-type K(+) channels in plants display distinct voltage-sensing properties despite sharing sequence and structural similarity. For example, an Arabidopsis K(+) channel (SKOR) and a tomato K(+) channel (LKT1) share high amino acid sequence similarity and identical domain structures; however, SKOR conducts outward K(+) current and is activated by positive membrane potentials (depolarization), whereas LKT1 conducts inward current and is activated by negative membrane potentials (hyperpolarization). The structural basis for the "opposite" voltage-sensing properties of SKOR and LKT1 remains unknown. Using a screening procedure combined with random mutagenesis, we identified in the SKOR channel single amino acid mutations that converted an outward-conducting channel into an inward-conducting channel. Further domain-swapping and random mutagenesis produced similar results, suggesting functional interactions between several regions of SKOR protein that lead to specific voltage-sensing properties. Dramatic changes in rectifying properties can be caused by single amino acid mutations, providing evidence that the inward and outward channels in the Shaker family from plants may derive from the same ancestor.

The effect of aluminium on bioelectrical activity of the Nitellopsis obtusa cell membrane after H+-ATPase inhibition

Aluminium induced membrane potential (Em) changes and potential changes during repolarization phase of the action potential (AP) in the internodal cells of Nitellopsis obtusa after blocking H+-ATPase activity by DCCD were investigated. Micromolar concentrations of DCCD are sufficient to give complete and irreversible inhibition of proton pumping. The membrane potential was measured by conventional glass-microelectrode technique. We found that the half-amplitude pulse duration differs significantly between standard conditions, after DCCD application, and after H+-ATPase blocking and subsequent Al3+ treatment: 4.9, 7.7 and 17.2 seconds, respectively. We propose that in the short term (2 hours) treatment of Al3+, the decrease in membrane potential was compensated for by H+-ATPase activity. Blocking H+-ATPase activity by DCCD can enhance the influence of Al3+ on the bioelectrical activity of cell membranes.

Arabidopsis ALS1 encodes a root tip and stele localized half type ABC transporter required for root growth in an aluminum toxic environment

Aluminum toxicity in acid soils severely limits crop productivity through inhibition of root growth and, consequently, shoot development. Several Arabidopsis mutants were previously identified as having roots with Al hypersensitivity, suggesting that these represent deleterious mutations affecting genes required for either Al tolerance or resistance mechanisms. For this report, the als1-1 mutant was chosen for further characterization. The phenotype of als1-1 is most obviously presented in Al challenged roots, as evidenced by exaggerated root growth inhibition in conjunction with increased expression of Al-responsive genes compared to wt. Using a map-based cloning approach, the als1-1 mutation was isolated and found to represent a deleterious amino acid substitution in a previously uncharacterized half type ABC transporter, At5g39040, which is expressed in a non-Al dependent manner in all organs tested. GUS-dependent analyses revealed that ALS1 expression is primarily localized to the root tip and the vasculature throughout the plant. Concomitant with this, an ALS1: GFP fusion accumulates at the vacuolar membrane of root cells, indicating that ALS1 may be important for intracellular movement of some substrate, possibly chelated Al, as part of a mechanism of Al sequestration.

A Ca(2)+ signaling pathway regulates a K(+) channel for low-K response in Arabidopsis

Nutrient sensing is critical for plant adaptation to the environment. Because of extensive farming and erosion, low content of mineral nutrients such as potassium (K(+)) in soils becomes a limiting factor for plant growth. In response to low-K conditions, plants enhance their capability of K(+) uptake through an unknown signaling mechanism. Here we report the identification of a Ca(2+)-dependent pathway for low-K response in Arabidopsis. We are not aware of any other example of a molecular pathway for a nutrient response in plants. Earlier genetic analyses revealed three genes encoding two Ca(2+) sensors (CBL1 and CBL9) and their target protein kinase (CIPK23) to be critical for plant growth on low-K media and for stomatal regulation, indicating that these calcium signaling components participate in the low-K response and turgor regulation. In this study, we show that the protein kinase CIPK23 interacted with, and phosphorylated, a voltage-gated inward K(+) channel (AKT1) required for K(+) acquisition in Arabidopsis. In the Xenopus oocyte system, our studies showed that interacting calcium sensors (CBL1 and CBL9) together with target kinase CIPK23, but not either component alone, activated the AKT1 channel in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner, connecting the Ca(2+) signal to enhanced K(+) uptake through activation of a K(+) channel. Disruption of both CBL1 and CBL9 or CIPK23 gene in Arabidopsis reduced the AKT1 activity in the mutant roots, confirming that the Ca(2+)-CBL-CIPK pathway functions to orchestrate transporting activities in planta according to external K(+) availability.

Expressed sequence tag-based gene expression analysis under aluminum stress in rye

To understand the mechanisms responsible for aluminum (Al) toxicity and tolerance in plants, an expressed sequence tag (EST) approach was used to analyze changes in gene expression in roots of rye (Secale cereale L. cv Blanco) under Al stress. Two cDNA libraries were constructed (Al stressed and unstressed), and a total of 1,194 and 774 ESTs were generated, respectively. The putative proteins encoded by these cDNAs were uncovered by Basic Local Alignment Search Tool searches, and those ESTs showing similarity to proteins of known function were classified according to 13 different functional categories. A total of 671 known function genes were used to analyze the gene expression patterns in rye cv Blanco root tips under Al stress. Many of the previously identified Al-responsive genes showed expression differences between the libraries within 6 h of Al stress. Certain genes were selected, and their expression profiles were studied during a 48-h period using northern analysis. A total of 13 novel genes involved in cell elongation and division (tonoplast aquaporin and ubiquitin-like protein SMT3), oxidative stress (glutathione peroxidase, glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase, and ascorbate peroxidase), iron metabolism (iron deficiency-specific proteins IDS3a, IDS3b, and IDS1; S-adenosyl methionine synthase; and methionine synthase), and other cellular mechanisms (pathogenesis-related protein 1.2, heme oxygenase, and epoxide hydrolase) were demonstrated to be regulated by Al stress. These genes provide new insights about the response of Al-tolerant plants to toxic levels of Al.